CELL THEORY

What is a cell?
The cell (from the Latin word cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and biological
unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of
life". The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology

What is cell theory?

In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are
made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells
come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit
of reproduction.

The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
3. Cells can only arise from pre-existing cells.

Depending on the internal structure of cell, organisms are divided into two types i.e. prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. Prokaryotic organisms are those which lack true nucleus and membrane bound cell organelles.
Eukaryotic organisms are those organisms which have true nucleus with nuclear and nucleolus and also
contain all membrane bound cell organelles.

PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Diagram illustrating Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1 Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
2 Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm
μm in diameter in diameter
3 Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically simple
complex in nature in nature
4 Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have a Present
nucleoid region in the cell
5 Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger in
spherical in shape size and linear in shape
6 DNA arrangement Circular Linear
7 Mitochondria Absent Present
8 Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
9 Endoplasmic Absent Present
reticulum
10 Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes
11 Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
12 Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysosomes and centrosomes are
absent present
13 Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
14 Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
15 Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual
16 Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

PLANT & ANIMAL CELLS

Both plant and animal cells are eukaryotic, so they contain membrane-bound organelles like the nucleus
and mitochondria.
However, plant cells and animal cells do not look exactly the same or have all of the same organelles, since
they each have different needs. For example, plant cells contain chloroplasts since they need to perform
photosynthesis, but animal cells do not.

Diagrammatic illustration of animal cell and plant cell

Difference between plant cells and animal cell
Basis of Comparison Plant Cell Animal Cell
Meaning They are eukaryotic cells having a It is a type of eukaryotic cell which
true nucleus along with specialized lacks a cell wall and has a true,
structures known as organelles membrane-bound nucleus along
which perform specific functions. with other cellular organelles.
Size Fixed-size which is generally larger. Irregular and small in size.
Shape It is rectangular It is round
Surrounded By Rigid wall cell and plasma Flexible and thin plasma
membrane membrane
Plastids Present Absent
Nucleus Lies on one side Lies in the cell wall’s center
Cilia Absent Generally present
Centrioles Absent Present
Mitochondria Present in a small number Present in a large number
Glyxoxysomes May be present Absent
Vacuoles One huge vacuole Many vacuoles
Food Reserve Present as starch Present as glycogen

ORGANELLES
What is an organelle?
Organelles are small structures within the cytoplasm that carry out functions necessary to
maintain homeostasis and carry out various functions within the cell. They are involved in many processes,
for example energy production, building proteins and secretions, destroying toxins, and responding to
external signals.

Organelles are considered either membranous or non-membranous. Membranous organelles

possess their own plasma membrane to create a lumen separate from the cytoplasm. This may be the
location of hormone synthesis or degradation of macromolecules. Non-membranous organelles are not
surrounded by a plasma membrane. Most non-membranous organelles are part of the cytoskeleton, the
major support structure of the cell and include filaments, microtubules, and centrioles.

