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by Real Python  64 Comments  intermediate python

All Tutorial Topics

Table of Contents advanced api basics best-practices

• What Is Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)? community databases data-science

• Classes in Python devops django docker flask

• Python Objects (Instances) front-end intermediate

• How To Define a Class in Python machine-learning python testing

◦ Instance Attributes tools web-dev web-scraping

◦ Class Attributes
• Instantiating Objects
◦ What’s Going On?
◦ Review Exercises (#1)
• Instance Methods
◦ Modifying Attributes
• Python Object Inheritance
◦ Dog Park Example
◦ Extending the Functionality of a Parent Class
◦ Parent vs. Child Classes
◦ Overriding the Functionality of a Parent Class
◦ Review Exercises (#2)
• Conclusion

Table of Contents
• What Is Object-Oriented
Programming (OOP)?
• Classes in Python
• Python Objects (Instances)
 Watch Now This tutorial has a related video course created by the Real Python
• How To Define a Class in
team. Watch it together with the written tutorial to deepen your understanding:
Python
Intro to Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in Python
• Instantiating Objects
• Instance Methods
In this article you’ll pick up the following basic concepts of OOP in Python:
• Python Object Inheritance
• Python Classes • Conclusion

• Object Instances
• Defining and Working with Methods
• OOP Inheritance Improve Your Python
  Recommended Video Course
Free Bonus: Click here to get access to a free Python OOP Cheat Sheet that
Intro to Object-Oriented
points you to the best tutorials, videos, and books to learn more about Object-
Programming (OOP) in Python
Oriented Programming with Python.

What Is Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)?

Object-oriented Programming, or OOP for short, is a programming paradigm which
provides a means of structuring programs so that properties and behaviors are
bundled into individual objects.

For instance, an object could represent a person with a name property, age, address,
etc., with behaviors like walking, talking, breathing, and running. Or an email with
properties like recipient list, subject, body, etc., and behaviors like adding
attachments and sending.

Put another way, object-oriented programming is an approach for modeling

concrete, real-world things like cars as well as relations between things like
companies and employees, students and teachers, etc. OOP models real-world
entities as software objects, which have some data associated with them and can
perform certain functions.

Another common programming paradigm is procedural programming which

structures a program like a recipe in that it provides a set of steps, in the form of
functions and code blocks, which flow sequentially in order to complete a task.

The key takeaway is that objects are at the center of the object-oriented
programming paradigm, not only representing the data, as in procedural
programming, but in the overall structure of the program as well.

NOTE: Since Python is a multi-paradigm programming language, you can

choose the paradigm that best suits the problem at hand, mix different
paradigms in one program, and/or switch from one paradigm to another as
your program evolves.

Classes in Python
Focusing first on the data, each thing or object is an instance of some class.

The primitive data structures available in Python, like numbers, strings, and lists are
designed to represent simple things like the cost of something, the name of a poem,
and your favorite colors, respectively.

What if you wanted to represent something much more complicated?

For example, let’s say you wanted to track a number of different animals. If you used
a list, the first element could be the animal’s name while the second element could
represent its age.

How would you know which element is supposed to be which? What if you had 100
different animals? Are you certain each animal has both a name and an age, and so
forth? What if you wanted to add other properties to these animals? This lacks
organization, and it’s the exact need for classes.

Classes are used to create new user-defined data structures that contain arbitrary
information about something. In the case of an animal, we could create an Animal()
class to track properties about the Animal like the name and age.
Improve Your Python
It’s important to note that a class just provides structure—it’s a blueprint for how
something should be defined, but it doesn’t actually provide any real content itself.
The Animal() class may specify that the name and age are necessary for defining an
animal, but it will not actually state what a specific animal’s name or age is.

It may help to think of a class as an idea for how something should be defined.

Python Objects (Instances)

While the class is the blueprint, an instance is a copy of the class with actual values,
literally an object belonging to a specific class. It’s not an idea anymore; it’s an actual
animal, like a dog named Roger who’s eight years old.

