HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH

The Geologic Time Scale is a system used to describe the timing

and relationships between events in Earth's history. It's divided
into eons, eras, periods, and epochs with each time unit based on
significant geologic or paleontological events.

 Eons (Largest Division)

 An indefinite long period of time.

 Hadean: 4.6 to 4.0 billion years ago (bya) — Earth

forms.
 Archean: 4.0 to 2.5 bya — First single-celled life
appears.
 Proterozoic: 2.5 bya to 541 million years ago (mya) —
Oxygen builds up, multicellular life.

 Phanerozoic: 541 mya to present — Visible life,
complex organisms.

Phanerozoic Eon

Paleozoic Era Mesozoic Era Cenozoic Era

 Eras (Phanerozoic Eon)

 A period of history marked by a new or distinct order
of things.

 Paleozoic Era: 541 to 252 mya — Explosion of

marine life, first vertebrates, and plants on land.
  Mesozoic Era: 252 to 66 mya — Age of Dinosaurs,
first birds and mammals.
 Cenozoic Era: 66 mya to present — Age of Mammals,
humans appear..

 Period (Paleozoic Era)

 Based on types of life existing at the time

 Cambrian: 541 to 485.4 mya — Cambrian Explosion

of life forms.
 Ordovician: 485.4 to 443.8 mya — First fish.
 Silurian: 443.8 to 419.2 mya — Land plants emerge.
 Devonian: 419.2 to 358.9 mya — Age of Fishes.
 Carboniferous: 358.9 to 298.9 mya — Coal-forming
forests, amphibians dominate.
 Permian: 298.9 to 252.2 mya — Mass extinction ends
Paleozoic Era

 Period (Mesozoic Era)

 Based on types of life existing at the time

 Triassic: 252.2 to 201.3 mya — Dinosaurs first appear.

 Jurassic: 201.3 to 145 mya — Age of large dinosaurs.
 Cretaceous: 145 to 66 mya — Dinosaurs go extinct.

 Period (Cenozoic Era)

 Tertiary: 65 to 2.58 mya — Mammals diversify,

Early hominins appear
 Quaternary: 2.58 mya to present — Ice Ages, modern
humans evolve

 Epochs (Tertiary Period)

 Shortest subdivision; marked by differences in life
forms and can vary from continent to continent.

 Paleocene: 66 to 56 mya — First large mammals.

  Eocene: 56 to 33.9 mya — Warm climates,
mammalian diversity.
 Oligocene: 33.9 to 23 mya — Early apes, cooler
climate.
 Miocene: 23 to 5.3 mya — First elephants, horses.
 Pliocene: 5.3 to 2.58 mya — Australopithecus, human
ancestors.

The Paleozoic Era (541 to 252 million years ago) was a

time of incredible change in life on Earth. Here are some key
groups of organisms that thrived during this period:

I. Marine Invertebrates: The seas were teeming with

creatures like trilobites (armored arthropods), brachiopods
(shelled animals), corals, and mollusks (snails, clams, etc.).

II. Fish: Jawless fish were common, but the Devonian period
saw the rise of armored fish and lobe-finned fish, which were
important for the transition to land.

III. Amphibians: These were the first vertebrates to live on

land, evolving from lobe-finned fish. They were especially
diverse in the Carboniferous period.

IV.Reptiles: These amniotes (animals with shelled eggs)

appeared in the Carboniferous and diversified in the Permian,
paving the way for the dinosaur age.

V. Insects: Insects first appeared in the Devonian and became

quite diverse, including giant dragonflies and cockroaches.

VI. Plants: The Paleozoic saw the first land plants, like mosses
and liverworts, followed by ferns and early seed plants. The
Carboniferous period was dominated by vast swamp forests.
The Paleozoic Era was a crucial time for the development of life
on Earth, with the transition from mostly aquatic creatures to a
wider variety of land-based organisms. It also saw the largest
mass extinction event in Earth's history at the end of the
Permian period, which wiped out many species and paved the
way for the Mesozoic Era."

