9/17/2024

Aerodynamic design and flight control

Dr. Tran The Hung

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Chapter 2: Aerodynamic shape and optimization

Definitions
Bernoulli equation: along a streamline.
- For rotational flow: the constant in above equation will change from one
streamline to other.
- Irrotational flow, Bernoulli’s equation holds between any two points in the
flow.
throughout the flow

Pressure coefficient

Pressure coefficient at stagnation position.

- Located at or near leading edge or nose.
- Located at or near trailing edge or tail.
Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure 2

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Chapter 2: Aerodynamic shape and optimization

Definitions
Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure
 u 2 
pt  p s   
 2 
u is flow velocity.
pt stagnation pressure (total pressure)
ps static pressure
ρ air density

Chapter 2: Aerodynamic shape and optimization

 u 2 
pt  p s   
 2 

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Airplane layout

Aerodynamic shape and drag

Blunt body = a body where most of the drag is pressure drag.

Streamlined body = a body where most of the drag is skin friction drag. 6

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Aerodynamic characteristics

- For long body: turbulent boundary layer becomes thick. Separation

could occur around the corner, drag increases (boattail drag).
- Pressure drag and skin-friction drag are called profile drag
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(referenced to maximum cross-sectional area of the model).

Aerodynamic characteristics

- Fairing (rounded shape) allows to reduce pressure drag.

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Relation between geometry and pressure distributions

Relation between surface curvature and pressure coefficient:
- Stronger convex curvature, higher velocity and negative Cp

Relation between geometry and pressure distributions

Relation between surface curvature and pressure coefficient:
- Stronger convex curvature, higher velocity and negative Cp

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Pressure distribution on fuselage

Components which are not
generated aerodynamic
forces.
- Cockpit canopies;
- Center and rear fuselage
sections;
- Engine struts and pylons;
- Fins in cruise flight;
- Tailplane-fin fairings.

Flow accelerates, decelerates

and accelerates again near the
cockpit position.

Pressure distributions on Boeing 747 11

Pressure distribution on fuselage

- The local region of high speed should be minimized.

- Smooth flow can reduce the supersonic flow region, resulting in less
drag and cockpit noise.
- Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) allow to predict flow and
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pressure on the surfaces.

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Pressure distribution on fuselage

Control the momentum thickness.
- More or less continuous momentum thickness results in lower
drag than with large variations.
Control the momentum
thickness.
- More or less continuous
momentum thickness results
in lower drag than with large
variations.

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Pressure distribution on fuselage

Interference effect

Douglas DC-10 (1979-2014)

Triplet engine.
MTOW: 195,000 kg.
Range: 6,500 km.
Passengers: 399.

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AIAA Paper No 69-830

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Rear fuselage to improve aerodynamic performance

- Fineness ratio between 6-8 for subsonic aircrafts, 10-15 for supersonic
aircrafts .
- Aft-fuselage deviation from the free-stream direction should be not
exceed 10 or 12º.

The air flow due to propeller prevent separation to angle of 30º or more.
However, separation can occur when propeller stops working. 15

Rear fuselage to improve aerodynamic performance

- More or less continuous momentum thickness results in lower
drag than with large variations.

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Rear fuselage to improve aerodynamic performance

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Rear fuselage to improve aerodynamic performance

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Aerodynamic characteristics

- For real airplane: many devices on the surface: antennas, lights, fuel drain.
Vortex generators: commonly found on the top surface of wing and near the
back of long fuselage.
Fence: prevent separation at high angle of attack. 19

Aerodynamic characteristics

- For real airplane: many devices on the surface: antennas, lights, fuel drain.
Vortex generators: commonly found on the top surface of wing and near the
back of long fuselage.
Fence: prevent separation at high angle of attack. 20

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Aerodynamic characteristics

- For real airplane: many devices on the surface: antennas, lights, fuel drain.
Vortex generators: commonly found on the top surface of wing and near the
back of long fuselage.
Fence: prevent separation at high angle of attack. 21

Airfoil and wing selections

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Airfoil and wing selections

- In the past, airfoils were selected from “catalog”.
- Airfoil selection would consider aerodynamic factors: drag during
cruise, stall behavior, pitching-moment characteristics; and other
factors: thickness available for structure, fuel and ease of
manufacture.

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Airfoil and wing selections

- Early airfoils: developed mostly by trial and error.
- NACA four-digit airfoil: develop in 1930s.
- Today, airfoil is designed by own using computer program and wind
tunnel test. Airfoil optimization is a part of aircraft design.

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Airfoil and wing selections

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Airfoil and wing selections

Laminar airfoil

By pushing back the maximum thickness position, we can generate a

laminar flow airfoil.
Thus, by delaying the boundary layer transition point, drag is reduced. 26

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Airfoil and wing selections

Type of stall
- High thickness airfoil (“fat” airfoil, 14%) stall from trailing edge.
fails to reattach. Lift and pitching moment changes abrupt.

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Airfoil and wing selections

Type of stall
- Thinner airfoil (6-14%) flow separates near the nose at very small
angle of attack but then reattaches again. At high angle of attack,
flow fails to reattach. Lift and pitching moment changes abrupt.

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