ECE - 1051: Basic Electronics

Part –III

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

Chapter -7: Fundamentals of Analog Communication
Communication is the process of transferring information from one point to another. Based
on the type of the signal transmitted, communication can be analog or digital. The analog
communication involves transmitting of an analog signal such as music, video etc. from
source to destination. In electronic communication, some kind of modulation of a known
signal called carrier with the information or message signal before transmission is performed.
In modulation one of the parameters of carrier such as amplitude, frequency or phase is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. Depending on
the parameter that is varied, there are three basic types of modulation called amplitude,
frequency and phase modulation.

Module – 1: Amplitude Modulation

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Explain the principle of electronic communication using a block diagram.

2. Define modulation and discuss the need for modulation.
3. Explain amplitude modulation using suitable waveforms and define modulation
index.
4. Draw the spectrum of AM DSB signal, identify sidebands and estimate
bandwidth.
5. Derive expression for power content of AM signal.
6. List and describe different types of AM signal and compare them.
7. Explain the principle of AM demodulation process.
8. Explain with suitable block diagram the principle of Super- heterodyne receiver.

7.1.1 Principles of Electronic Communication

In a broad sense, the term electronic communication refers to the sending, receiving and
processing of information by electronic means. It can also be defined as the process of
transmitting the information or signal from one point known as the source to another point
known as the destination. Information can be continuous such as speech, music, image,
picture etc. or discrete signals like data from computer etc.

The block diagram of basic communication system is shown in Figure 7.1.1.

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Figure 7.1.1: Block Diagram of Electronic Communication System

a. Information Source: The first stage of communication system is the information source
because a communication system transmits information from an information source to the
destination. The physical form of information is represented by a message that is originated
by an information source. The examples of message are voice, live scenes, music, image,
written text and e-mail etc.
b. Input/output transducer: The input transducer converts physical quantity (non-electrical)
to an electrical signal. This electrical signal is called as baseband signal/ message signal. For
example, voice is converted to electrical signal using microphone. Similarly at the
destination, output transducer is used to convert electrical signal back to physical quantity.
For example a loudspeaker is used to convert electrical signal back to voice. Likewise for
video, the input transducer can be camera and output transducer can be any picture display
unit such as Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) or Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).
c. Transmitter: The baseband signal generated by the transducer may not be in the form
suitable for the transmission. Hence some kind of processing and signal conditioning is
required to make it suitable for transmission. The transmitter section processes the signal
before transmission, which mainly consists of filters, amplifiers, modulator and transmitting
antenna (for wireless transmission). The filter is used to eliminate the unwanted component
of signal generated by the transducer. The desired signal is further amplified to the required
level using amplifier. The baseband signal is applied to the modulator, which translates the
baseband signal from its low frequency to high frequency, makes it suitable for the
transmission in the chosen environment. The modulated signal is then transmitted through a
transmission channel.
d. Transmission channel: It is a medium over which the electronic signal is transmitted from
one point to another. The type and characteristics of the channel along with the noise power
decides the transmitter and receiver selection and design and hence the cost of the
communication system. The communication medium can be either wired or wireless. An
example for wired communication is telephony, where a pair of physical wires is running
parallel between transmitter and receiver. Now-a-days optical fibers are used in between
transmitter and receiver in which light carries the information. Similarly an example for
wireless communication is radio communication, where free space is used as a transmission
channel. Antennas are used to couple the signal to and from the channel to the
communication system.

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e. Noise: It is a random, undesirable electrical energy that interferes with the transmitted
signal. Noise is a highly undesirable part of the communication system which must be
minimized. The noise introduced by the transmission medium is called external noise and the
noise introduced by the transmission and reception equipment is called as internal noise. The
main cause of internal noise is the thermal agitation of atoms and electrons of the electronic
components used in the equipment.
f. Receiver: The receiver block mainly consists of receiving antenna, filter, demodulator and
amplifier. The signal received from receiving antenna is filtered and desired signal is
amplified. It is further demodulated to get back the original transmitted signal. Finally an
output transducer is employed to convert back the information in electrical form to physical
form.

