LOW COST AUTOMATICWATER LEVEL CONTROL

POF DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS

AMain project Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
tor the ward of the degree of

BACHELOROF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Submitted by
Y. Phalgun (15091A0288)
G. Murali Krishna (1509 1A0273)
K. Sai Teja (1509 1A02B2)
Under the Estee ed Guidance of
Nr. K. KISHORE REDDY, M. Tech.
ASST. PROFESSOR,Dept. of E.E.E

vCATIONoR PLA

(ESTD-1995)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

RAJEEV GANDHI MEMORIAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY (AUTONOMOUS)
Approveo byAICTE New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC A+ Grade,
tedited by NBA Afiliated to J.N.T. University Anantapur Ananthapuramu)
Nandyal-51 8501,Kurnool Dist,A.P
2015-2019
 LOW COST AUTOMATIC WVATER LEVEL CONTROL
FOR DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS
A Main project Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Submitted by

Y. Phalgun (15091A0288)
G. Murali Krishna (15091A0273)
K. Sai Teja (15091A02 B2)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Mr. K. KISHORE REDDY M. Tech.

ASST. PROFESSOR, Dept. of E.E.E.

EDUCATION FOAPEACL

(ESTD-1995)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

RAJEEV GANDHI MEMORIAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE New Delhi, Aceredited by NAAC A' Grade, Aceredited by
NBA, AMliated to J.N.T. University Anantapur, Ananthapuramu)
Nandyal-518501, Kurnool Dist., A.P
 RAJEEY GANDHI MEMORIAL COLLEGEOF ENGINEERING& TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AlCTE NewDelhi, Accredited by NAAC A'Grade, Aceredited by
NBA, AMliated to J.N.T. University Anantapur, Ananthapuramu)
Nandyal-518501, Kurnool Dist., A.P.

oUCATION foRPEACE

(ESTD-1995)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled "LOW COST AUTOMATIC WATER LEVEL
CONTROL FOR DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS" that is being submitted by Y. PHALGUN
(15091A0288), G. MURALI KRISHNA (15091A0273), K. SAI TEJA(15091A02 B2) have carried
out the main project for the fulfilment of the award of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering in Rajeev Gandhi Memorial College of Engineering &
Technology(Autonomous)and this is a record of bonafide work done by them during 2018-19.
The results embodied in this project work have not been submitted to any other university or
institute for the award of any degree.

Head of the Department Project Guide

PhD.,MISTE Mr. K. Kishor Reddý|u Tech

Professor Asst.Professor

Dept. of EEL RGMCEL Dept. of EEE, RGMCET

Signature of Exteral Eiarlinef:

Date: oq- 64- Lo9
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We earnestly take the responsibility to acknowledge the following distinguished

personalities who graciously allowed us to carry out our project work successfully.

First we express our thanks to Mr. K. KISHORE REDDY garu, Asst.professor of

the Electrical and Electronics Engineering department, as a project guide with whose skilful
concomitance the excellence has been exemplified in bringing out this main project work
with artistry and for the encouragement which contributed to the successful completion of the
main project.

We would like to thank our Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for
giving us permission to do the main project. At the outset we thank our honourable chairman
Dr. M. SANTHI RAMUDU garu, for providing us with good faculty and for his moral
support throughout the course.

We are perspicuous to divulge our sincere thanks to our principal,

Dr. T. JAYA CHANDRA PRASAD garu, who has been observed posing violence in
abundance forwards our individuality to our main project work tendentiously.

We manifest our capabilities and heartier thankfulness pertaining to our Head of The
Department Dr.V. NAGA BHASKAR REDDY garu, with whose adroit concomitance the
excellence has been exemplified in bringing out this main project work with artistry.

A heart full and sincere gratitude to our beloved parents for their tremendous
motivation and moral support. Finally we express our gratitude to our friends and others who
have helped us directly and indirectly in carrying our project work successfully.