Membrane bound organelles

Organelle type Main functions (not necessarily all functions):
1 Nucleus 'Control Centre' of the cell. Contains the cell's DNA (genetic
information) in the form of genes.
Re. Nucleic Acids
*Sequestration and *replication of DNA.
*Transcription and *modification of RNA.
Contains one or more nucleoli (plural, singular word = nucleolus) whose
functions include:
Nucleoli; Biosynthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and production
(assembly) of ribosomes.
2 Rough Endoplasmic Consists of many interconnected membranous sacs called cisternae,
Reticulum (RER) onto whose external surface ribosomes are attached (distinguishing
RER from SER on electron micrographs).
Ribosomes Produce polypeptides that are then either
inserted into the RER membrane, or
 moved into the lumen (central region) of the
cisternae, or
moved to the Golgi complex and probably
onwards from there
In lumen of Produce proteins that are then either ...
cisternae retained within vesicles, or
secreted from the cell (via secretory vesicles - see
below).
3 Smooth Endoplasmic Consists of many interconnected membranous sacs called cisternae
Reticulum (SER) (without ribosomes).
Many enzymes are either attached to the surface of the SER or located
within its cisternae. Chemical reactions within the SER vary with the
type and location of cells. E.g
 helps with protein folding and transport of synthesized proteins
 glycosylation - which involves the attachment of oligosaccharides.
 disulfide bond formation and rearrangement - to stabilize the
tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins
 modification of some drugs e.g. by the cytochrome P450 enzymes
in liver cells.
4 Mitochondria The main function of mitochondria in aerobic cells is the production of
energy by synthesis of ATP. However, mitochondria also have many
other functions, including e.g.:
 Processing and storage of calcium ions (Ca2+).
 Apoptosis, i.e. the process of programmed cell death
 Regulation of cellular metabolism
 Synthesis of certain steroids
5 Chloroplasts Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis within plant cells.
(plant cells only)
6 Golgi Apparatus The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts and packages macromolecules for
delivery to other organelles or secretion from the cell via exocytosis
7 Lysosomes Lysosomes (tiny sacs containing enzymes) are the main sites of
intracellular digestion. They enable the cell to make use of nutrients.
Their functions can be listed as:
 Autophagy - digestion of materials from within the cell.
 Heterophagy - digestion of materials originating from outside the
cell.
 Biosynthesis - recycling unwanted products of chemical reactions
to process materials received from outside the cell.
Lysosomes also destroy the cell - usually after it has died.
8 Peroxisomes Similar to (but smaller than) lysosomes, the metabolic functions of
(also called peroxisomes include:
"microbodies" - smaller  Breakdown of fatty acids by beta-oxidation
than lysosomes and  Breakdown excess purines to urea
contain specific  Breakdown of toxic compounds e.g. in the cells of the liver and
enzymes) kidney.
 also play a role in the biosynthesis of certain important molecules
incl. cholesterol and (in liver cells) bile acids derived from
cholesterol.
9 Secretory vesicles Transport and delivery of their contents (e.g. molecules such as
(sometimes called hormones or neurotransmitters) either into or out of the cell, in both
simply "vesicles") cases via the cell membrane.
  Exocytosis - movement of the contents of secretory vesicles out of
the cell.
 Endocytosis - movement of the contents of secretory vesicles into
the cell.
10 Vacuole Helps maintain turgor pressure (turgidity) inside the cell - which
(plant cells only) pushes the plasma membrane against the cell wall. Plants need
turgidity to maintain rigidity.

Non-membrane bound organelles

Organelle Type Main Functions (not necessarily all functions):
1 Ribosomes Ribosomes interpret cellular information from the nucleus and
synthesize proteins.
The following structures form part of the cell's cytoskeleton:
2 Microfilaments Actin has a contractile function in muscle cells.
(formed from actin) In non-muscle cells actin microfilaments form part of a web-like layer
(called the cell cortex) located immediately below the cell's plasma
membrane. This structure helps to define the shape of the cell
including the structure of any microvilli. They also facilitate movement
of certain particles and structures e.g. macrophages, fibroblasts and
nerve growth cones.
3 Microtubules As the main "building blocks" forming the cytoskeleton - the cell's
(formed from tubulin) framework within which all components of the cell are held in position
or allowed restricted movement.
Movement of materials and structures within cells e.g. help form the
miotic spindle during the "prophase" part of cell division by mitosis.
4 Intermediate Filaments Intermediate filaments are important for maintaining the mechanical
(formed from structure of cells. There are different types of intermediate filaments
intermediate filament that can be identified according to the protein from which they are
proteins, e.g. keratin) formed. The different types of intermediate filaments occur in
different types of cells and therefore provide structural support (to the
cell) in slightly different ways.
E.g. neurofilaments in the axons of neurons are involved in the radial
growth of the axon, so determine its diameter as well as contributing
strength and rigidity to the cell.
5 Junctions "Junctions" are connecting points joining either cells to other cells, or
cells to their basement membrane
6 Centrosomes Contain the centrioles, which are involved in the process of mitosis.
7 Cilia Some eukaryotic cells have cilia (plural, singular word = cilium) whose
function is often to facilitate either movement of the cell or movement
of something over the surface of cells e.g. fallopian cells move ova
towards the uterus.
8 Flagella (of The main function of the flagellum of a human spermatozoon (sperm
spermatozoa differ cell) is to enable the sperm to move close to the oocyte ("egg" cell)
from prokaryotic and orient itself appropriately .
flagella)