7.1.2 Need for Modulation

In wireless communication, the free space is the transmission medium through which
electromagnetic waves carrying information propagates. A transmitting antenna at the
transmitter radiates energy into the free space and it is received at the receiver using receiving
antenna. The original signal which is called base band signal is not suitable for direct
transmission/radiation over a long distance and hence modulation is usually performed.

Modulation is a process of varying some of the characteristics of high frequency carrier wave
in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of base band signal. After modulation the
baseband signal of low frequency is transferred to the high frequency carrier, which carries
information in the form of some variations. The three parameters of a sinusoidal carrier that
can be varied are: amplitude, phase and frequency. A given modulation scheme can result in
the variation of one or more of these parameters.

• Modulation for long distance communication: According to electromagnetic theory, the

amount of radiation emitted from an antenna depends on the frequency of the signal
current supplied to it. For message signals of low frequency, radiation is poor and they
get highly attenuated when transmitted over a longer distance. Therefore modulation is
necessary to effectively increase the frequency of the signal to be radiated and thus
increases the distance over which signal can be transmitted faithfully.
• Modulation to reduce the height of the antenna: The height of the antenna required to
transmit and receive radio waves is a function of wavelength of the signal. Since
wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency for message signal
having low frequency, λ is high and hence the height of the antenna required for
transmission is very large and impractical. Therefore high frequency carrier is used to
transmit the information which requires antenna of lesser height.
• Modulation for multiplexing: Multiplexing is a method of transmitting more than one
information signal simultaneously over a single channel. This allows several users to use
the same channel if they are assigned with different carrier frequencies. Therefore it
allows the maximum possible utilization of the available bandwidth of the system.

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Self- test:

1. List the key components required for electronic communication.

2. List the basic functions of radio transmitter and the corresponding functions
of the receiver.
3. Signals travel in air as --------------
4. ---------- is another name for simplex communication and ----- is another
name for duplex communication.
5. Signals travel over copper cable as-----
6. Signals travel over fiber optic cable as-----

7.1.3 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

AM is defined as the process of varying the amplitude of the carrier wave proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal. In practice, the carrier may be higher
frequency while modulating signal may be lower frequency. Figure 7.1.2 shows the
modulating, carrier and amplitude modulated wave. Here the modulating signal considered is
multi-tone in nature.

Note:

• A multi-tone signal is the superposition of several sine waves or tones or frequency

components, whereas single-tone signal has only one frequency component in it.

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Figure 7.1.2: Waveforms of amplitude modulation

7.1.4 Time domain analysis
The Figure 7.1.3 shows the time domain representation of the AM wave.

Figure 7.1.3: Time domain representation of AM wave

Let the equation of carrier signal be , where is the peak amplitude of

carrier signal is and is the frequency of the carrier signal.

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Let the equation of modulating signal be where is the peak

amplitude of modulating signal is and is the frequency of the modulating signal which is
single-tone in nature.

Then by the definition of AM:

=
=
=

Where, is the modulation index of AM signal which is defined as ratio of the amplitude of
modulating signal to that of carrier signal i.e. . The significance of modulation index is, it
decides the depth of modulation. If it is less than one, then AM signal is known as under
modulated signal. If it is more than one, then AM signal is known as over modulated signal.
If it is equal to one, then AM signal is known as perfect modulated signal. To obtain the
original information, modulation index should always be less than or equal to one. The effect
of modulation index on AM wave is illustrated in Figure 7.1.4

m=0.5

m=1

m=1.5

Figure 7.1.4: Effect of modulation index on AM waveform

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7.1.5 Spectrum of AM signal

Another way of representing the AM signal is in the frequency domain known as frequency
spectrum, which shows all the frequency components present in a signal. It is the plot of
frequency versus their respective amplitudes. Spectrum of AM signal is shown in Figure
7.1.5.