PROJECT ASSOCIATES

Y. Phalgun (15091A0288)
G. Murali Krishna (15091A0273)
K. Sai Teja (15091A02B2)
 ABSTRACT

The project aims in designing a low cost system for automatic controlling of water
pumping into a overhead tank. The system continuously monitors the water level in the tank and
automatically switches ON/OFF the pump accordingly.

We need to use our water prudently – no one will argue with this statement. But in fact we
are wasteful. This need will become more pronounced, and the cost of bad water management
will get higher in the future with increasing water demands from increasing population, cities,
agriculture, and the environment. Moreover water management will become more difficult with
climate change. New solutions and fast actions are required now.

The system makes use of simple logic gates and 555 timer IC to achieve the task. Water
level probes placed in the tank acts as input to the logic gates and the 555 timer. Based on the
input, the logic gates controls the water pump.
 List of contents

Page No

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 2 Hardware Description 2-25

2.1 Introduction 2

2.2 NAND Gate 3

2.3 Regulated Power Supply 5

2.3.1 Introduction of Regulated Power Supply 5

2.3.2 Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply 6

2.4 Transformation 7

2.4.1 Transformers 7

2.5 Rectifiers 7

2.5.1 Bridge Full Wave Rectifier 8

2.5.2 Bridge Rectifier DB107 8

2.5.3 Features of DB107 9

2.6 Capacitor 9

2.6.1 Operation of Capacitor 10

2.7 Voltage Regulator 11

2.8 Resistor 12

2.9 LED 13

2.9.1 Working of LED 13

2.10 Relay 15

2.10.1 Basic Design and Operation of Eletro magnetic Relay 15

2.10.2 Applications of Relays 17

2.10.3 Advantages of Relays 17

2.10.4 Disadvantages of Relays 17

 List of contents

Page No

2.11 Introduction of 555 Timer 17

2.11.1 Pin Description 18

2.11.2 Internal Schematic Diagram of 555 Timer 20

2.11.3 Operation of 555 Timer 21

2.11.4 555 Timer Modes Operation 22

2.11.5 Specifications of 555 Timer 24

2.11.6 Applications of 555 Timer 25

2.12 Water Level Probes 25

Chapter 3 Project Description 26

Chapter 4 Advantages and Applications 27

4.1 Advantages 27

4.2 Applications 27

Chapter 5 Hardware Setup and Results 28-29

5.1 Hardware Setup 28

5.2 Results 29

Chapter 6 Conclusions and Future Scope 30

6.1 Conclusions 30

6.2 Future Scope 30

References

Books Referred
 List of Figures and Tables

Page No

Fig 2.1 Block diagram of low cost automatic water level

Control for domestic appliance 2

Fig 2.2 Logic NAND gates equivalence 3

Fig 2.3 Transistor NAND gates 3

Fig 2.4 QUAD-2 Input NAND gate 5

Fig 2.5 Regulated power supply 6

Fig 2.6 Circuit diagram of RPS with LED connection 6

Fig 2.7 Bridge rectifier full wave rectifier using four diodes 8

Fig 2.8 DB 107 8

Fig 2.9 Construction of capacitor 9

Fig 2.10 Electrolytic capacitor 10

Fig 2.11 Capacitor storage tank without flow of current 10

Fig 2.12 Capacitor storage tank with flow of current 10

Fig 2.13 Operation of Capacitor 11

Fig 2.14 Voltage regulator 12

Fig 2.15 Resistor 12

Fig 2.16 Inside a LED 13

Fig 2.17 Parts of LED 13

Fig 2.18 Electrical symbol and polarities of LED 14

Fig 2.19 Basic design of Electro Magnetic Relay 15

Fig 2.20 Basic operation of Electro Magnetic Relay 15

Fig 2.21 555 Timer 18

Fig 2.22 Schematic diagram of 555 Timer 20

Fig 2.23 Schematic of 555 Timer in monostable mode 23

 List of Figures and Tables

Page No

Fig 2.24 Wave forms of monostable operation 23

Fig 3.1 Schematic diagram of low cost automatic water

Level control for domestic appliances 26

Fig 5.1 Hardware setup 28

Table 2.1 2 –input logic NAND Gates 4

CHAPTER -1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
The project aims in designing a low cost system for automatic controlling of water
pumping into a overhead tank. The system continuously monitors the water level in the tank
and automatically switches ON/OFF the pump accordingly.