The Mesozoic Era (252 to 66 million years ago), often

called the "Age of Reptiles," was a time when dinosaurs ruled
the Earth. Here are some key groups of organisms that thrived
during this period:

1. Dinosaurs: These were the dominant land animals, ranging

from giant herbivores like Brachiosaurus to fearsome
carnivores like Tyrannosaurus Rex. They diversified into
many forms and sizes, filling a wide range of ecological
niches.

2. Marine Reptiles: The oceans were home to a variety of

reptiles, including ichthyosaurs (dolphin-like predators),
plesiosaurs (long-necked creatures), and mosasaurs (large,
powerful swimmers).

3. Flying Reptiles (Pterosaurs): These reptiles evolved wings

and took to the skies, becoming the first vertebrates to
achieve powered flight. They ranged in size from small, bat-
like creatures to giant pterosaurs with wingspans of up to 30
feet.

4. Mammals: Mammals first appeared in the Triassic period,

but they remained small and relatively insignificant
compared to dinosaurs. They diversified further in the
Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, but it wasn't until the
extinction of the dinosaurs that they became the dominant
land animals.
5. Birds: Birds evolved from small theropod dinosaurs in the
Jurassic period. Early birds like Archaeopteryx had feathers
and could fly, but still retained many dinosaur-like features.
They continued to diversify throughout the Mesozoic Era.

6. Plants: Gymnosperms (conifers, cycads, and ferns) were the

dominant plants in the early Mesozoic, but flowering plants
(angiosperms) evolved in the Cretaceous period and quickly
became the most diverse plant group on Earth.

The Mesozoic Era ended with a mass extinction event, likely

caused by an asteroid impact, that wiped out the dinosaurs and
many other species. This event paved the way for the rise of
mammals and the beginning of the Cenozoic Era, the era we live
in today.

The Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago to present), often

called the "Age of Mammals," saw the rise of mammals to
dominance after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Here are some
key groups:

i. Mammals: Cenozoic mammals diversified rapidly, filling

niches previously occupied by dinosaurs. We see the
evolution of familiar groups like horses, whales, bats, and
primates, including our own human ancestors.

ii. Birds: Birds continued to evolve and diversify, with many

modern bird groups appearing during this era.
iii. Plants: Flowering plants (angiosperms) became the
dominant plant group, leading to a wide variety of flowers,
fruits, and trees.

The Cenozoic Era has seen significant climate change, including

periods of glaciation and warming, which have influenced the
evolution and distribution of life. It's also the era in which
humans evolved and spread across the globe, profoundly
impacting the planet and its ecosystems.

The Precambrian Era (4.5 billion to 541 million years

ago) was a long and fascinating period in Earth's history, where
life first arose and began to diversify. Here are some key groups
of organisms that were present:

a. Microscopic Life: The earliest life forms were single-celled

organisms called prokaryotes. These included bacteria and
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), which were important for
introducing oxygen into the atmosphere through
photosynthesis.

b. Early Eukaryotes: Around 2.1 billion years ago,

eukaryotes (cells with a nucleus) appeared. These were more
complex than prokaryotes and eventually gave rise to plants,
animals, and fungi.

c. Multicellular Life: Towards the end of the Precambrian,

multicellular organisms started to evolve. These included
strange, soft-bodied creatures called the Ediacaran biota,
which were unlike any modern animals.

The Precambrian was a time of incredible change, with the

development of the first life forms and the gradual shift from a
simple, oxygen-poor environment to one that could support
more complex organisms.