Figure 7.1.5: Frequency Spectrum of AM signal

As shown in Figure 7.1.5, the spectrum of AM consists of three frequency components, one
at and other two at and respectively. The frequencies and
are known as sideband frequencies i.e. is Upper Side Band (USB) and
is the Lower Side Band (LSB). For this reason this is called AM DSB (Amplitude
Modulation with Double Side Band) system. The difference between the two side band
frequencies is defined as bandwidth of AM signal. Therefore the bandwidth of AM signal is

Self -test:

1. What is a spectrum? What are all the information obtained from the spectrum of AM
signal?

2. Imagine that there is a signal with two frequency components, and with . If
they modulate a carrier with frequency ,

• Plot the frequency spectrum of the modulated signal.

• What is the bandwidth required for such a signal?

7.1.6 Power Content of AM

The total power (PT) of AM signal is given by

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Where, is the carrier power, and are the side band signal powers.

Where R is the load resistance.

Thus,

For 100% modulation,

Therefore,

or

i.e. 66.67% of total power is carried by the carrier and only 33.33% of total power is
available in the sidebands. As the information is available only in the sidebands, and carrier
does not in any way contribute to the information, 66.67 % of power is wasted if AM DSB
with full carrier is used.

• Modulation by several sine waves:

When the modulating signal consists of several sine waves,

The overall modulation index will be ,

Or

Therefore, the total power is,

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Example Problem 1:
1. An audio signal of volts amplitude modulates a carrier of
volts. Find
i. Modulation index
ii. Sideband frequencies
iii. Bandwidth
iv. Total power delivered if RL = 1kΩ
v. Amplitude of each side band components

Solution:
Am 10
i. Modulation index: m = = = 0.25
AC 40
ii. Sideband frequencies :
Upper side band = fC + fm = 3000Hz
Lower side band = fC - fm = 1000Hz
iii. Bandwidth = 2fm = 2kHz
iv. Total power delivered:
A2 m2 1600 (0.25)2
PT = C ( 1 + ) = (1+ ) = 0.825 Watts
2R 2 2000 2
AC 40
v. Amplitude of each sideband = m =0.25 * = 5V.
2 2
Example Problem 2:
Certain AM transmitter radiates 9 kW of power with carrier un modulated and 10.125kW of
power when carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index. If another sine
wave corresponding to 40% modulation is transmitted simultaneously, determine the total
power radiated.
Solution:
i. Given: PC = 9kW
PT= 10.125kW
2
m
PT = PC { 1 + }
2
P 
m = 2 T −1 =0.5.
 PC 
ii. m1 = 0.5, m2 = 0.4 , PC = 9kW.
mt = m12 + m22 = 0.64.

2
m
PT = PC { 1 + t } = 10.84kW
2

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Exercises:
VMAX − VMIN
1. Show that modulation index = , where VMAX and VMIN are maximum
VMAX + VMIN
and minimum voltages of AM signal.
2. A 360W carrier is simultaneously modulated by two audio waves with percentage
modulation of 55 and 65 respectively. Find the modulation index, total power radiated
and power in each sideband. Assume RL=1Ώ. [Ans: mt = 0.85, PT =490W, PUSB =
PLSB = 65W].
3. A broadcast AM transmitter radiates 10kW when the modulation percentage is 60.
How much of this is the carrier power? [Ans: Pc=8.47 kW]

7.1.7 Different Types of AM Signals

The basic form of AM signal is called Double Side Band with Carrier (AM-DSB), where it
contains two side bands namely, LSB, USB and the carrier signal in its unmodulated form.
The transmission efficiency of the AM-DSB transmitter is very poor because the maximum
efficiency that can be achieved is only 33.33%. The remaining 66.67% power is lost in the
unmodulated carrier signal, which does not carry any useful information. The two side bands
carry similar information and together they carry 33.33% of the transmitted power.
Significant amount of transmitting power can be saved if the AM signal is modified before its
transmission, accordingly several forms of AM signals have been developed which are
explained below.