We need to use our water prudently – no one will argue with this statement. But in fact we
are wasteful. This need will become more pronounced, and the cost of bad water management
will get higher in the future with increasing water demands from increasing population, cities,
agriculture, and the environment. Moreover water management will become more difficult
with climate change. New solutions and fast actions are required now.

The system makes use of simple logic gates and 555 timer IC to achieve the task. Water
level probes placed in the tank acts as input to the logic gates and the 555 timer. Based on the
input, the logic gates controls the water pump.

The main objectives of the project are

1. Automated water pump controlling.
2. Usage of logic gates and 555 timer.

1.2 Project Overview

The “LOW COST AUTOMATIC WATER LEVEL CONTROL FOR DOMESTIC

APPLIANCES” using NAND gates and 555 timer is an exclusive project which is used to
switch on/off the water pump automatically.

We can use this project to reduce deaths of people due to current shocks at fields and also
to on/off the motor automatically by using soil moisture sensors at fields which avoids need
of a human being .

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER- 2
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent
modules are considered. Block diagram is as shown in fig: 2.1

Fig. 2.1 Block diagram of Low cost automatic water level control for domestic applications

The main blocks of this project are

1. Regulated Power Supply.

2. NAND gates.
3. 555 Timer.
4. Relay with driver.
5. Water pump.
6. Water level probes.

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2.2 NAND Gate

The NAND gate has an output that is normally at logic level 1 and only goes LOW to
logic level 0 when ALL of its inputs are at logic level 1. The Logic NAND Gate is the
reverse or Complementary form of the AND gate is as shown Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2 Logic NAND Gate Equivalence

The logic or Boolean expression given for a logic NAND gate is that for Logical
Addition, which is the opposite to the AND gate, and which it performs on
the complements of the inputs. The Boolean expression for a logic NAND gate is denoted by
a single dot or full stop symbol, ( . ) with a line or Overline ( ‾‾ ) over the expression to
signify the NOT or logical negation of the NAND gate giving us the Boolean expression
of: A.B = Q.

Then we can define the operation of a 2-input digital logic NAND gate as being If either A or
B are NOT true, then Q is true Transistor NAND Gate.

A simple 2-input logic NAND gate can be constructed using RTL Resistor-transistor
switches connected together as shown below with the inputs connected directly to the
transistor bases. Either transistor must be cut-off OFF for an output at Q as shown in Fig. 2.3

Fig. 2.3 Transistor NAND Gates

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Logic NAND Gates are available using digital circuits to produce the desired logical
function and is given a symbol whose shape is that of a standard AND gate with a circle,
sometimes called an inversion bubble at its output to represent the NOT gate symbol with the
logical operation of the NAND gate given as.The Digital Logic NAND Gate is as shown in
table 2.1. TABLE-2.1 : 2-input Logic NAND Gate

Symbol Truth Table

B A Q

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1
2-input NAND Gate

1 1 0

Read as A AND B
Boolean Expression Q = A.B
gives NOT Q

TTL Logic NAND Gates

 74LS00 Quad 2-input

 74LS10 Triple 3-input
 74LS20 Dual 4-input
 74LS30 Single 8-input

CMOS Logic NAND Gates

 CD4011 Quad 2-input

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 CD4023 Triple 3-input

 CD4012 Dual 4-input

7400 Quad 2-input Logic NAND Gate

Fig.2.4 Quad 2 –input NAND Gate

The Fig 2.4 shows the Quad 2 input NAND Gate. we will look at the digital logic
NOR Gate function as used in both TTL and CMOS logic circuits as well as its Boolean
Algebra definition and truth tables

2.3 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

2.3.1 Introduction Regulated power supply

Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that

supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called
a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy
supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.A power supply may include a
power distribution system as well as primary or secondary sources of energy such as

 Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage,
typically involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for
electronic devices. Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly
integrated with the devices they supply, such as computers and household electronics.

