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[Static electricity] Electrical charge:

1) Branch of physics deals with the charges in rest state. Static electricity mainly concern with insulators.
2) Charge is the property of an object that give rise a force to an object placed in electric field.
3) Charges are of two types positive and negative.
4) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
5) Atom as a whole is neutral due to equal number of positive and negative charges.
6) Symbol for charge is ―Q‖.
7) Formula for charge is Q=I × t where Q…….total charge, I….current, t……time
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Q = ne where n…..number of charge particles, e…charge on electron (e=1.6×10 )
8) Unit of charge is coulomb(C=AS).
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9) One coulomb charge contain=6.25×10 electrons
10) If an object lose electron it becomes positively charge and an object gain electron it becomes negatively
charged.
11) Only electron is to be transferred from one object to another object.
Electrostatic charging of insulators by friction
Some objects like glass and silk will acquire electric charges when they are rubbed together transfers
negative charges (called electrons) from one object to another.
Fig.The glass rod and silk are electrically neutral, i.e. they have the same number of positive and negative
charges on them before rubbing.

Fig. Some negative charges from the glass rod are transferred to the silk. The silk has excess negative
charges and the glass rod has excess positive charges.in such a way glass rod becomes positively
charged and silk becomes negatively charged.
How is electric charge transferred by friction?
i. A neutral atom has an equal number of electrons and protons.
ii. If electrons are removed, the atom is positively charged; if electrons are added, the atom negatively
charged.
iii. When a glass rod and a piece of silk are rubbed together, some electrons from the surface atoms of
glass are transferred to the silk.
iv. The glass rod becomes positively charged as it loses electrons and the silk becomes negatively
Charged as it gains electrons
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How is electric charge transferred by friction?

Table: Types of charges acquired when some materials are rubbed together.
Insulators and Conductors
Insulators Conductors
i. Insulators do not conduct electricity and are i. Conductors conduct electricity and charged by
charged by friction. a process called electrostatic induction.
ii. Conductors contains atoms as well as free
ii. Insulators contain atoms but no free electrons. electrons
iii. E.g. glass, silk, Perspex and wool. iii. E.g., metals like copper, iron or steel.
Charging conductors by electrostatic induction:
Induction is the process in which a charge body is brought near neutral object then positive and negative
charges are separated on neutral object is called electrostatic induction.
Describe an experiment how you would obtain negative charge on a single conductor by
induction process.
Answer:
Step 1: Bring a negatively charged glass rod near the metal conductor on an insulating stand. The free
electrons in the metal will be drawn towards the side nearer the positively charged glass rod.

Step 2: Without removing the glass rod, earth the negatively charged side of the metal conductor by
touching it with your hand. Electrons will flow from the conductor into the ground

Step 3: With the glass rod still in place, remove your hand from the conductor.

Step 4: Remove the glass rod. The conductor is now negatively charged.
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Describe an experiment how two metal spheres are charged by induction method
Following steps are involved

Electric Field:
An electric field is a region where an electric charge experiences an electric force.
Representing the electric field
• An electric field can be illustrated by drawing lines with arrows, which are called electric lines of force.
• The direction of the field is defined as the direction of the force on a small positive charge.

Field lines due to positive charge Field lines due to negative charge
The strength of an electric field is indicated by how close the field lines are to each other

Fig. Field lines of two opposite charges placed close together.

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fig‘1 fig‘2
Fig.1Field lines of two positive charges placed close together. Field lines are in outward repel each other
Between the lines, there is a neutral point where the strength becomes negligible.
Fig.2 Field lines due to parallel charged plates. Take note that the field lines start from positive charges on
one plate and end on negative charges on the other plate. The field is said to be uniform in this region.
Properties of electric field lines
1. Electric field lines never cross each other.
2. Each electric field line indicates direction and strength of electric field lines.
Question: Describe an experiment to show the differences between an electrical conductors and
insulators.
A series circuit is connected using a battery, a bulb, a switch, and two
Crocodile clips. A short length of copper wire and a piece of rubber
band of same length are clipped in turns between the two clips as
Shown in fig. The copper wire is clipped between the clips and the switch
is closed. The bulb lights shows that copper is an electrical conductors.
The experiment is repeated with the piece of rubber band clipped between
the clips. The bulb does not light up on closing the switch showing that
rubber is an electrical insulator.
Electric Current:
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge through any cross section of a conductor per unit time.
I= = where I is the current, Q is the charge, and t is the time taken
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The SI unit is the ampere (A=CS )
Definition of Ampere: If 1coulomb charge, flowing through a cross-sectional area of a conductor in
1 second then current will be 1 ampere
1A=1CS-1
Conventional current:
Conventional current produced due to the flow of positive charges. Its direction is from positively charged
end to a negatively charged end of battery.
Electronic current:
Electronic current produced due to the flow of negative charges. Its direction is from negatively charged
end to a positively charged end of battery.