Put another way, a class is like a form or questionnaire. It defines the needed
information. After you fill out the form, your specific copy is an instance of the class;
it contains actual information relevant to you.

You can fill out multiple copies to create many different instances, but without the
form as a guide, you would be lost, not knowing what information is required. Thus,
before you can create individual instances of an object, we must first specify what is
needed by defining a class.

How To Define a Class in Python

Defining a class is simple in Python:

Python

class Dog:
pass

 

You start with the class keyword to indicate that you are creating a class, then you
add the name of the class (using CamelCase notation, starting with a capital letter.)

Also, we used the Python keyword pass here. This is very often used as a place holder
where code will eventually go. It allows us to run this code without throwing an
error.

Note: The above code is correct on Python 3. On Python 2.x (“legacy Python”)
you’d use a slightly different class definition:

Python

# Python 2.x Class Definition:

class Dog(object):
pass

 

The (object) part in parentheses specifies the parent class that you are
inheriting from (more on this below.) In Python 3 this is no longer necessary
because it is the implicit default.

Improve Your Python

Instance Attributes
All classes create objects, and all objects contain characteristics called attributes
(referred to as properties in the opening paragraph). Use the __init__() method to
initialize (e.g., specify) an object’s initial attributes by giving them their default value
(or state). This method must have at least one argument as well as the self variable,
which refers to the object itself (e.g., Dog).

Python

class Dog:

# Initializer / Instance Attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

 

In the case of our Dog() class, each dog has a specific name and age, which is
obviously important to know for when you start actually creating different dogs.
Remember: the class is just for defining the Dog, not actually creating instances of
individual dogs with specific names and ages; we’ll get to that shortly.

Similarly, the self variable is also an instance of the class. Since instances of a class
have varying values we could state Dog.name = name rather than self.name = name.
But since not all dogs share the same name, we need to be able to assign different
values to different instances. Hence the need for the special self variable, which will
help to keep track of individual instances of each class.

NOTE: You will never have to call the __init__() method; it gets called
automatically when you create a new ‘Dog’ instance.

Class Attributes
While instance attributes are specific to each object, class attributes are the same for
all instances—which in this case is all dogs.

Python

class Dog:

# Class Attribute
species = 'mammal'

# Initializer / Instance Attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

 

So while each dog has a unique name and age, every dog will be a mammal.

Let’s create some dogs…

Instantiating Objects
Instantiating is a fancy term for creating a new, unique instance of a class.

For example:

Python Improve Your Python

 >>> class Dog:
... pass
...
>>> Dog()
<__main__.Dog object at 0x1004ccc50>
>>> Dog()
<__main__.Dog object at 0x1004ccc90>
>>> a = Dog()
>>> b = Dog()
>>> a == b
False

 

We started by defining a new Dog() class, then created two new dogs, each assigned
to different objects. So, to create an instance of a class, you use the the class name,
followed by parentheses. Then to demonstrate that each instance is actually
different, we instantiated two more dogs, assigning each to a variable, then tested if
those variables are equal.

What do you think the type of a class instance is?

Python >>>

>>> class Dog:

... pass
...
>>> a = Dog()
>>> type(a)
<class '__main__.Dog'>

 

Let’s look at a slightly more complex example…

Python

class Dog:

# Class Attribute
species = 'mammal'

# Initializer / Instance Attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

# Instantiate the Dog object

philo = Dog("Philo", 5)
mikey = Dog("Mikey", 6)

# Access the instance attributes

print("{} is {} and {} is {}.".format(
philo.name, philo.age, mikey.name, mikey.age))

# Is Philo a mammal?
if philo.species == "mammal":
print("{0} is a {1}!".format(philo.name, philo.species))

 

NOTE: Notice how we use dot notation to access attributes from each object.

Save this as dog_class.py, then run the program. You should see:

Improve Your Python

 Philo is 5 and Mikey is 6.
Philo is a mammal!

