Unit 2:

An A.C. supply of 230V is applied to a half wave rectifier circuit through a transformer of turn ratio 10:1. Find
(i) output dc voltage (ii) the PIV. Assume the diode to be ideal.
A half wave rectifier is used to supply 50 V dc to resistive load of 800 ohms. The diode has a resistance of 25
ohms. Calculate the input ac voltage required.

A full wave rectifier uses two diodes. The internal resistance of each diode is 20 ohms. The r.m.s. secondary
voltage form the center tap to each end of secondary winding of the transformer is 50 V and the load resistance is
980 ohms. Find ( i) the mean load current (ii) total power dissipation in diodes.
The four diode used in rectifier circuit have forward resistance of 1 ohms each and infinite reverse resistance.
The a.c. voltage is 240 V (r.m.s) the load resistance is 480 ohms. Calculate (i) the mean load current ( ii) total
power dissipation in diodes.
A zener diode of 10 V is connected in series with an unknown resistance and the combination is connected across
a 40 V d.c. supply. Find out the minimum value of resistance if the maximum zener current is 50mA.
Explain the working of DC regulated power supply.
A DC regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that provides a stable, constant DC voltage output
regardless of variations in the input AC voltage or changes in the load. It's a crucial component in various
electronic devices, ensuring that sensitive components receive a consistent and reliable power supply. Here's a
step-by-step explanation of how a typical DC regulated power supply works:

1. **AC to DC Conversion (Rectification)**:

The power supply begins with an AC voltage source, usually from the mains. This AC voltage is first
converted to pulsating DC using a rectifier circuit. Common rectifier configurations include full-wave bridge
rectifiers or center-tapped full-wave rectifiers, which convert AC to pulsating DC.

2. **Smoothing (Filtering)**:
The pulsating DC output from the rectifier contains ripples due to the alternating nature of AC. To smooth out
these ripples and obtain a more stable DC voltage, a filter (usually a capacitor or inductor) is connected after the
rectifier. The filter helps reduce the ripple, resulting in a smoother waveform closer to a pure DC signal.

3. **Voltage Regulation**:
After filtering, the voltage is relatively stable but may still vary due to changes in load or fluctuations in the
input AC voltage. To ensure a precise and constant output voltage, a voltage regulator circuit is used. There are
various types of voltage regulators, such as Zener diode-based, transistor-based (like the common linear
regulators), and more modern switch-mode regulators.

4. **Voltage Reference (Error Amplifier)**:

The regulator circuit uses a stable voltage reference as a comparison to the actual output voltage. This reference
voltage is typically obtained from a Zener diode or a precision voltage reference IC. An error amplifier compares
the reference voltage with the output voltage and generates an error signal.

5. **Feedback Loop (Control Loop)**:

The error signal from the error amplifier is fed back to the regulator to adjust the output voltage. The regulator
continuously compares the reference voltage with the actual output voltage and adjusts the circuit components
(usually the transistor or switch) to maintain the output voltage at the desired level.

6. **Output Stage**:
The adjusted output from the regulator is then fed to the final output stage. This stage ensures that the regulated
voltage is delivered to the load at the required current capacity.

7. **Load Connection**:
The load (the electronic circuit or device that requires power) is connected to the output terminals of the power
supply, and it receives the stable, regulated DC voltage.

By employing these steps, a DC regulated power supply provides a stable and constant output voltage to power
electronic circuits reliably, making it suitable for a wide range of applications in electronics and electrical
engineering.
Capacitance and inductance are fundamental passive components in electronics and are often used to design
filters that can selectively pass or attenuate certain frequencies in a signal. Filters are crucial in electronics for
various applications like signal conditioning, noise reduction, and frequency selection. Capacitance and
inductance, when appropriately combined, can create different types of filters, such as low-pass, high-pass, band-
pass, and band-stop filters. Let's explore how capacitance and inductance can be used to design these filters:

1. **Low-Pass Filter**:
A low-pass filter allows low-frequency signals to pass through while attenuating high-frequency signals. It is
commonly used to eliminate high-frequency noise and smooth out signals.

- **Design with Capacitance and Resistance**:

A simple low-pass filter can be created by placing a resistor (R) in series with a capacitor (C). The cutoff
frequency (\(f_c\)) is determined by \(f_c = \frac{1}{2\pi R C}\), below which the signal is passed effectively.

2. **High-Pass Filter**:
A high-pass filter allows high-frequency signals to pass through while attenuating low-frequency signals. It is
useful for isolating high-frequency components.

- **Design with Capacitance and Resistance**:

For a high-pass filter, a capacitor (C) is placed in series with a resistor (R). The cutoff frequency (\(f_c\)) is
determined by \(f_c = \frac{1}{2\pi R C}\), above which the signal is passed effectively.

3. **Band-Pass Filter**:
A band-pass filter allows a specific range or "band" of frequencies to pass through while attenuating
frequencies outside that band. It is useful in applications where a specific range of frequencies needs to be
isolated.

- **Design with Capacitance, Inductance, and Resistance**:

A band-pass filter can be created using a combination of capacitors, inductors, and resistors in a specific
arrangement, such as an LC (inductor-capacitor) circuit.

