Lecture 19 (14th October, Monday)

Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is the study of the flow of heat. In chemical engineering, we have to know how
to predict rates of heat transfer in a variety of process situations that importantly helps in
designing an equipment and processes. Now, what is heat transfer? Heat Transfer concern
generation, use, conversion and exchange of thermal energy that is heat between physical
systems. For example, HT occurs during cooling of fluids in industries. Seen in many different
processes and industries. Understanding HT is very important to design efficient and cost-
effective processes. Whenever there exists a temperature difference in a medium or between
media, heat transfer must occur. Consequently, heat transport is defined as energy transfer due
to a temperature difference.

In this section, we will study the transfer of energy or heat through different system. For this
purpose we have to define some terms.

System a surrounding: System is precisely define region of universe which is being studied.
The surrounding is the remainder of the universe outside the boundaries of the system
There are three types of system based on how system is interact with surrounding
(1) Isolated system: when system can’t exchange energy and mass with surroundings.
(2) Closed system: in this system, the system can’t exchange mass with surrounding but
energy can be exchanged with surroundings.
(3) Open system: when system can exchange mass as well as energy with surroundings.
In isolated system, total energy can’t be changed within two different state of system.
Therefore the first law of thermodynamics for isolated system is E = E1 − E 2 = 0

Where, E is change in energy at two different states 1 and 2.

For closed system, the first law of thermodynamic is E = Q + W where, E is change in

energy of system. Q is change in heat of system. W is work done on the system or by the
system. E is the sum of all potential energy, kinetic energy and internal energy of system.
Change in potential and kinetic energy of system is neglected then total energy E is converted
to internal energy U. U = Q + W
We can say that conservation of energy is extended form of first law of thermodynamics.
First law of thermodynamics can be written for open system as follow.
E = Q  W + inflow of energy in control system – out of energy from control system. It can
be further expand in following manner.
Heat can be transferred by three ways
1. Conduction: It is the heat transfer due to temperature gradient without displaced the
matter to its place. The conduction is described by Fourier equation of heat to transfer.

2. Convection: It is the heat transfer due to convective momentum of molecules between

two points of system. The convection of heat is depends on convection of matter.

3. Radiation: Radiation is heat transfer as electromagnetic ways. Radiation is not required

any medium to transport. A body is emitted radiation at very high temperature, and gain
temperature due to radiation only if it comes in contacts with very high amount of
radiations. Therefore, in chemical engineering, this type of effect is neglected.

Assume a solid block of thickness H and surface area A. The temperature of block at x =0
is T1, and x = H is T2 heat is flowing from higher temperature T1 to lower temp T2.

Fig 24.1 Flow of heat between two parallel plates

Measure heat flow at different temperature difference T = T2 –T1 and plot a graph Q/A
Vs. T/H.

Fig 24.2 Heat flus vs. temperature gradient

We get a straight line passing through origin. Therefore
Q T
 (24.1)
A x
T
In differential form, heat flux = heat flow per unit area = Q / A = qx 
dx
dT
qx = − k (24.2)
dx
K is Thermal conductivity. Here, negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the
direction of decreasing temperature.
This equation is called Fourier law of heat conduction. The same way of heat flow in y
direction and z direction
dT
qx = −k
dx
− kdT
qy = Generalization
dy
− kdT
qz =
dz
In vector and tensor form, Fourier’s law of heat conduction is
q = – kT (24.3)
The unit of thermal conductivity is
𝑊⁄
[𝑞𝑥] 𝑚2 𝑊 𝐽
k = [Thermal Conductivity] = 𝑑𝑇 = 𝐾 = 𝑚𝐾 = 𝑚 𝑠 𝐾 (24.4)
[ ] 𝑚
𝑑𝑥

One more term thermal diffusivity comes here which is equal to the ratio of thermal
conductivity to density times heat capacity.
𝐽
Thermal Conductivity 𝑘 𝑚2
 = [Thermal Diffusivity] = density×heat capacity = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 = 𝑚−𝑠 𝐾
𝑘𝑔 𝐽 = 𝑠
(24.5)
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝐾

𝑚2
The unit of thermal diffusivity is , which is similar to unit of mass diffusivity D and
𝑠

kinematic viscosity (momentum viscosity) k. This similarity shows the analogy among all
three types of transport.
𝑚2
Diffusivity in mass transport = 𝑠
𝜇 𝑚2
Momentum diffusivity = 𝜌 = = (24.6)
𝑠

