EXECUTE BUILDING SUBSTRUCTURE WORKS

UNIT CODE: CON/OS/BUT /CR/02/5/A

Introduction

Substructure work: work carried out below the dump proof course in building
construction work

Activities involved in sub-structure work

1. Excavation of foundation trench

2. Leveling foundation trench
3. Concreting foundation trenches (types of foundation)
4. Constructing foundation wall
5. Solid ground floor

EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATION TRENCHES

Activities carried out during trench excavation

1. Determination of type soil

2. Determination of foundation trench depth
3. Determination of method of excavation
4. Identification /selection of excavation plant tools and equipment
5. Actual excavation of foundation trench according to the drawings and
specification
6. Barrier /safety to edges of excavation

Determination of type of soil

Before any excavation work commence soil investigation must be carried out to assist
on

1) Deciding upon the type and size of foundation

2) Method and equipment to be used
Carrying out a soil investigation before excavating a foundation trench in construction is
crucial for several reasons:

1. Soil Bearing Capacity: It helps determine the soil's ability to support the
weight of the structure. Weak or unstable soil can lead to foundation failure.

2. Foundation Design: Soil investigations provide data needed to design a

suitable foundation type (e.g., shallow or deep foundation) based on the soil's
characteristics.

3. Avoiding Settlement Issues: By understanding the soil composition, the risk

of uneven settlement, which can cause structural damage, can be minimized.

4. Identifying Soil Hazards: Investigations reveal any soil-related hazards like

expansive clay, high water tables, or contaminated soil that might affect the
structure.

5. Cost Efficiency: Proper soil analysis can prevent costly modifications or repairs
by ensuring the right foundation is chosen from the start.

SOIL INVESTIGATION

Factors to consider

1) Thickness of every layer of sub soil

2) Composition of every layer

3) Size of particles forming each layer

4) Water table

In the construction industry, determining the type of soil is done through

a) Soil classification
b) Testing methods.

Here are the key steps and methods involved:

1. Visual-Manual Inspection

 Color and Texture: By examining the color, texture, and feel of the soil, a
general idea of the soil type (clay, silt, sand, gravel) can be formed.

 Plasticity Test: Rolling the soil into thin threads or molding it helps identify if it
is cohesive (like clay) or granular (like sand or gravel).

2. Soil Sampling

 Boreholes: Drilling into the ground to collect soil samples at various depths for
laboratory testing.

 Test Pits: Digging small trenches to observe soil layers and collect samples.

3. Laboratory Soil Tests

 Sieve Analysis: Determines the grain size distribution for sandy or granular
soils by passing the soil through a series of sieves.

 Proctor Compaction Test: Measures the soil’s optimal moisture content and
maximum dry density to understand compaction characteristics.

 Permeability Test: Determines how easily water flows through the soil,
important for drainage considerations.

4. Geotechnical Analysis

 Standard Penetration Test (SPT): Measures soil resistance to penetration at

different depths using a hammer-driven tube, providing information about soil
density and strength.

 Cone Penetration Test (CPT): A cone is pushed into the soil to measure
resistance, helping identify soil layers and strength without disturbing the soil.
DETERMINATION OF FOUNDATION TRENCH DEPTH

Factors to consider

1. Soil Bearing Capacity

 Stable Soil Layer: Foundations should reach a stable soil layer with adequate
bearing capacity, such as dense sand, gravel, or firm clay, which may be located
deeper in some cases.

2. Frost Line Depth

 Frost Line Consideration: In regions with cold climates, the foundation must
be deep enough to be below the frost line. The frost line is the depth to which the
ground freezes during the winter. Placing the foundation below this level
prevents soil movement due to freeze-thaw cycles that can damage the
foundation.

 Local Building Codes: Municipal or regional codes usually specify the

minimum depth for frost protection.

3. Type of Structure and Load

 Building Weight and Type: Heavier buildings or those with multiple floors
require deeper foundations to distribute the load properly. Light structures, like
small homes, may only need shallow trenches, while larger commercial buildings
might require deeper foundations.

 Foundation Type: Shallow foundations (strip, spread footing) are typically

used for small to medium structures and require trenches of modest depth. Deep
foundations (like piles or caissons) might be needed for tall or heavy structures
where trench depths alone are insufficient.

4. Soil Moisture and Water Table

 Water Table Depth: The depth of the water table (level at which groundwater
is present) affects foundation trench depth. Trenches must extend below the
 water table or be designed to account for water movement. Shallow trenches near
the water table could lead to water infiltration and foundation weakening.

 Expansive or Wet Soil: If the soil retains moisture or expands when wet (e.g.,
clay soils), deeper foundations may be required to reach more stable layers that
are less prone to swelling.

5. Building Codes and Regulations

 Local Regulations: Local building codes provide guidelines on minimum

foundation depths based on soil conditions. Adhering to these codes ensures that
the foundation is both safe and compliant with legal standards.

6. Site-Specific Factors

 Topography: On sloping sites, foundations on the higher side may need to be

deeper to ensure stability, and stepped footings might be required to balance the
load distribution.

 Adjacent Structures: If there are nearby buildings or structures, foundation

depths might need to be adjusted to avoid affecting the stability of neighboring
foundations or to avoid undermining them.

EXCAVATION PLANT, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

Identification /selection of excavation plant tools and equipment

EXCAVATION PLANT
a) Excavators
b) Front shovel
c) Front end loaders
d) Backhoe/ back actor
e) Dozers
f) Clamshell
g) Trenchers
h) Motor graders
Excavators

They consist of

 Boom

 Stick (dipper arm)

 Bucket and

 Cab on a rotating platform known as the house that sits at top on undercarriage with
tracks or wheels..

Excavators are extensively used in many roles such as;-

 Digging of trenches and foundations

 Demolition

 General grading/landscaping

 Heavy lifting (e.g. lifting and placing of large concrete pipes)

 River dredging
Trenchers

Used to cut through rocky soils, paving and frozen ground etc. Based on the size and
usage these can be categorized as chain trenchers, wheel or disc trenchers and bucket
trenchers. With attachments like backhoes, saws and reel carriers, trenchers become
more versatile and efficient.

Motor graders

A motor grader is an earth-moving apparatus equipped with a long blade used to level a
surface of roads and construction sites. Graders can produce inclined surfaces, to give
cant (camber) to roads. At the end it has a plow which stays close to the ground. A blade
is situated under the cab to spread and push gravel. Motor graders operated from the
Centre of the machine are used for

 Levelling the surface during earthwork in embankments and providing blanket surface
before spreading ballast and laying track.

 To set native soil foundation pads to finish grade prior to the construction of large
buildings and for underground mining
Scrappers

Uses of scrapers include

 Preparing the ground for the new loads of solid waste; in preparing work at landfills

 in preparing the sites for construction (road, etc.) through digging, loading, hauling
and dumping the wastes materials etc.

Dozer

Uses of dozers include-

 In Earthmoving;

 Road construction;

 Lifting various materials;

 Breaking pavements and compacted grounds;

 Digging of canals;

 Land clearing and land levelling;

 Preparation of construction sites;