 Batteries.

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

 Solar power.
2.3.2 Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply

The Block diagram of Regulated Power Supply is as shown in fig 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led connected as load is
shown in fig 2.6

Fig. 2.6 Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection

The components mainly used in above figure are

 230V AC MAINS
 TRANSFORMER
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

 CAPACITOR
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
 RESISTOR
 LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:

2.4 Transformation The process of transforming energy from one device to another is
called transformation. For transforming energy we use transformers.

2.4.1 Transformers

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to

another through inductively coupled conductors without changing its frequency. A
varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force EMF in the secondary winding.
This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the

secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through
the transformer to the load. This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape
as a bar magnet. If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the coil. If
the current is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.

If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field moves out or
in, the moving lines of force will cuts the turns of the second coil. As it does this, a voltage is
induced in the second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains supply, this will happen 50 times a
second. This is called Mutual Induction and forms the basis of the transformer.We use the
step down transformer in our work.

2.5 Rectifiers

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current AC to direct current

DC a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of
power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-state diodes,
vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.

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2.5.1 Bridge Full Wave Rectifier

The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 2.7, which converts an ac voltage to dc
voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in
the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is
applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected
between the other two ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage,
diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The
conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current
flows through RL. For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4
conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series
with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in
the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Input Output

Fig. 2.7 Bridge rectifier a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

2.5.2 Bridge Rectifier DB107

Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In

our project we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is as shown
in Fig. 2.8

Fig. 2.8 DB107

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2.5.3 Features of DB107

 Good for automation insertion.

 Surge overload rating - 30A peak.
 Ideal for printed circuit board.
 Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded.
 Mounting position: Any
 Weight: 1.0 gram.

2.6 Capacitors

The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and

one which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential
across its plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates
that are not connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an insulating
material called the Dielectric. When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows
charging up the plates with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate
an equal and opposite negative charge this flow of electrons to the plates is known as
the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across the plates is equal to
the applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is
illustrated below. The construction of capacitor and an electrolytic capacitor are shown in
figures Fig. 2.9 and Fig. 2.10 respectively.

Fig. 2.9 Construction Of a Capacitor

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Fig. 2.10 Electrolytic Capaticor

2.6.1 Operation of Capacitor

Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as being a storage

tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately how an electronic
capacitor works.First, let's consider the case of a coupling capacitor where the capacitor is
used to connect a signal from one part of a circuit to another but without allowing any direct
current to flow as shown in Fig. 2.11.

Fig. 2.11 Capacitor storage tank without flow of current

If the current flow is alternating between zero and a maximum, our storage tank capacitor
will allow the current waves to pass through as shown in Fig. 2.12.

Fig. 2.12 Capacitor storage tank with flow of current

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

However, if there is a steady current, only the initial short burst will flow until the
floatingball valve closes and stops further flow.

So a coupling capacitor allows alternating current to pass through because the ball
valve doesn't get a chance to close as the waves go up and down. However, a steady current
quickly fills the tank so that all flow stops. A capacitor will pass alternating current but it
will not pass d.c as shown in Fig. 2.13.

Fig. 2.13 Operation of Capacitor

Where a capacitor is used to decouple a circuit, the effect is to smooth out ripples. Any
ripples, waves or pulses of current are passed to ground while d.c. Flows smoothly.

2.7 Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator with only three terminals appears to be a simple device,

but it is in fact a very complex integrated circuit. It converts a varying input voltage into a
constant ‘regulated’ output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in the range between
5V, 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for
positive input. For applications requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is used. Using a
pair of ‘voltage-divider’ resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator circuit.It is
not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You cannot use a 12V regulator
to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are very robust. These can withstand over-
current draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut
off before any damage occurs.

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input. The voltage
regulator is shown in Fig. 2.14.

Fig. 2.14 Voltage Regulator

2.8 Resistor

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such
as nickel/chrome). The resistor is shown in Fig. 2.15.