Fig. Conventional current flow vs. electron flow

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Electric circuit symbols:

Electric circuits: An electric circuit is a complete or closed path through which charge can flow from one
terminal of an electrical source to the other terminal. Text
It consists of four main components:
Text
1. A source of electromotive force that drives the electric Textcharge around the circuit

(E.g. a battery)
2. A load on which moving charges can do a useful job (e.g. a bulb)
3. Conductors to connect the components together (e.g. copper wire),
4. Switches to open or close the circuit
Open circuit: An open circuit occurs when there is a break in the circuit to stop
the Current from flowing.
Short circuit: A short circuit where a wire A acts as a bypass for the current.
The current now passes through wire A instead of flowing through the lamp. Closed circuit

Open circuit Short circuit

Voltage:
Work per unit charge or energy per unit charge called voltage.
Formula v= where v voltage, w work, Q charge
Unit of voltage is volt=joule / coulomb (v = J / C) electric
Resistance: it is opposition in flow of charges passing through any conductor Or the resistance R of
material is defined as the ratio of potential difference and current R = V/I.
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Unit of resistance is ohm. (Ω = )

Definition of Ohm: Resistance of material is one ohm when one-ampere current flows due to one-volt p.d
1ohm = 1 volt/ 1 ampere
Factors upon which resistance depends:
1) Temperature: For metals resistance increases with increase in temperature. However, in case of semi-
conductors like diode, thermistor, LDR etc. Resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
2) Length: The resistance is directly proportional to length of a conductor.
R α l ...…………… (1)
3) cross-sectional area: The resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area A
R α 1/A ..................... (2)
Combining equations (1) and (2), we obtain
R α l.1/A or R = ρ l/A
Where ρ is a constant known as resistivity.
Definition of resistivity: Resistance of one-meter cube of a material. Formula for resistivity is ρ =
Unit of resistivity is Ω m.
Materials with lower resistivity are better conductors of electricity.
Electromotive Force: The electromotive force (e.m.f) of an electrical energy source is defined as the
work done by the source in driving a unit positive charge round a complete circuit to convert non-electrical
form of energy to electrical energy.
Formula ɛ = W/Q Where ɛ is the e.m.f of the power supply. W work done
Q is the amount of charge.
The SI unit of e.m.f is joules per coulomb (J C-1) or volt (V).
Potential difference: The potential difference (p.d) between two points in an electric circuit is defined as
the amount of electrical energy converted to other forms of energy when one coulomb of positive charge
passes between the two points.
Formula V= E/Q where V is the potential difference E is the electrical energy converted to other forms, Q is
the amount of charge
Unit for potential difference is the volt (V).
Ohm’s Law: The current passing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across its ends, provided the physical conditions (such as temperature, length, shape) are
constant. IαV
I= V V=IR
Where I is the current, and V is the potential difference.
R is proportionality constant and called resistance of a conductor.
Ohmic Conductors: Conductors that obey Ohm‘s Law are known as ohmic conductors.

Fig. I-V characteristics of an ohmic conductor. A straight-line graph shows that the gradient (i.e. the inverse
of resistance R of the conductor) is a constant; hence, R is also a constant.
Non-ohmic conductors: They do not obey Ohm‘s Law and their resistance R can vary. Their I-V graphs
are not straight line, which means the ratio V∕I is not a constant.
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Filament lamp
As the p.d across the lamp increases, the current does not increase proportionally.

Fig.I-V graph for a filament lamp

Thermistor:
It is a device which changes resistance when its temperature changes.
Resistance decreases as the temperature increases, allowing more
Current to pass through. Fig . I-V graph for a thermistor
Effect of temperature on the resistance of a metallic conductor: When temperature of a metallic
conductor increases, the atoms in it vibrate more energetically. The free electrons moving through the
conductor collide more frequently with the atoms and slow down. This reduces the rate of flow of charge
(current) through the conductor and the resistance (R = V/I) increases.
Effect of temperature on resistance: The circuit below can be used to investigate how current trough a
conductor depends on the p.d. across it. The conductor in this case is a coiled-up length of nichrome wire,
kept at a constant temperature by immersing it in a large amount of water. The p.d. across nichrome wire
can be varied by adjusting variable resistor.
Typical results are shown in the table and graph below.

