Chapter 2: Communication

Networks including the Internet

 Networking devices are interconnected devices that allow a fast means of data transmission
within the network.

 Networking benefits:

o File sharing - you can easily share data between different interconnected devices

o Resource sharing - using network-connected output devices like printers, or can share
the same software within the network

o Higher storage - can store files in network-connected storage mediums.

 LAN(Local Area Network) vs. WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN WAN

Network that connects devices within a small Network that connects devices within a larger
geographical area geographical area

Only private ownership Private or public ownership

Transmission medium: twisted pair cable, coaxial Transmission medium: PSTN or satellite link
cable or Wi-Fi

Higher data transfer rate Lower data transfer rate

Lesser congestion Higher congestion

 Client-server Model

o Server based network: dedicated server provides an application (administration of

users, security and resources) for the client computer to utilize

 Client-server Applications

o Printer: manages print jobs from client computers

o File Sharing: the client accesses software and user’s data files stored on the server

o Proxy server

o Email server: for sending, receiving & storing emails

o Database server: manages DBMS

o Domain controller server

 Management of user accounts (IDs & passwords)

  Client sends login request to server which processes and grants request if user
ID & password recognized

 Thin Clients vs. Thick Clients

Thin Clients Thick Clients

A client that solely runs on the resources provided by the An independent client that does not
server and has no local storage require the server to run

Only provides input and receives output; processing done Thick client processes most of the
by server application

Smaller purchase cost: expensive, demanding hardware is Can function even if no server is
not required connected (works offline)

Improved security: cannot run unauthorized, harmful No lag related to network problems
software

 Peer-to-peer network model (P2P)

o De-centralized network where each connected computer stores data and operates
independently as a ‘peer’, and can act as both a client & server.

o Applications: Internet and Ad hoc networks

 Client-server vs. Peer-to-peer models

Client-server Peer-to-peer

Centralized backup Lesser initial setup cost

Files & resources centralized in server: prevents Lesser network traffic: each peer can
illegal resource usage simultaneously receive data from different
sources

Improved security: files are stored on central Can work even if a device goes down, but Client-
server which would be regularly scanned for server model can’t work if server goes down
malware

Network Topologies

o Bus

 Single line (bus) connecting all devices with terminators at each end.

 Other computers can read the data being sent from one to another computer.

 Unsuitable for heavy traffic since collisions occur.

 o Star

 Consists of a central server (‘Switch’) and all other computers connected with a
dedicated connection to each, hence server can send packets to different
devices simultaneously and bi-directionally.

 No collisions possible.

o Mesh

 Network setup where every device (node) is directly interconnected to the each

of the other devices (nodes)

 It is commonly used for wireless networks (such as the Internet), via the mesh
connection of routers

o Hybrid

 Combination of two or more topologies.

 E.g. when there is a connection between 2 or more LANs of different topologies

 Wired Networks: use (copper (twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable) or fibre-optic) cables
connected to an Ethernet port on the network router

Benefits Drawbacks

Copper Less expensive and easier to install. Flexible. Easier Doesn’t perform well with small
Cable to make terminations charges. Affected by
electromagnetism

Fiber- Greater bandwidth Improved security Lightweight: Needs expensive optical

Optic easy to install. Less signal boosting required; used transmitters and receivers.
Cables in long distance comm.

 Wireless Networks: use radio waves (including WiFi), microwaves, and satellites to connect
devices to networks without cables.

Benefits Drawbacks

Radio Can travel over large distances since they have Low frequency so transmits less data
waves largest range of wavelength Relatively at one time. Affected by radio
inexpensive. Used for TV signals & mobile phone stations with similar frequency
comms.