Thermal diffusivity in equation 24.5 is seen as ratio of material to conduct heat that of ability
to store heat.
Axiom 4: Energy is conserved.
This axiom states first law of thermodynamics that is energy can’t be destroyed or generated.
It transfers from one form to another form. The detail equation of this axiom for open system
is as follows:
Rate of change of energy = Net rate of inflow of energy – Net rate of out flow of energy 
generation of energy.
i.e
Rate of change of energy = Rate of inflow of energy by convection – Rate of outflow of
energy by convection + heat added by conduction – heat removed by conduction  work done
by/on system + heat added by some heat source [by – & on +] (24.7)

In this section, we will solve some conduction heat transfer problem for simple geometry by
using shell energy balance.
Heat conduction through composite wall
In a simple heat transfer problem, heat is flowing through a two rectangular composite wall as
shown in figure. Formulate problem for heat loss per unit area of wall.
The temperature of inner wall at x = 0 is T0 and temperature of outer surface of wall at x =  is

T2. The thermal conductivity of material of inner wall is k0 and outer wall is k1

Fig 25.1 Heat conduction through a composite wall

First take necessary assumption for solving the problem.
 1. System is in steady state with constant density for both phases.
2. Heat transfer coefficient of both phase k0 and k1 are constant.
3. System follow Fourier’s low of thermal heat conduction
4. Heat loss from side wall are negligible
Draw the control volume

Fig 25.2 Control volume heat conduction through a composite wall

Since temperature are changing in x direction. So qx is the non-zero heat flux. Therefore, control
volume should be taken with differential thickness in x direction.
Heat balance in control volume:
Rate of heat flow entering to control volume x = x = q x LW |x (25.1)

Rate of heat flow leaving from control volume x = x+x = q x LW |x+x (25.2)

There is no source or sink of heat in the wall. There is no work done on the system or by the
system. There is no other way of heat transfer in the wall. So from equ (25.1) and (25.2)

0 = ( q x LW ) x=x – ( q x LW ) x +x + 0 ( No work done ) + 0 ( Additional heat ) (25.3)

0 = LW ( q x x – qx x +x ) (25.4)

Divide by LWx take limit x tends to 0

dqx
0= q x = C1
dx
−kdT
qx = = C1
dx
dT −C1
= (25.5)
dx k
Now problem will be solved in both regions separately
Region (1) 0< x < 1
k = k0
From eq (25.5)
dT −C 1
= (25.6)
dx k0

Assume the temperature of inner wall at x = 1 is T11

Boundary conditions are
x = 0, T = T0 (25.7)
x = 1, T = T11 (25.8)
Substituting boundary conditions in equ(25.6) and integrate
T11 1
C1
 dT = − 
T0
k
0 0
dx

C11
T11 − T0 = − (25.9)
k0
In region 2,
Assume the temperature for outer wall
x = 1 is T12 (25.10)
x = 2 is T2 (25.11)
−C2 ( 2 − 1 )
T2 − T12 = (25.12)
k1
In equ. (25.9) and (25.12)
There is no heat loss in between wall. Therefore
T11 = T12 (25.13)

And rate of heat flow is constant (same), since area is same so heat flow is also same so
q x|1 = q x|2 (25.14)

Which leads to c1 = c2 = q0 {constant heat flux}

Now using above boundary condition and substituting in equs (25.9) and (25.12))
We got the solution
  −  
T2 – T0 = -q 0  1 + 2 1  (25.15)
 k0 k1 
 T0 – T2
q0 = (25.16)
 1  2 − 1 
 + 
 k0 k1 

Now total heat loss 𝑄0 = 𝑞0 𝐴

𝑇0 – T2
𝑄0 =
𝛿 𝛿 − 𝛿1
{ 1 + 2 }
𝐴𝑘0 𝐴𝑘1
In the above equation of total heat loss, we see numerator as temperature difference and term
in denominator as net (combined) resistance offered by material to heat transfer.
𝛿1 𝛿2 − 𝛿1
𝑅𝑐 = { + }
𝐴𝑘0 𝐴𝑘1
Length
So, resistance offered by any material for heat flow is Thermal conductivity X Area for heat flow

Generally, we see
∆𝑇
𝑄=
𝑅𝑐
What are the measurable quantities? If we see the measurable quantity that is of interest to us
(or is in out control) is temperature difference (here T0 and T2). There when we do mathematical
models, we are interested in finding a temperature profile. So, to find temperature profile
(temperature at any point) we need combined resistance of the system.