The result in the table shows that when the voltage increases the current also increases within constant
temperature and the gradient of the graph is constant value (voltage / current are equals to constant value
of resistance).
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Describe an experiment to determine resistance R of a conductor

by using ammeter and voltmeter:
Following steps are required.
1. Adjust the variable resistor such that its resistance is maximum.
2. Close the switch
3. Record the voltmeter and ammeter reading
4. Adjust the variable resistor to obtain other voltmeter and ammeter
Readings for six sets of readings (the voltage range should
be more than half of the emf of the battery)
5. Plot a graph of voltage against current
6. The gradient of the straight line is the resistance of the component

Gradient =

R=
Difference Between Ammeter and Voltmeter
Ammeter Voltmeter
i. It is used to measure current i. It is used to measure voltage across two
points

ii. Resistance is low ii. Resistance is high

iii. It is connected in series with the circuit and iii. It is connected in parallel with the circuit and
its accuracy is more its accuracy is less

iv. Range of ammeters are 0-1A,0-3A,0-5A,0- iv. Range of voltmeters are 0-1v, 0-3v,0-5v,0-
10A,13A,30A 10v, 13v ,30 v.
v. For ideal ammeter, the value of resistance is v. For ideal voltmeter, the value of resistance is
0 approximately infinity

vi. It is denoted by a symbol A vi. It is denoted by a symbol V

vii. Its +ve terminal connected with +ve terminal vii. Its +ve terminal connected with +ve terminal
of battery and –ve with –ve terminal of of battery and –ve with –ve terminal of
battery. battery.

Arrangement of cells:
The number of dry cells and their arrangement will determine the amount of e.m.f supplied. There are two
arrangements — series and parallel.
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Cells in series: when cells are arranged in Cells in parallel: The energy required to move
series, the combined e.m.f increases. electric charges through the load would be
contributed equally by each cell. Each cell only
needs to provide half the energy.

Fig.Cells connected in series

Fig.Circuit diagram of two 1.5V dry cells connected in

parallel to a bul
Advantages of parallel over series circuit:
1) In parallel combination each appliance gets the full voltage
2) If one appliance switched on/off, others are not affected.
3) The parallel circuit divides the current through the appliances. Each appliance gets proper current
depending on its resistance.
4) In a parallel combination, it is very easy to connect or disconnect a new appliance without affecting the
working of other appliances.
5) In parallel combination, total resistance is minimum so that power loss is minimum.
Resistors in Series:
A combination in which opposite ends of the components are connected is called series combination.

Characteristics of series combination

1. Current in series combination will remain same across each resistor (I 1=I 2= I)
2. Potential difference across each resistor is different (V=V 1+ V 2).
3. The combined resistance R of resistors in series is the sum of the two resistances R1 and R2.
Total resistance of circuit is (R net = R 1 + R 2)
Parallel combination of resistors:
A combination in which left ends of all components are connected at one common point and right ends of
all components are connected at other common point is called parallel combination of resistors.

Characteristics of parallel combination

1. Potential difference across each resistor will remain same (V=V 1= V 2).
2. Current across each resistor different. Total current is equal to sum of individual currents(I = I 1+ I 2)
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3. Total resistance of the circuit is R net= ( )
Note: Total resistance in parallel combination is always less than the total resistance of series combination.
Connecting light bulbs in series or parallel:
In a series connection,
1. a current Is flowing through the bulbs
2. the p.d. across the bulbs is V
3. the combined resistance is
R T =R + R = 2 R.
The current Isis given by Fig. Light bulbs in series with a dry cell
Is= V∕ R T= V ∕ 2 R where V is the e.m.f. of the dry cell.
Connecting light bulbs in parallel:
In a parallel connection,
1. a current Ip is flowing through the bulbs
2. the p.d. across each bulb is V
I p= V ∕ R
Comparing Is with I p,