Micro- Larger bandwidth, can transfer more data at a Emitting towers expensive to
waves time build Physical obstacles can interfere
Satellites Cheap with long distance Used for Satellite Easy to interfere Expensive set up
phones, satellite radio broadcast

 Ethernet

o Most common wired medium of transmission, that can be used to transfer data
between LANs or WANs

o Usually used in bus topology; since all data travelled on a single wire there is a
possibility of data corruption by the “collision” of signals

o This collision is prevented by the CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision
Detection) method:

 Before transmitting, device checks if channel is busy

 If busy, device calculates a random wait time and waits that time, after which it
begins transmission

 Then during transmission, the device listens for other devices also beginning
transmission

 If collision, transmission is aborted and both devices wait different random

times, then tried again

Bit Streaming
o Sequence of digital signals (bits) transferred over a communication path at high speeds

o Requires a fast broadband connection and some form of buffers (short-term memory)

o Bits arrive in the same order they are sent

o Bit rate: number of bits transmitted per second

o Two methods of bit streaming:

Real-time On-demand

Event captured live via video camera that is Existing digital files converted to encoded bit-
connected to a computer streaming format for broadcasting on the internet
by uploading to a dedicated server

Video signal converted to an encoded streaming A link for encoded video is placed on website and
video signal the user clicks on link to view encoded streaming
video
Encoded video signal uploaded from computer to The data is streamed to a buffer in user’s
a dedicated streaming server via cables or high- computer and the buffer stops the video from
speed wireless internet connection being paused as the bits are streamed

Server then sends live images to all users As the buffer is emptied, it’s filled again thus
requesting it as a real-time video providing continuous viewing

Cannot be paused, fast-forwarded, etc. Can be paused, fast-forwarded, etc.

 Importance of high broadband speed / bit-rate

o User has to download and display bits at same time

o If media is of higher quality, then higher broadband speed needed since each “frame” is
of a larger size

o Real-time needs faster broadband speeds as compared to on-demand, since there are a
greater number of users simultaneously requesting same data

Cloud Computing
o Refers to the on-demand provision of computing services through the internet

o Services provided include

 Infrastructure: Storage capacity and higher processing power

 Platform: Software, testing & debugging resources

o Public cloud vs. Private cloud

Public cloud private cloud

3rd-party cloud service provider grants A private cloud is owned by one organization and is not
access to multiple parties, accessible via a shared with any other organization
browser

Cloud service provider owns, develops and The private cloud can either be created and maintained
manages the public cloud through large by the organization itself or it can outsource these tasks
server farms to a third-party

 Benefits and drawbacks of cloud computing

Benefits Drawback

Relatively less technical knowledge Cannot access the resources/data stored on the cloud, if
required and easy to implement there are bandwidth issues

Flexibility: Cloud Can Be Scaled To Match Poor data privacy, since there may be data leakage in the
The Organization’s Growth multi-tenant architecture (public clouds)

 World Wide Web (WWW)

o Collection of web pages stored on websites

o Protocols are used to transmit data across the WWW

Internet (Interconnected network)

o Massive, open network of networks

o Uses TCP/IP protocol, which uses IP addresses to identify devices connected to the
internet

o Access provided by Internet Service Provider

o Communication used: wired, radio and satellite

 Router in a network

o Connects two networks together which operates under the same protocols

o Allows internal connections between LANs OR allows external connection from the main
LAN to a WAN

o The router acts as a gateway & firewall

o Usually, it will be attached to a server or switch in a LAN

o The router translates private IP addresses to public IP addresses AND vice versa.

 LAN-supporting hardware

o Switch: Connected to all devices in a LAN and can simultaneously broadcast information
to all devices

o Server: device/software provides specific functions for computers in the network

o Network Interface Card (NIC)

 Provides each device (an end-system) in the wired LAN with a unique (MAC)
address to uniquely identify it on the network

 Allows each individual device to connect to network

o Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC): Provides each end-system of a wireless (WiFi)
LAN a unique network address to identify it.

o Wireless Access Points (WAP):

 Allows devices to connect to the LAN via WiFi (wireless radio communication)
instead of using a cable

 Usually built into router

 o Cables: A wired transmission medium that allows communication in wired networks

o Bridge

 Connects two LANs which work use the same protocol, which can be two
segments of the same network

 Stores network addresses for all devices (end-systems) between the 2 networks

 A bridge looks for the receiving device before it sends the message.

o Repeater

 Connects two cables

 regenerates the sent data signal over the same network before the signal
weakens (attenuation) to prevent it from being corrupted

 Internet-supporting hardware

o Modems

 Allows a device to connect to the Internet via a telephone line.