 

What’s Going On?

We created a new instance of the Dog() class and assigned it to the variable philo. We
then passed it two arguments, "Philo" and 5, which represent that dog’s name and
age, respectively.

These attributes are passed to the __init__ method, which gets called any time you
create a new instance, attaching the name and age to the object. You might be
wondering why we didn’t have to pass in the self argument.

This is Python magic; when you create a new instance of the class, Python
automatically determines what self is (a Dog in this case) and passes it to the
__init__ method.

Review Exercises (#1)

Exercise: "The Oldest Dog" Show/Hide

Using the same Dog class, instantiate three new dogs, each with a different age.
Then write a function called, get_biggest_number(), that takes any number of
ages (*args) and returns the oldest one. Then output the age of the oldest dog
like so:

The oldest dog is 7 years old.

 

Solution: "The Oldest Dog" Show/Hide

Python

Improve Your Python>>>

 class Dog:

# Class Attribute
species = 'mammal'

# Initializer / Instance Attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

# Instantiate the Dog object

jake = Dog("Jake", 7)
doug = Dog("Doug", 4)
william = Dog("William", 5)

# Determine the oldest dog

def get_biggest_number(*args):
return max(args)

# Output
print("The oldest dog is {} years old.".format(
get_biggest_number(jake.age, doug.age, william.age)))

 

Instance Methods
Instance methods are defined inside a class and are used to get the contents of an
instance. They can also be used to perform operations with the attributes of our
objects. Like the __init__ method, the first argument is always self:

Python

class Dog:

# Class Attribute
species = 'mammal'

# Initializer / Instance Attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

# instance method
def description(self):
return "{} is {} years old".format(self.name, self.age)

# instance method
def speak(self, sound):
return "{} says {}".format(self.name, sound)

# Instantiate the Dog object

mikey = Dog("Mikey", 6)

# call our instance methods

print(mikey.description())
print(mikey.speak("Gruff Gruff"))

 

Save this as dog_instance_methods.py, then run it:

Improve Your Python

 Mikey is 6 years old
Mikey says Gruff Gruff

 

In the latter method, speak(), we are defining behavior. What other behaviors could
you assign to a dog? Look back to the beginning paragraph to see some example
behaviors for other objects.

Modifying Attributes
You can change the value of attributes based on some behavior:

Python >>>

>>> class Email:

... def __init__(self):
... self.is_sent = False
... def send_email(self):
... self.is_sent = True
...
>>> my_email = Email()
>>> my_email.is_sent
False
>>> my_email.send_email()
>>> my_email.is_sent
True

 

Here, we added a method to send an email, which updates the is_sent variable to
True.

Python Object Inheritance

Inheritance is the process by which one class takes on the attributes and methods of
another. Newly formed classes are called child classes, and the classes that child
classes are derived from are called parent classes.

It’s important to note that child classes override or extend the functionality (e.g.,
attributes and behaviors) of parent classes. In other words, child classes inherit all of
the parent’s attributes and behaviors but can also specify different behavior to
follow. The most basic type of class is an object, which generally all other classes
inherit as their parent.

When you define a new class, Python 3 it implicitly uses object as the parent class.
So the following two definitions are equivalent:

Python

class Dog(object):
pass

# In Python 3, this is the same as:

class Dog:
pass

 

Note: In Python 2.x there’s a distinction between new-style and old-style

classes. I won’t go into detail here, but you’ll generally want to specify object
as the parent class to ensure you’re definint a new-style class if you’re writing
Python 2 OOP code. Improve Your Python
Dog Park Example
Let’s pretend that we’re at a dog park. There are multiple Dog objects engaging in
Dog behaviors, each with different attributes. In regular-speak that means some
dogs are running, while some are stretching and some are just watching other dogs.
Furthermore, each dog has been named by its owner and, since each dog is living
and breathing, each ages.