Fig. Light bulbs in parallel with a dry cell

From the above, IP is twice that of IS.
This means that bulbs connect in parallel will glow more brightly than those connected in series.
Potential Divider:
A potential divider is a simple circuit that uses resisters (or thermistors / LDR's) to supply a
variable potential difference. They can be used as audio volume controls, to control the temperature in a
freezer or monitor changes in light in a room.
It is a circuit with resistors arranged in series. With it, we can divide a main voltage into two voltages
Figure .A simple potential divider circuit
The current through the resistors R 1 and R 2 by:
I=V ∕ (R 1 + R 2)
Hence, the p.d.s Vout across R 2 given by
Vout=I R 2= [V ∕ (R 1+R 2)] × R 2
This can be rewrite as
VOUT =
Transducers:
Transducers are electrical or electronic devices that convert energy from one form to another.
They respond to physical quantities like temperature, light and act as the interface between the
environment and an electronic system
Input and output transducers:
Transducers that convert non-electrical energy to electrical energy are called input transducers.
Examples: microphones, thermistors, thermocouples, light-dependent resistors.
Transducers that convert electrical energy to other forms of energy are called output transducers.
Examples: loudspeakers, light emitting diodes, voltmeters, ammeters.
NTC (negative temperature coefficient) Thermistor:
Its resistance decreases with increasing temperature. It can be used in circuits for temperature control and
temperature measurement.
Figure. A thermistor used in a potential divider circuit.
When the temperature increases, the resistance RTH decreases and using the
Equation, vout will increase.

VOUT =

Light-dependent resistors (LDRs):

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Its resistance varies with the amount of light shining on it‘s the light intensity increases, the resistance of
the LDR decreases and vice versa. When the light level decreases, the resistance of the LDR increases.
As this resistance increases in relation to the other Resistor, which has a fixed
Resistance, it causes the voltage dropped across the LDR to also increase
This application of the LDR can be used to measure light intensity.
Figure. LDR in a potential divider circuit
The light energy produces more free electrons, which increases the current for
a certain voltage across the LDR which means a drop in resistance.
LDR, s are used as light sensors.

Thermistor. This is a type of resistor, which has a resistance that changes

With temperature. Its resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
It can be used in circuits for temperature control and temperature measurement.

When the temperature increases, the resistance RTH decreases and

Using the equationVoutwill increase.
VOUT =

Figure. A thermistor used in a potential divider circuit

Practical Electricity
Use of the heating effect of electricity in appliances:
Electric heating: An electric kettle contains a heating element that heats up when current flows through it.
Conduction and convection currents heat the water surrounding the heating element. An electric iron also
contains a heating element that heats up when current flows through it. Heat from the heating element is
transferred to the flat metal base of the iron, which is a good conductor of heat. The heating elements used
in ovens and heaters are usually made of nichrome wire because of its high resistivity and ability to
withstand high temperatures.

Figure. Electric kettle Figure. Electric iron Figure. Electric radiator

Electrical lighting:
Filament lamp: The filament is made of tungsten because of its high resistivity and melting point. The
filament is very thin, giving it a higher resistance than the rest of the circuit (R=l ∕A).When an electric
current flows through the filament, the tungsten gets extremely hot (2500 oC) and generates light
Fluorescent lamp: The fluorescent lamp uses electrodes to produce light. When electric charges are
passed between the two electrodes, the mercury vapour in the glass tube emits ultraviolet light together
with visible light. The ultraviolet light is converted to visible light by the fluorescent powder coated on the
inside of the glass tube.
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A filament lamp A fluorescent lamp