 A transmitter uses a modem to convert digital signals (from the transmitting

device) to analogue signals sent down the telephone line.

 A receiver uses a modem on the other end to convert the analog signals to
digital signals so the receiving device can understand the data.

o PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)

 Refers to all telephone networks

 Channel used between 2 endpoints for the call duration via circuit switching

 Lines active even during a power outage

 Bi-directional communication

o Dedicated lines

 Telecommunication path between endpoints

 Not shared with multiple users; it’s bought/leased

 Able to host websites as well as carry phone calls

 Allows continuous, uninterrupted access on Web

o Cell phone network

 Wireless networks spread over land areas divided into (hexagonal) ‘cells’
  Each cell is served by at least one base station (transceiver), which uses a
different frequency range, as compared to adjacent cells, to transmit data

 Larger capacity possible since same frequencies can be used, in non-adjacent

cells

 Radio waves are usually used for transmission

 Can be broadcast in all directions over a wide area

 Portable transceivers (e.g. mobile phones) are able to communicate and access
internet via base stations

IPv4 vs. IPv6

IPv4 IPv6

32 bit address, split into 4 blocks 128 bit address divided into eight 16-bit blocks by “:”.
by “.”

Each block could have a value Each block can have 4 hex values ranging from 0000 to FFFF
between 0 and 255 (00 to FF in
hex).

E.g.255.0.1.255 IPv6 can be shortened by removing >=2 blocks containing solely

zeroesE.g.2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0070:7334

 IPv4 functionality

o each IP address has 2 parts:

 Network Identifier (netID)

 Identifies the network to which the host (device) is connected to

 Host Identifier (hostID): Identifies the host within the network

o ‘Classfull’ addressing used for IPv4 where different bit lengths for identification and
impose restrictions on available address

 Subnetting

o Practice of dividing a network into two or more networks

o IP addresses are broken down to 3 parts by not changing the netID but partitioning the
host ID into a subnet ID and host ID

o These subnet ID bits are used to identify each subnet within the network.

o Subnet masks are numbers that hides (masks) the netID of a system's IP address and
leaves only the host part as the machine identifier, allowing data to be routed within the
subnet to the appropriate host.
  Public and Private IP address

o Public IP is provided by the ISP while Private IP issued by the LAN’s router

o Public IP is unique and can be across the internet whereas Private IP is only unique
within LAN and hence can only be accessed within LAN

o NAT (Network address translation) required for private IP addresses to access internet
directly.

o Private IP more secure than public IP, since they are not directly accessible on the
Internet and are hidden by NAT

o Range of IP addresses used for private IP addressing can never be assigned to public IP
addresses

 Static vs. Dynamic IP addresses

Static Dynamic

IP address never changes. IP address will change at regular time

periods.

Static IP addresses are useful when websites need to Dynamic IP address is relatively more
remember a device for a long time. Eg) VPNs secure, hence used where data privacy is
whitelisting important

Faster upload/download speeds Maintaining cost of dynamic IP address is

lesser

 URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

o Unique reference address for the exact location of an internet resource on the WWW

 Protocol: enables browser to know what protocol is used to access info in domain

 Hostname: Domain name

 Location of server: path

 Domain Name Service (DNS)

o naming system used for computers or resources having internet connection

o Consists of a hierarchy of DNS servers which have a URLs database of and their
corresponding IP addresses