What’s another way to differentiate one dog from another? How about the dog’s
breed:

Python >>>

>>> class Dog:

... def __init__(self, breed):
... self.breed = breed
...
>>> spencer = Dog("German Shepard")
>>> spencer.breed
'German Shepard'
>>> sara = Dog("Boston Terrier")
>>> sara.breed
'Boston Terrier'

 

Each breed of dog has slightly different behaviors. To take these into account, let’s
create separate classes for each breed. These are child classes of the parent Dog
class.

Extending the Functionality of a Parent Class

Create a new file called dog_inheritance.py:

Python

Improve Your Python

 # Parent class
class Dog:

# Class attribute
species = 'mammal'

# Initializer / Instance attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

# instance method
def description(self):
return "{} is {} years old".format(self.name, self.age)

# instance method
def speak(self, sound):
return "{} says {}".format(self.name, sound)

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class RussellTerrier(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "{} runs {}".format(self.name, speed)

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class Bulldog(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "{} runs {}".format(self.name, speed)

# Child classes inherit attributes and

# behaviors from the parent class
jim = Bulldog("Jim", 12)
print(jim.description())

# Child classes have specific attributes

# and behaviors as well
print(jim.run("slowly"))

 

Read the comments aloud as you work through this program to help you understand
what’s happening, then before you run the program, see if you can predict the
expected output.

You should see:

Jim is 12 years old

Jim runs slowly

 

We haven’t added any special attributes or methods to differentiate a

RussellTerrier from a Bulldog, but since they’re now two different classes, we could
for instance give them different class attributes defining their respective speeds.

Parent vs. Child Classes

The isinstance() function is used to determine if an instance is also an instance of a
certain parent class.

Save this as dog_isinstance.py:

Python Improve Your Python

 # Parent class
class Dog:

# Class attribute
species = 'mammal'

# Initializer / Instance attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

# instance method
def description(self):
return "{} is {} years old".format(self.name, self.age)

# instance method
def speak(self, sound):
return "{} says {}".format(self.name, sound)

# Child class (inherits from Dog() class)

class RussellTerrier(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "{} runs {}".format(self.name, speed)

# Child class (inherits from Dog() class)

class Bulldog(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "{} runs {}".format(self.name, speed)

# Child classes inherit attributes and

# behaviors from the parent class
jim = Bulldog("Jim", 12)
print(jim.description())

# Child classes have specific attributes

# and behaviors as well
print(jim.run("slowly"))

# Is jim an instance of Dog()?

print(isinstance(jim, Dog))

# Is julie an instance of Dog()?

julie = Dog("Julie", 100)
print(isinstance(julie, Dog))

# Is johnny walker an instance of Bulldog()

johnnywalker = RussellTerrier("Johnny Walker", 4)
print(isinstance(johnnywalker, Bulldog))

# Is julie and instance of jim?

print(isinstance(julie, jim))

 

Output:

Python

Improve Your Python

 ('Jim', 12)
Jim runs slowly
True
True
False
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "dog_isinstance.py", line 50, in <module>
print(isinstance(julie, jim))
TypeError: isinstance() arg 2 must be a class, type, or tuple of classes and
types

 

Make sense? Both jim and julie are instances of the Dog() class, while johnnywalker
is not an instance of the Bulldog() class. Then as a sanity check, we tested if julie is
an instance of jim, which is impossible since jim is an instance of a class rather than
a class itself—hence the reason for the TypeError.

Overriding the Functionality of a Parent Class

Remember that child classes can also override attributes and behaviors from the
parent class. For examples:

Python >>>

>>> class Dog:

... species = 'mammal'
...
>>> class SomeBreed(Dog):
... pass
...
>>> class SomeOtherBreed(Dog):
... species = 'reptile'
...
>>> frank = SomeBreed()
>>> frank.species
'mammal'
>>> beans = SomeOtherBreed()
>>> beans.species
'reptile'

 

The SomeBreed() class inherits the species from the parent class, while the
SomeOtherBreed() class overrides the species, setting it to reptile.