Fig. 2.15 Resistor

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum
working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient,
noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied
voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the
resistor.Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers, to
dissipate power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of otcomponents.

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

2.9 LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LED’s are used as

indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a
practical electronic component in 1962, early LED’s emitted low-intensity red light, but
modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with
high brightness. The internal structure and parts of a led are shown in Fig. 2.16 & Fig. 2.17.

Fig. 2.16 Inside LED Fig. 2.17 Parts of a LED

2.9.1 Working of LED

The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the light
bulb. Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-emitting
semiconductor material is what determines the LED's color. The LED is based on the
semiconductor diode.

When a diode is forward biased, electrons are able to recombine with holes
within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electro
luminescence and the colour of the light is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area less than 1 mm2, and integrated optical
components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LED’s present
many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability
and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and
heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting
are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in

automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LED’s
has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology. The electrical symbol
and polarities of led are shown in fig: 2.18.

Fig. 2.18 Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources

 High-levels of brightness and intensity.

 High-efficiency.
 Low-voltage and current requirements.
 Low radiated heat.
 High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration).
 Long source life.

Applications of LED fall into three major categories:

 Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to
the human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of
these objects.
 Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the
human visual system.

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2.10 RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to

operate a switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find
applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance
telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to
another. Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform
logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive
an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no
moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device triggered by light to perform switching.
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are
used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults. The basic design and operation of
Electro Magnetic relay is shown in Fig. 2.19 and Fig. 2.20 respectively.

2.10.1 Basic design and operation of Electro Magnetic Relay

Fig. 2.19 Basic Design of Electro magnet Relay

Fig. 2.20 Basic operation of Electro Magnetic Relay

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an
iron yoke, which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature,
and a set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke
and mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that
when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition,
one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other
relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the
picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the
circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed
circuit board via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts
the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact or contacts either makes
or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay
was De-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice
versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is
returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed
position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage
application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to
reduce arcing.

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate
the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays already
include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively a contact protection network, consisting of
a capacitor and resistor in series, may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized
with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This shading ring
creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature
during the AC cycle.By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a
solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve
electrical isolation an opt coupler can be used which is a light-emitting diode.

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

2.10.2 Applications of Relays

 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems

or audio amplifiers.
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
auto mobile.
 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers.

2.10.3 Advantages of Relays

 Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
 Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
 Relays are a better choice for switching large currents > 5A.
 Relays can switch many contacts at once.

2.10.4 Disadvantages of Relays

 Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

 Relays cannot switch rapidly except reed relays, transistors can switch many times
per second.
 Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
 Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor
may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

2.11 Introduction of 555 TIMER

The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation as the
SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the very first and only
commercial timer ic available. It provided circuit designers and hobby tinkerers with a
relatively cheap, stable, and user-friendly integrated circuit for both monostable and astable
applications. Since this device was first made commercially available, a myrad of novel and
unique circuits have been developed and presented in several trade, professional, and hobby
publications. The past ten years some manufacturers stopped making these timers because of
competition or other reasons. This primer is about this fantastic timer which is after 30 years

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still very popular and used in many schematics. Although these days the CMOS version of
this IC, like the Motorola MC1455, is mostly used, the regular type is still available, however
there have been many improvements and variations in the circuitry. But all types are pin-for-
pin plug compatible.This timer uses a maze of transistors, diodes and resistors and for this
complex reason we use a more simplified block diagram to explain the internal
organizations of the 555.

The 555 timer integrated circuit (IC) has become a mainstay in electronics design. A 555
timer will produce a pulse when a trigger signal is applied to it. The pulse length is
determined by charging then discharging a capacitor connected to a 555 timer. A 555 timer
can be used to debounce switches, modulate signals, create accurate clock signals, create
pulse width modulated (PWM) signals, etc. A 555 timer can be obtained from various
manufacturers. The 555 Timer is shown in Fig. 2.21.