• Double Side Band- Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) Signal:

It is the first modified version of AM-DSB signal. In a AM-DSB signal carrier does not
contain any useful information. Therefore, the two side bands are transmitted by suppressing
the carrier signal leading to a savings of 66.67% of the total transmitting power. This
modified AM signal is called as Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) signal.

• Single Side Band (SSB) Signal:

The two side bands transmitted in DSB-SC signal are identical and carry similar information.
If only one side band is transmitted, even then the information will be satisfactorily
communicated. This gives rise to another form of AM known as Single Side Band (SSB)
modulation. Thus in SSB, only one side band is transmitted by suppressing the other side
band and the carrier signal. This also results in reduced transmitter power compared to DSB-
SC. The main disadvantage of AM-SSB is, it requires complex receiver.

• Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Signal:

It is another form of AM modulation, where one sideband is completely present, and a part
(vestige) of other sideband is retained. If the carrier signal is transmitted along with the side

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bands, then the recovery of the baseband signal becomes easier. This also reduces the
complexity of the receiver circuit and which in turn reduces its cost.

Note:
• Comparison and Applications of various forms of AM signals:
• AM-DSB signal is also referred as DSB with full carrier (DSB-FC) and the AM
without carrier is called DSB with suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) signal.
• Watch this Video forTable 7.1.1:ofComparison
animation of differentoutput
amplitude modulated types with
of AMdifferent
modulation indices (DSB): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1wUjLWNgqMs

% of power
Side band saving as Typical
AM Scheme Bandwidth Carrier power
power compared to Applications
AM-DSB

AM radio
AM-DSB 66.67% 33.33% NIL
broadcast

Non-commercial
DSB-SC NIL 33.33% 66.67%
systems

Carrier telephony
SSB NIL 16.67% 83.33% systems, military
applications

Self-test:

1. Compare different types of Modulation techniques based on a) bandwidth required

and b) power content of the signal?

2. Calculate the percentage of power saving when the carrier and one of the side bands
are suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of (a) 100% (b) 50%

3. Explain why AM-DSB is preferred for commercial radio broadcasting?

7.1.8 Detection of AM Signal

Amplitude modulation or AM is one of the most straight forward ways of modulating a radio
signal or carrier. In the process of demodulation (detection), the audio signal is removed from
the radio carrier in the receiver. Demodulation is a process of recovering the original base

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band signal (information) from the modulated signal. The simple and highly effective method
for demodulation is by using envelope detector.

Envelope detector produces an output signal that follows the input signal waveform exactly.
Figure 7.1.6 shows the circuit diagram of an envelope detector that consists of a diode and a
resistor-capacitor filter.
This is essentially a half wave rectifier with filter circuit, which allows only half of the
alternating waveform through. The capacitor bypasses the high frequency carrier component
and allows low frequency message signal to go to the output. This demodulator is applicable
only for AM-DSB and the main advantage of this form of AM demodulator is that it is very
simple and cost effective.

Figure 7.1.6: Envelope Detector

7.1.9 Super-heterodyne principle of AM Detection

Antenna

Figure 7.1.7: Block diagram of AM Super-heterodyne Receiver

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There are a great variety of receivers in communication systems based on the requirements
such as the modulation scheme, the operating frequency and its range. One of them is super-
heterodyne type, which uses frequency mixing or heterodyning to convert a received signal to
get a fixed intermediate frequency (IF). This allows the processing of signal easier as the
circuits after IF needs to be designed for narrow band of frequency. The functional block
diagram is shown in Figure 7.1.7.

The received signal from the antenna is amplified by the RF amplifier and is fed to the mixer
stage, which performs the heterodyning of the incoming signal with the local oscillator signal
to produce the sum and the difference of those two frequencies. The IF amplifier will be
tuned to the difference frequency as it is smaller among the two, and is known as the
intermediate frequency (IF). A typical value of IF for an AM communication receivers is 455
KHz. The difference frequency is at a lower frequency than either the RF input or oscillator
frequencies.