Other examples on conductions

Heat transfer in cylindrical shell

Develop a formula for the overall heat transfer rate for the cylindrical shell as shown in given
diagram
 Fig 26.1 Heat transfer in cylindrical shell
Make assumption:
• System is in steady state with constant density.
• Thermal conductivity k is constant.
• System follow Fourier’s law of thermal heat conduction
• Heat loss from side wall are negligible
Since temperature are changing in r direction
Therefore, qr is non zero heat flux.
Draw control volume of differential thickness r.
k is constant
T = T(r)

Fig 26.2 Control volume for heat transfer in cylindrical shell

Shell heat balance across the control volume:
Rate of heat flow entering into control volume from r = r = 2 rLq r |r (26.1)
Rate of heat flow leaving from control volume from r = r+r = 2 rLq r |r +r (26.2)

There is no source or sink of het in the wall. There is no work done on the system or by the
system. There is no other way of heat transfer in the wall. So from equ (26.1) and (26.2)
0 = 0 + q 𝑟 2𝜋rL|𝑟 – q 𝑟 2𝜋rL|𝑟+Δ𝑟 + 0 + 0 (26.3)
Divide by volume 2rLr and take limit r tends to zero
d (rqr )
0= (26.4)
dr
𝑐1 −𝑘𝑑𝑇
qr = = (26.5)
𝑟 𝑑𝑟

By using Fourier’s law of thermal conductivity

 dT
qr = k (26.6)
dr
dT
kr = c1 (26.7)
dr
Boundary condition
at r = R1, T = T1 (26.8)
at r = R2, T = T2 (26.9)
This leads to solution
ln( R2 / R1 )
T2 − T1 = −c1
k
k (T 1 − T 2 )
c1 = (26.10)
ln( R 2 / R1)

c1 k (T 1 − T 2 )
qr = =
r r ln( R 2 / R1)
k (T 1 − T 2 )
rqr = (26.11)
r ln( R 2 / R1)
Total heat loss from cylindrical wall
2𝜋𝐿𝑘(𝑇1−𝑇2)
𝑄0 = 2𝜋𝐿𝑟𝑞𝑟 = (26.12)
𝑙𝑛(𝑅2/𝑅1)

(𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
𝑄0 =
𝑙𝑛( 𝑅2 /𝑅1 )
2𝜋𝐿𝑘

Develop a formula for heat loss from spherical shell as shown in Fig 26.3.

Fig 26.3 Heat transfer in spherical shell

Write assumption
• System is in steady state with constant density.
• Heat transfer coefficient k is constant.
• System follow Fourier’s law of thermal heat conduction
• Heat loss from side wall are negligible
Since temperature changing in r direction
Therefore, qr is non zero heat flux.
Draw control volume of differential thickness r.
Shell heat balance across the control volume
Rate f Heat entering into control volume from r = r = 4 r q r |r
2
(26.13)
Rate of Heat leaving from control volume from r = r+r = 4 rLq r |r +r (26.14)
k is constant T = T(r)

Fig 26.4 Control volume for heat transfer in spherical shell

There is no source or sink of heat in the wall. There is no work done on the system or by the
system. There is no other way of heat transfer in the wall. So from equ (26.13) and (26.14)
(
0 = 0 + qr 4r 2 ) − (q 4r )
r r
2
r +dr
+0+0 (26.15)

Divide equ. (26.15) by volume 4r2r and take limit r tends to zero
d 2
(r qr ) = 0 (26.16)
dr
C1
qr = (26.17)
r2
By substituting Fourier’s law in equation (26.17)
dT
qr = k
dr
 dT −C1
 =
dr kr 2
C1
T= + C2 (26.18)
kr
Boundary conditions are:
at r = R1, T = T1 (26.19)
at r = R2, T = T2 (26.20)
we get,
C1
T1 = + C2 (26.21)
kR1
C1
T2 = + C2 (26.22)
kR 2
This leads to
k (T1 − T2 )
c1 = (26.23)
1 1
−
R1 R2

From equation (26.23) and (26.17)

1 k (T1 − T2 )
qr = (26.24)
r2 1 − 1
R1 R2
4𝜋𝑘(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑄0 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑞𝑟 = =
1 1 1 1 1
𝑅1 − 𝑅2 ( − )
4𝜋𝑘 𝑅1 𝑅2