Fig. 2.21 555 TIMER

A 555 timer is a semiconductor device that controls various modes of on/off states in
electrical systems. The 555 timer is one of the most widely used types of integrated circuits.
The 555 in figures above, come in two packages, either the round metal-can called the 'T'
package or the more familiar 8-pin DIP 'V' package. About 20-years ago the metal-can type
was pretty much the standard SE/NE types. The 556 timer is a dual 555 version and comes in
a 14-pin DIP package, the 558 is a quad version with four 555's also in a 14 pin DIP case.

2.11.1 Pin Description

Pin 1 (Ground)
Connects to the 0v power supply Ground connection for chip

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Pin 2 (Trigger)
Detects 1/3 of rail voltage to make output HIGH Pin 2 has control over pin 6. If pin 2 is
LOW, and pin 6 LOW, output goes and stays HIGH. If pin 6 HIGH, and pin 2 goes LOW,
output goes LOW while pin 2 LOW. This pin has a very high impedance about 10M and will
trigger with about 1uA. 555 timer triggers when this pin transitions from voltage at Vcc to
33% v voltage at Vcc. Output pin goes high when triggered
Pin 3 (Output)

Pins 3 and 7 are in phase. Goes HIGH about 2v less than rail and LOW about 0.5v less
than 0V and will deliver up to 200mA.

Pin 4 (Reset)

Internally connected HIGH via 100k Must be taken below 0.8v to reset the chip Resets
555 timer when low

Pin 5 (Control)

Used to change Threshold and Trigger set point voltages and is rarely used A voltage
applied to this pin will vary the timing of the RC network quite considerably.
Pin 6 (Threshold)

Used to detect when the capacitor has charged The Output pin goes low w when capacitor
has charged to 66.6% of Vcc. Detects 2/3 of rail voltage to make output LOW only if pin 2 is
HIGH. This pin has a very high impedance about 10M and will trigger with about 0.2uA.

Pin 7 (Discharge)

Goes LOW when pin 6 detects 2/3 rail voltage but pin 2 must be HIGH. If pin 2 is HIGH,
pin 6 can be HIGH or LOW and pin 7 remains LOW. Goes OPEN HIGH and stays HIGH
when pin 2 detects 1/3 rail voltage even as a LOW pulse when pin 6 is LOW. Pins 7 and 3
are in phase. Pin 7 is equal to pin 3 but pin 7 does not go high - it goes OPEN. But it goes
LOW and will sink about 200mA.

Pin 8 (Supply)

Connects to the positive power supply Vs. This can be any voltage between 4.5V and 15V
DC, but is commonly 5V DC when working with digital ICs.

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2.11.2 Internal Schematic Diagram of 555 TIMER

Fig. 2.22 Schematic diagram

The Fig. 2.22 shows the 555 timer, there are equivalent of over 20 transistors, 15 resistors,
and 2 diodes, depending of the manufacturer. The equivalent circuit, in block diagram,
providing the functions of control, triggering, level sensing or comparison, discharge, and
power output.

Some of the more attractive features of the 555 timer are

 Supply voltage between 4.5 and 18 volt.

 Supply current 3 to 6 mA.

 Rise/Fall time of 100 nsec.

The Threshold current determine the maximum value of Ra + Rb. For 15 volt operation
the maximum total resistance for R (Ra +Rb) is 20 Mega-ohm. Inside the 555 you can see
three resistors, labelled R. These resistors are equal in value and form a voltage divider,
providing reference voltages at 1/3 and 2/3 of the power supply voltage VCC.

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2.11.3 Operation of 555 TIMAR

The reference voltages are connected to one input of each of two comparators, which in
turn control the logic state of a bistable, or flip flop stage. Pin 2 of the 555 is the trigger input.
When the voltage connected to pin 2 is less than 1/3 of the power supply voltage, the output
of the lower comparator forces the logic state of the flip flop to LOW. The output stage has
an inverting action. In other words, when the output of the flip flop is LOW, the output of the
555 goes HIGH

Now think about what happens when the power supply is first connected to the astable
circuit. Initially, timing capacitor C is discharged. The voltage at pin 2 is 0 V and the output
of the 555 is driven HIGH. C starts to charge through resistors R1 and R2. Note that C is also
connected to pin 6, the threshold input of the 555. When the voltage across C goes past 1/3 of
the power supply voltage, the output of the lower comparator snaps a new level. This doesn't
change the logic state of the flip flop: its output remains LOW.