Review Exercises (#2)

Exercise: "Dog Inheritance" Show/Hide

Create a Pets class that holds instances of dogs; this class is completely
separate from the Dog class. In other words, the Dog class does not inherit from
the Pets class. Then assign three dog instances to an instance of the Pets class.
Start with the following code below. Save the file as pets_class.py. Your output
should look like this:

I have 3 dogs.
Tom is 6.
Fletcher is 7.
Larry is 9.
And they're all mammals, of course.

 Improve Your Python

Starter code:

Python

# Parent class
class Dog:

# Class attribute
species = 'mammal'

# Initializer / Instance attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

# instance method
def description(self):
return "{} is {} years old".format(self.name, self.age)

# instance method
def speak(self, sound):
return "{} says {}".format(self.name, sound)

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class RussellTerrier(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "{} runs {}".format(self.name, speed)

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class Bulldog(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "{} runs {}".format(self.name, speed)

 

Solution: "Dog Inheritance" Show/Hide

Python

>>>

Improve Your Python

 # Parent class
class Pets:

dogs = []

def __init__(self, dogs):

self.dogs = dogs

# Parent class
class Dog:

# Class attribute
species = 'mammal'

# Initializer / Instance attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

# Instance method
def description(self):
return self.name, self.age

# Instance method
def speak(self, sound):
return "%s says %s" % (self.name, sound)

# Instance method
def eat(self):
self.is_hungry = False

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class RussellTerrier(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "%s runs %s" % (self.name, speed)

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class Bulldog(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "%s runs %s" % (self.name, speed)

# Create instances of dogs

my_dogs = [
Bulldog("Tom", 6),
RussellTerrier("Fletcher", 7),
Dog("Larry", 9)
]

# Instantiate the Pets class

my_pets = Pets(my_dogs)

# Output
print("I have {} dogs.".format(len(my_pets.dogs)))
for dog in my_pets.dogs:
print("{} is {}.".format(dog.name, dog.age))

print("And they're all {}s, of course.".format(dog.species))

 

Exercise: "Hungry Dogs" Show/Hide

Improve Your Python
Using the same file, add an instance attribute of is_hungry = True to the Dog
class. Then add a method called eat() which changes the value of is_hungry to
False when called. Figure out the best way to feed each dog and then output
“My dogs are hungry.” if all are hungry or “My dogs are not hungry.” if all are not
hungry. The final output should look like this:

I have 3 dogs.
Tom is 6.
Fletcher is 7.
Larry is 9.
And they're all mammals, of course.
My dogs are not hungry.

 

Solution: "Hungry Dogs" Show/Hide

Python

Improve Your Python

# Parent class
class Pets:

dogs = []

def __init__(self, dogs):

self.dogs = dogs

# Parent class
class Dog:

# Class attribute
species = 'mammal'

# Initializer / Instance attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
self.is_hungry = True

# Instance method
def description(self):
return self.name, self.age

# Instance method
def speak(self, sound):
return "%s says %s" % (self.name, sound)

# Instance method
def eat(self):
self.is_hungry = False

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class RussellTerrier(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "%s runs %s" % (self.name, speed)

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class Bulldog(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "%s runs %s" % (self.name, speed)

# Create instances of dogs

my_dogs = [
Bulldog("Tom", 6),
RussellTerrier("Fletcher", 7),
Dog("Larry", 9)
]

# Instantiate the Pets class

my_pets = Pets(my_dogs)

# Output
print("I have {} dogs.".format(len(my_pets.dogs)))
for dog in my_pets.dogs:
dog.eat()
print("{} is {}.".format(dog.name, dog.age))

print("And they're all {}s, of course.".format(dog.species))

are_my_dogs_hungry = False
for dog in my_pets.dogs:
if dog.is_hungry:
are_my_dogs_hungry = True
Improve Your Python
 print("My dogs are hungry.")
else:
print("My dogs are not hungry.")