Once the IF stage/stages have amplified the intermediate frequency to a sufficient level, it is
fed to the detector. The detector is used to demodulate the signal and to get back the message.
The detector stage consists of a rectifying device and filter, which respond only to the
amplitude variations of the IF signal. This develops an output voltage varying at an audio-
frequency rate. The output from the detector is further amplified in the audio amplifier and is
used to drive a speaker or earphones.

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Summary

1. Basic principle of electronic communication, which has essentially three components:

a) Transmitter, b) Receiver and c) Channel

2. Definition of modulation, which is nothing but varying some parameter of a known signal called
carrier in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal called modulating signal.
3. Modulation is necessary for the following reasons:
a) Ease of radiation b) efficient transmission and c) supporting multiplexing

4. To draw the waveforms for amplitude modulated signal with respect to the chosen modulating
and carrier signals.
5. Modulation index gives the depth of modulation or the extent to which the carrier is modulated
by the signal and is given by

6. Draw the spectrum of AM-DSB signal for a single tone modulation and identify two sidebands
and the carrier. The bandwidth of AM DSB is given by 2fm, where fm is the maximum frequency
component of the modulating signal.
7. The power content of AM DSB is given by

8. The different types of AM signal are AM DSB with carrier, DSB SC, SSB SC, SSB with carrier and
VSB.
9. AM DSB can be demodulated by relatively simple process of envelope detection.
10. One of the popular AM reception method is called super heterodyne principle, where in the
input RF signal is translated to an IF signal by mixing or beating it with the output of local
oscillator. Since the local oscillator frequency is maintained above the incoming signal
frequency it is called Super- heterodyning.

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Module – 2: Frequency Modulation

In the previous module, we have learnt amplitude modulation for transmission of analog
signals. Here, we will discuss about another type of analog modulation called Frequency
Modulation (FM) where the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Define Frequency Modulation(FM)
2. Explain frequency modulation using suitable waveforms and define modulation
index.
3. Illustrate the concept of FM graphically
4. Write the time domain equation for FM and determine the bandwidth of FM
using Carson rule
5. Distinguish between AM &FM.

7.2.1 Frequency Modulation

Frequency Modulation is defined as a process of altering the frequency of the carrier
signal with respect9.to Explain the principleamplitude
the instantaneous of electronic
of communication
the modulatingusing a block
signal. It is diagram.
illustrated in
Figure 7.2.1. 10. Define modulation and discuss the need for modulation.
11. Explain amplitude modulation using suitable waveforms and define
modulation index.
12. Draw the spectrum of AM DSB FC signal, identify sidebands and estimate
bandwidth.
13. Derive expression for power content of AM signal.
14. List and describe different types of AM signal and compare them.
15. Explain the principle of AM demodulation process.
16. Explain with suitable block diagram the principle of super heterodyne
receiver.

Fig.7.2.1: Frequency Modulation waveforms

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7.2.2 Time domain analysis of FM signal

• Time domain analysis of FM signal

From definition, the frequency of the FM modulated signal is,

Where is the frequency sensitivity, is the carrier frequency and is the message
signal or modulating signal.
Let the message signal where is the peak amplitude of the
modulating signal and is the modulating signal frequency. Substituting for in
equation (7.2.1), the equation for the FM signal is,

where is the frequency deviation. It signifies the amount by which the carrier frequency
gets deviated.
Multiplying by on both sides of equation (7.2.2)

Since, , integrating both sides of equation (7.2.3)

(since

Therefore, the equation of FM Signal is given by,

Where is defined as modulation index of FM. Unlike AM modulation index,

is not restricted to one. It can be more than unity.