The inputs to the second comparator are the voltage at pin 6, the threshold input, and 2/3
VCC from the internal voltage divider.When the voltage across C goes past 2/3 of the power
supply voltage, the output of the second comparator snaps to a new level, the flip flop
changes state, its output becomes HIGH and the output of the 555 goes from HIGH to LOW.

Inside the 555, the flip flop is connected to an NPN transistor, the collector of which is
connected to pin 7, the discharge pin of the 555. When the output of the flip flop goes HIGH,
the transistor is switched ON, providing a low resistance path from the discharge pin to 0 V.
The timing capacitor, C, starts to empty through R2 and the voltage across it decreases.
Note that the capacitor charges through R1 and R2, but discharges only through R2.When the
voltage across C decreases below 1/3 of the power supply voltage, the lower comparator
snaps to a new level, the flip flop changes state and the output of the 555 goes HIGH once
again.The graph below shows how the voltage across the timing capacitor, VC , changes with
the output voltage of the 555, Vout. The initial ouptut pulse is longer than subsequent pulses
because C is completely discharged when the power supply is first connected. Subsequent
HIGH and low times correspond to half-charge/discharge times, either from 1/3 to 2/3 of the
power supply voltage, or from 2/3 to 1/3 of the power supply voltage.

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The HIGH time is given by an equation

Remember, C charges through both R1 and R2.

The LOW time is given by

C discharges only through R2. The period, t, of the 555 astable is given by

The frequency, f is given by:

The design formula for the 555 astable follows from the behaviour of RC networks and from
the two switching thresholds of the voltage divider inside the device. In a 555 monostable,
only the upper threshold is used to determine the period, so the formula corresponds to a 2/3
charge time

2.11.4 555 Timer Modes of Operation

The 555 has three operating modes:

 Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a one-shot pulse generator.

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Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch

switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM)
and so on.
 Astable: free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and
lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse
position modulation and so on. Selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of
the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the
temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit can then convert the pulse period
to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means.
 Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

Monostable
The schematic diagram and wave forms of Monostable operation of 555 Timer is shown in
Fig. 2.23 and Fig. 2.24 respectively.

Fig. 2.23 Schematic Diagram of a 555 in monostable mode

Fig. 2.24 wave forms of monostable operation

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CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

The relationships of the trigger signal, the voltage on C and the pulse width in monostable
mode.In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a one-shot pulse generator. The pulse
begins when the 555 timer receives a signal at the trigger input that falls below a third of the
voltage supply. The width of the output pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC
network, which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor (R). The output pulse ends when the
voltage on the capacitor equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The output pulse width can be
lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific application by adjusting the values of R
and C.The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the
supply voltage, is given by

While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the main disadvantage is that the time span
between the two triggering pulses must be greater than the RC time constant.

2.11.5 Specifications of 555 TIMER

These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have different specifications
depending on the grade.

Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6 mA

Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15 mA

Output current (maximum) 200 mA

Maximum Power dissipation 600 mW

Power consumption (minimum 30 mW@5V,

operating) 225 mW@15V

Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C

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2.11.6 Applications of 555 TIMER

 Precision Timing.
 Sequential Timing.
 Time Delay Generation.
 Pulse Generation.
 Pulse Detector.
 Pulse Width and Position Modulation.

2.12 Water level probes

Metallic Contacts These are L-shaped aluminium contacts which conduct electricity when
the space between them is bridged by water. For our project, we have used L-shaped
brackets. Two contacts at the bottom part of the tank form the indicator for low level of
water. Similarly two contacts at the upper part of the tank indicate that water is about to
overflow.