 

Exercise: "Dog Walking" Show/Hide

Next, add a walk() method to both the Pets and Dog classes so that when you
call the method on the Pets class, each dog instance assigned to the Pets class
will walk(). Save this as dog_walking.py. This is slightly more difficult.

Start by implementing the method in the same manner as the speak() method.
As for the method in the Pets class, you will need to iterate through the list of
dogs, then call the method itself.

The output should look like this:

Tom is walking!
Fletcher is walking!
Larry is walking!

 

Solution: "Dog Walking" Show/Hide

Python

Improve Your Python

 # Parent class
class Pets:

dogs = []

def __init__(self, dogs):

self.dogs = dogs

def walk(self):
for dog in self.dogs:
print(dog.walk())

# Parent class
class Dog:

# Class attribute
species = 'mammal'
is_hungry = True

# Initializer / instance attributes

def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

# Instance method
def description(self):
return self.name, self.age

# Instance method
def speak(self, sound):
return "%s says %s" % (self.name, sound)

# Instance method
def eat(self):
self.is_hungry = False

def walk(self):
return "%s is walking!" % (self.name)

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class RussellTerrier(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "%s runs %s" % (self.name, speed)

# Child class (inherits from Dog class)

class Bulldog(Dog):
def run(self, speed):
return "%s runs %s" % (self.name, speed)

# Create instances of dogs

my_dogs = [
Bulldog("Tom", 6),
RussellTerrier("Fletcher", 7),
Dog("Larry", 9)
]

# Instantiate the Pet class

my_pets = Pets(my_dogs)

# Output
my_pets.walk()

 

Improve Your Python

 Exercise: "Comprehension Check" Show/Hide

Answer the following questions about OOP to check your learning progress:

1. What’s a class?
2. What’s an instance?
3. What’s the relationship between a class and an instance?
4. What’s the Python syntax used for defining a new class?
5. What’s the spelling convention for a class name?
6. How do you instantiate, or create an instance of, a class?
7. How do you access the attributes and behaviors of a class instance?
8. What’s a method?
9. What’s the purpose of self?
10. What’s the purpose of the __init__ method?
11. Describe how inheritance helps prevent code duplication.
12. Can child classes override properties of their parents?

Solution: "Comprehension Check" Show/Hide

1. A class is a mechanism used to create new user-defined data structures. It

contains data as well as the methods used to process that data.
2. An instance is a copy of the class with actual values, literally an object of a
specific class.
3. While a class is a blueprint used to describe how to make something,
instances are objects created from those blueprints.
4. class PythonClassName:
5. CamelCase notation, starting with a capital letter - i.e., PythonClassName()
6. You use the the class name, followed by parentheses. So if the class name
is Dog(), an dog instance would be - my_class = Dog().
7. With dot notation - e.g., instance_name.attribute_name
8. A function that’s defined inside a class.
9. The first argument of every method references the current instance of the
class, which by convention, is named self. In the __init__ method, self
refers to the newly created object; while in other methods, self refers to
the instance whose method was called. For more on __init__ vs. self,
check out this article.
10. The __init__ method initializes an instance of a class.
11. Child classes inherit all of the parent’s attributes and behaviors.
12. Yes.

Conclusion
You should now know what classes are, why you would want or need to use them,
and how to create both parent and child classes to better structure your programs.

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Please be aware that OOP is a programming paradigm and not a Python concept.
Most of the modern programming languages such as Java, C#, C++ follow OOP
principles. So the good news is that learning object-oriented programming
fundamentals will be valuable to you in a variety of circumstances—whether you’re
working in Python or not.

For further explanation of objected-oriented programming in Python, we

recommend that you consult these additional resources:

Free Bonus: Click here to get access to a free Python OOP Cheat Sheet that
points you to the best tutorials, videos, and books to learn more about Object-
Oriented Programming with Python.

 Watch Now This tutorial has a related video course created by the Real
Python team. Watch it together with the written tutorial to deepen your
understanding: Intro to Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in Python

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