4. **Band-Stop (Notch) Filter**:

A band-stop filter, also known as a notch filter, suppresses a specific range of frequencies while allowing
others to pass. It is used to eliminate unwanted frequencies or interference within a specific frequency range.

- **Design with Capacitance, Inductance, and Resistance**:

A band-stop filter can be designed using a combination of capacitors, inductors, and resistors arranged in a
way that rejects a particular band of frequencies.
In filter design, the specific arrangement and values of capacitance, inductance, and resistance components are
chosen based on the desired filter characteristics (e.g., cutoff frequency, bandwidth, filter order) and the
application requirements. Advanced filter designs may use multiple stages or more complex configurations to
achieve precise filtering behavior. Simulation and analysis tools can assist in designing and optimizing filters for
various applications.
Working of shunt voltage regulator
A shunt voltage regulator is a type of electronic voltage regulator that uses a shunt (or parallel) element to
regulate the output voltage. It's a simple and efficient way to maintain a stable voltage across a load in a circuit.
Here's how a shunt voltage regulator works and its key components:

### Components of a Shunt Voltage Regulator:

1. **Zener Diode (ZD)**:

A Zener diode is a crucial component in a shunt regulator. The Zener diode is designed to operate in the reverse
breakdown region, maintaining a constant voltage drop across its terminals (Zener voltage) when it's reversed
biased.

2. **Load Resistance (R_L)**:

The load resistance represents the device or circuitry that requires a regulated output voltage.

### Working Principle:

1. **Voltage Reference using Zener Diode**:

A Zener diode is connected in reverse bias across the load. The Zener diode provides a stable reference voltage
(Zener voltage) at its terminals, which remains almost constant over a wide range of current passing through it.

2. **Voltage Division Principle**:

When connected in parallel with the load resistance, the Zener diode and the load resistance form a parallel
circuit. The voltage across the load resistance will be nearly equal to the Zener voltage (Vz) of the Zener diode.

3. **Stable Output Voltage**:

As long as the input voltage is higher than the Zener voltage plus a small drop across the diode (due to its
dynamic resistance), the Zener diode conducts and maintains a constant voltage (Vz) across the load. This
provides a regulated output voltage.

4. **Current Flow and Regulation**:

When the input voltage increases, the excess current flows through the Zener diode, ensuring that the voltage
across the load remains at the Zener voltage. If the input voltage decreases, the Zener diode reduces its current,
maintaining the regulated output voltage.

### Advantages of Shunt Voltage Regulators:

- Simple and easy to implement.

- Efficient for small load currents and voltage regulation applications.
- Provides a stable output voltage.

### Considerations and Limitations:

- Efficiency decreases with higher load currents.

- The power dissipation in the Zener diode can be significant, especially for high current applications, leading to
heat generation.

In summary, a shunt voltage regulator uses a Zener diode to establish a stable reference voltage, and this voltage
is maintained across the load in parallel, ensuring a regulated output voltage. It's a straightforward and cost-
effective solution for low-power applications that require voltage regulation.

Working series voltage regulator

A shunt voltage regulator is a type of electronic voltage regulator that uses a shunt (or parallel) element to
regulate the output voltage. It's a simple and efficient way to maintain a stable voltage across a load in a circuit.
Here's how a shunt voltage regulator works and its key components:

### Components of a Shunt Voltage Regulator:

1. **Zener Diode (ZD)**:

A Zener diode is a crucial component in a shunt regulator. The Zener diode is designed to operate in the reverse
breakdown region, maintaining a constant voltage drop across its terminals (Zener voltage) when it's reversed
biased.

2. **Load Resistance (R_L)**:

The load resistance represents the device or circuitry that requires a regulated output voltage.

### Working Principle:

1. **Voltage Reference using Zener Diode**:

A Zener diode is connected in reverse bias across the load. The Zener diode provides a stable reference voltage
(Zener voltage) at its terminals, which remains almost constant over a wide range of current passing through it.

2. **Voltage Division Principle**:

When connected in parallel with the load resistance, the Zener diode and the load resistance form a parallel
circuit. The voltage across the load resistance will be nearly equal to the Zener voltage (Vz) of the Zener diode.

3. **Stable Output Voltage**:

As long as the input voltage is higher than the Zener voltage plus a small drop across the diode (due to its
dynamic resistance), the Zener diode conducts and maintains a constant voltage (Vz) across the load. This
provides a regulated output voltage.

4. **Current Flow and Regulation**:

When the input voltage increases, the excess current flows through the Zener diode, ensuring that the voltage
across the load remains at the Zener voltage. If the input voltage decreases, the Zener diode reduces its current,
maintaining the regulated output voltage.

### Advantages of Shunt Voltage Regulators:

- Simple and easy to implement.
- Efficient for small load currents and voltage regulation applications.
- Provides a stable output voltage.

### Considerations and Limitations:

- Efficiency decreases with higher load currents.

- The power dissipation in the Zener diode can be significant, especially for high current applications, leading to
heat generation.

In summary, a shunt voltage regulator uses a Zener diode to establish a stable reference voltage, and this voltage
is maintained across the load in parallel, ensuring a regulated output voltage. It's a straightforward and cost-
effective solution for low-power applications that require voltage regulation.