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CHAPTER-3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER- 3

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

In this chapter, schematic diagram and interfacing of each module is considered and
the schematic diagram is as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1 Schematic diagram of Low cost automatic water level control

for domestic applications

The above schematic diagram of Low cost automatic water level control for domestic
appliances explains the interfacing section of each component with nand gates and555 timer.
The project aim is to ON/OFF the water motor depending on the level of water. Here two
diodes and one transistor are used to design a NAND gate, to which output of 555 timer (i.e.
1 or high) is given to one diode and water sensor i.e. probes output is given to other diode.
Two diodes are connected to the transistor. Depending on the output from the NAND gate the
relay is ON/OFF. If the output from NAND gate is low the relay is ON and water pump is
ON. If output from NAND gate is high the relay is OFF and water pump is OFF. Here 555
timer is mono-stable type.

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CHAPTER-4 ADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER -4
ADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS

4.1 Advantages

 Automated water pump controlling.

 Usage of logic gates and 555 timer.
 Efficient and low cost design.
 Fast response.
 User friendly.

4.2 Applications

 Low Maintenance.

 Compact and Good Design.

 Fully Automatic.

 Saves Water , Energy.

 Increases Pump Life.

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CHAPTER-5 HARDWARE SETUP &RESULTS

CHAPTER 5
HARDWARE SETUP & RESULTS

5.1 Hardware setup

This is the hardware setup of LOW COST AUTOMATIC WATER LEVEL CONTROL
FOR DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS. Here by level of water in the tank we automatically
ON and OFF the motor. The controlling is done by the NAND Gates operation, where one
input of the NAND gate is 555 Timer and other input from water level probes. Depending on
the output from the NAND gate the relay is ON/OFF. If the output from NAND gate is low
the relay is ON and water pump is ON. If output from NAND gate is high the relay is OFF
and water pump is OFF. Here 555 timer is monostable type. The hardware setup is shown in
Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1 HARDWARE SETUP

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5.2 Results

The project LOW COST AUTOMATIC WATER LEVEL CONTROL

FOR DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS is designed to operate a water pump automatically.
The system makes use of simple logic gates and 555 timer IC to achieve the task. Water level
probes placed in the tank acts as input to the logic gates and the 555 timer. Based on the input,
the logic gates controls the water pump.

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CHAPTER-6 CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE SCOPE

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE SCOPE
6.1 Conclusions

 This system is very beneficial in rural as well as urban areas.

 It helps in the efficient utilization of available water sources.
 If used on a large scale, it can provide a major contribution in the conservation of
water for us and the future generations.
 In these days, when Earth's reserve of consumable water is decreasing every moment,
every drop has its value. Water level controller is a simple yet effective way to
prevent wastage of water. Its simplicity in design and low cost components make it an
ideal piece of technology for the common man.

6.2 Future Scope

The water level controller designed in this project can be used to control water flow.
However, there is no way of knowing whether the source of water, which in this case is the
UGT, actually has water or not. If no water source is present, then the submersible pump
would start running unnecessarily and overheat itself. This could be taken care by
implementing another sensor. Also, the rate of water input must always be equal to or greater
than the rate of water output. To make this happen we could use a speed regulator. If these
issues are taken care of then a more efficient and reliable performance can be achieved.

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REFERENCES

[1] Joydeep Kumar Chakraborty, “Water Level Controller”

[2] Rex Niedermeyer, "Aquarium Water Pumps"

[3] Kevin R. Sullivan, “Understanding Relays”, Professor of Automotive Technology,

Skyline College [4] 74F00 Quad 2-input NAND gate datasheet, Philips Corporation

[5] Ward, Jack (2004), the 555Timer IC. [6] Vardalas, John, Twists and Turns in the
Development of Transistor, IEEE-USA Today’s Engineer, May 2003.

BOOKS REFERRED

1. Raj kamal –Microcontrollers Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System

Design.

2. Mazidi and Mazidi –Embedded Systems.

3. PCB Design Tutorial –David.L.Jones.