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• Spectrum of FM

Figure 7.2.2 shows the spectrum of FM for different values of . It is seen that as the
modulation index, increases, more number of sidebands appear. Therefore any FM signal
with large will have a large number of sidebands and hence larger bandwidth. Ideally, FM
signal has infinite bandwidth. However, for practical purpose, Carson’s rule is followed,
which says that for good reception of FM, it is enough if those many side bands which
constitutes 98% of power is taken. This acts as the basis for estimation of bandwidth for FM.

The bandwidth for FM as per Carson’s rule is given by,

Self -test:

1 DefineFig.7.2.2
frequencySpectrum
modulation.of FM for different modulation indices
2 Write the time domain expression for frequency modulation and explain.
3 Define modulation index and write the expression for the same.
4 List the factors that affect the bandwidth of FM signal?

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Example Problems:
1 Given a FM equation VFM (t) = 10 cos [2 108t + )], calculate carrier
frequency, modulating frequency, frequency deviation and bandwidth.
Solution:
Carrier frequency: fc = 108Hz
Modulating frequency: fm = 15 kHz
Frequency deviation: Δf = β  fm = 5 * 15 = 75 kHz
Bandwidth = 2(Δf + fm) = 2(75 + 15) = 180 kHz

2 In an FM system when the audio frequency is 500Hz , modulating voltage is 2.5V

, the deviation produced is 5kHz. If the modulating voltage is now increased to 7.5V,
calculate the new value of frequency deviation. If the AF voltage is raised to 10V
while the modulating frequency is dropped to 250Hz, what is the frequency deviation
produced. Also calculate modulation index in each case.
Solution:
Given: fm = 500Hz, Am = 2.5V, Δf = 5  103Hz.
f
i) Modulation index: β = =
fm
If Am = 7.5V, Δf = ?
f 5  10 3
Kf = = = 2 kHz /V
Am 2.5
Δf = Kf  Am = 2  7.5 = 15 kHz
f
Modulation index: β = =
fm
ii) Δf = Kf  Am = 2  10 = 20 kHz
iii) Modulation index: β = = = 80

Exercises
1 A carrier of amplitude 5V and frequency 90MHz is frequency modulated by a
sinusoidal voltage of amplitude 5V and frequency 15 KHz. The frequency sensitivity is
1Hz/V. Calculate the frequency deviation and modulation index. (Ans: Δf = 5Hz,
β=0.0003)
2 The carrier frequency in an FM modulator is 1000 KHz. If the modulating frequency is
15 KHz, what are the first three upper sideband and lower sideband frequencies?
(Ans: 955kHz, 970kHz, 985kHz, 1015kHz,1030kHz,1045kHz)
.

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7.2.3 Comparison of AM and FM

Sl. Parameter AM FM
no
1 Amplitude of the Varies constant
modulated wave instantaneously with
the modulating signal
amplitude
2 Frequency of the Contains Carrier and Contains carrier and
modulated wave sideband frequency infinite sideband
components frequency components
3 Modulation Index
4 Noise immunity Less More
5 Adjacent channel More Less due to guard bands
interference
6 Bandwidth Less More
7 Circuit complexity Less More
8 Coverage area More Less

Self -test:

1. Noise interference in AM is greater than in FM (True/False)

2. AM systems require more bandwidth than FM(True/False)
3. FM signals reach longer distances than AM (True/False)
4. AM systems are more complex to build than FM (True/False)

Exercises
1 Explain why FM waves cover shorter distances as compared to AM?
2 What is guard band? Explain.

Watch this Video for animation of amplitude modulation:

1. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5JyiFWLn-w

Watch this Video for animation of frequency modulation:

1. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmW4z76KgNQ

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Summary

In this module we have learnt:

1. The definition of Frequency Modulation is a process of altering the frequency of
the carrier signal with respect to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
2. To draw the waveforms for frequency modulated signal with respect to the
chosen modulating and carrier signals.
3. Modulation index gives the depth of modulation and is given by
4. The bandwidth is estimated approximately by Carlson Rule given by
Bandwidth = 2(Δf + fm)

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