The mechanisms that drive change in populations across

generations are the foundation of evolution. These processes,
acting individually or in concert, shape the genetic makeup of
species over time. Here's a breakdown of the key mechanisms:
1. Natural Selection
Natural selection is the driving force behind adaptation. It favors
individuals with traits that enhance their survival and
reproductive success in a given environment. This means those
with advantageous traits are more likely to survive, reproduce,
and pass those traits on to their offspring. Over time, these
advantageous traits become more common in the population,
leading to evolutionary change. For example, in a population of
peppered moths, darker moths were favored during the
Industrial Revolution due to their camouflage against soot-
covered trees. This led to a shift in the population's color
distribution towards darker moths.
2. Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is a random process that can cause changes in
allele frequencies, especially in small populations. It occurs due
to chance events, such as a natural disaster or the random
survival and reproduction of individuals. Imagine a population
of flowers with red and white petals. If a wildfire randomly
wipes out more white-petaled flowers, the next generation may
have a higher proportion of red-petaled flowers, not because red
is advantageous, but simply due to chance.
3. Mutation
Mutation is the ultimate source of new genetic variation. It
occurs when changes happen in the DNA sequence of an
organism. These changes can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.
While mutations are random, they can provide the raw material
for natural selection to act upon. For example, a mutation in a
beetle's gene might lead to a new color variation, which could
then be selected for or against depending on the environment.
4. Recombination
Recombination occurs during sexual reproduction, specifically
during meiosis. It involves the exchange of genetic material
between homologous chromosomes, leading to the creation of
new combinations of alleles. This shuffling of genes creates
genetic diversity within a population, providing more variation
for natural selection to act upon.

5. Artificial Selection
Artificial selection is a process where humans intentionally
select organisms with desirable traits for breeding. This is how
we have domesticated animals and cultivated plants with
specific characteristics. For example, farmers have selectively
bred cows for high milk production, resulting in breeds with
significantly higher milk yield than their wild ancestors.
In summary, these mechanisms work together to drive
evolutionary change. Natural selection acts as the primary force,
favoring advantageous traits, while mutation provides the raw
material for variation. Genetic drift introduces randomness,
especially in small populations, and gene flow connects
populations, allowing for the exchange of genetic material.
Recombination further shuffles genes, creating diverse
combinations. Finally, artificial selection demonstrates human
intervention in manipulating the genetic makeup of populations.
These mechanisms are essential for understanding how life on
Earth has evolved and continues to diversify.

Imagine a population of butterflies. Some are blue, some are

green, and some are brown. Over time, the mix of colors in the
butterfly population might change. How does this happen? Here
are the key mechanisms:
1. Natural Selection:
 Imagine birds love to eat green butterflies. The blue and
brown butterflies are harder to see, so they are more likely to
survive and reproduce.
 Over time, more blue and brown butterflies will be born, and
the green butterflies will become less common. This is
 natural selection - nature "selects" the traits that help
organisms survive and reproduce.
2. Artificial Selection:
 This is like natural selection, but humans are the ones doing
the selecting.
 Imagine a farmer wants to grow bigger tomatoes. They pick
the biggest tomatoes from their garden and plant their seeds.
 Over time, the tomatoes will get bigger and bigger because
the farmer is choosing the biggest ones to reproduce.

3. Genetic Drift:
 This is like a random lottery. Imagine a small group of
butterflies gets separated from the main population.
 By chance, the separated group might have more blue
butterflies than the original group. Even if blue isn't a better
color for survival, it might become more common in the
separated group just because of random chance.
4. Mutation:
 Sometimes, a butterfly's genes can change randomly. This is
called a mutation.
 A mutation might cause a butterfly to have a new color, like
purple. If this mutation helps the butterfly survive better, it
might become more common in the population.
5. Recombination:
 This is like shuffling a deck of cards. When butterflies
reproduce, their genes get mixed up.
 This shuffling can create new combinations of traits, like a
butterfly with the blue color of its mother and the wing
pattern of its father. This adds to the variety of traits in the
population.

In summary:
 Natural Selection: Nature chooses traits that help
organisms survive and reproduce.
 Artificial Selection: Humans choose traits that they find
desirable.
 Genetic Drift: Random chance events can change the
frequency of traits.
 Mutation: Random changes in genes can create new traits.
 Recombination: Shuffling genes during reproduction creates
new combinations of traits.
These mechanisms all work together to cause changes in
populations over time, leading to the amazing diversity of life
on Earth.