Comparison of the filament lamp to the fluorescent lamp

Type Advantages Disadvantages

Filament lamp They are used in homes to give a Only a small percentage of the electrical energy
cozy and relaxed atmosphere. supplied is converted to light. The majority of
the energy converted to thermal energy. This
explains why a filament lamp feels warm when
touched.
Fluorescent They are energy efficient. Thus, They cost more than filament lamps. As the
lamp they are widely used in offices and mercury vapour in fluorescent lamps is toxic,
schools for lighting. the lamps must be handled carefully.
Electrical power (P): The rate at which electrical energy is transferred to circuit is known as power. Unit of
electrical power is kilowatt (KW); bigger unit is Mega-Watt (MW)
Formula P =VI where v...applied voltage I...current
In case of resistor the power dissipation is
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P=I R= V=IR * I= V / R
Electrical Energy: Energy made available for consumption or consumed in the form of electricity or electric
power. Unit of electrical energy is Kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Formula E = P t =V I t = I 2R t = V 2t / R
Calculating the cost of electricity consumption:
The cost of electricity consumed is calculated based on the number of kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electrical
energy used.
Formula Cost of electricity = electrical energy (KWH) ×price of 1unit or
Cost of electricity = E (Kwh)× price of 1unit or
Cost of electricity = (P×t) × price of 1unit
Definition of kilowatt-hour (kWh):
One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the amount of electrical energy used by 1 kW device in one hour.
The kWh is a unit of electrical energy. What is the equivalent of 1kwh in joules (J)?
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Energy E = P × t = 1 kW × 1 h = 1000 W × 3600 s = 3.6 ×10 J.
Hence 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ.
Safe use of Electricity:
The following terms are used many time in electricity, these can be defined as:
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Live wire: (Brown) Live wire which is at high voltage. Current supplied to appliances through this wire
Neutral wire:(Blue) Neutral wire means the wire at zero voltage and provide a path to current for backflow
or to complete the circuit between live wire and appliance.
Earth wire: (Green or Yellow) Earth wire is at zero voltage and connected to ground. The earth wire
provides a conducting path for charges to flow towards ground, so that the user will not suffer electric
shocks. The earth wire is connected to the external casing of the appliance.
Hazards of Electricity:
Hazards of electricity due to three possible causes
i. Damaged Insulation
ii. Overheating of cables
iii. Damp conditions
Damaged Insulations:
All electrical appliances require two wires to form complete circuits from voltage supply to appliance and
back to supply. These wired are insulated. Due to continuous use of appliances, wire of appliances may
bend and twisted, this will cause insulation to crack and break. Thus, these wires joined that cause severe
electric shock to user.
Overheating:
The overheating of cables refers to the unusually large current flowing in the conducting wires. A short
circuit can result when the live wire makes contact with the neutral wire due to damaged insulation. This will
produce the large currents and heat. It can melt the insulation and start fire.
Damp conditions:
Due to damp conditions many accidents occur such as in wet bathroom the use of hair dry or other
electrical device may be dangerous. Human body can only withstand up to about 50 mA.
Safe Use of Electricity at Home:
Safety features installed at home for safe use of electricity:
1. Circuit breakers
2. Fuses
3. Correct placement of switch in the circuit
4. Three-pin plug
5. Earth wire
6. Double insulation of certain appliances
1. Circuit breakers:
A circuit breaker switches off the electrical supply in a circuit if the current flowing though it is higher than
the cut-off current. This prevents damage to the appliances connected to the circuit. It should be fitted to
the live wire of the circuit. Circuit breaker can be reusable .It is fast.
2. Fuses:
A fuse is safety device that is inserted into an electrical circuit to protect the equipment against excessive
current flow. It is thin short wire, which becomes hot and melts when the current through it is greater than
its rated value. It is always connected on live wire. Fuses are normally rated at 1A, 2A, 5A, 10A and 13A.
There are two types of fuse cartridge fuse and rewire able fuse.
Calculation of fuse rating
First calculate the current while appliance working normally. Then chose the value for fuse slightly greater
than normal working current
For example:
If an electric iron 750 W is connected to 240 V supply. The fuse rating can be calculated as:
We know that
P = IV
I = P/V
I = 750/240
I = 3.125 A
So normal working current of appliance is 3.125.Fuse rating should be slightly more than normal working
current. That may be 5 A
Switches:
Switches are used to complete and break the circuit between live and appliance. Switches must be fitted
onto the live wire so that switching off disconnects the high voltage from an appliance
If the switch is fitted onto the neutral wire, the appliance will be ‗live‘ even if the switch if ‗off‘.
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Plugs and sockets:

Appliances with metal casings use three-pin plugs, whereas appliances that have double insulation (these
appliances usually have plastic casings) use two-pin plugs. Three-pin plugs have an earth wire to ground
the metal casing if it ever becomes ‗live‘ due to an electrical fault. Double insulated appliances do not need
to be earthed due to their extra insulating layer.
5. Earthlings:
The earth wire (green and yellow) is a low-resistance wire and is usually connected to the metal casing of
the appliance. earthlings prevents users from getting an electric shock if the live wire is not properly
6.Double insulation:
Devices that have double insulation normally use a two-pin plug as only the live and neutral wires are
required. The electric cable is insulated from the internal components of the appliance. The internal
components are also insulated from the external casing.