IET

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream - Lecture Notes

Subject Code : BMATC101

Module 1- Calculus
AJ

Prepared By

Dr. Shantha Kumari. K.

Department of Mathematics

AJIET, Mangaluru
Module - 1 Calculus

Syllabus : Introduction to polar coordinates and curvature relating to Computer Science and
engineering:

Polar coordinates, Polar curves, angle between the radius vector and tangent, angle between two
IET
curves. Pedal equations. Curvature and Radius of curvature - Cartesian, Parametric, Polar and Pedal
forms. Problems.

Prerequisites

It will be helpful if you can recall the formulas of differentiation, trignometric functions and allied
AJ

angles.

Notations :

dy
The first order derivative of y =⇒ y 0 or y1 or dx
or D(y)
d2 y
The Second order derivative of y =⇒ y 00 or y2 or dx2
or D 2 (y)

1
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 2

Polar curves :

IET
We are familiar with Cartesian coordinate system for specifying a point in the xy - plane. Another
useful system for similar purpose is Polar coordinate system, in which each point P on a plane is
AJ

determined by a distance r from a fixed point O that is called the pole (or origin) and an angle θ
measured from x-axis. The point P is represented by the ordered pair (r, θ) where r and θ are called
polar coordinates.
If the equation of a curve is specified in terms of r and θ, then the curve is referred to as polar curve.
The transformation from Cartesian to polar is given by
 
p
−1
y
r = x2 + y 2 θ = tan
x

The transformation from Cartesian to polar is given by

x = rcosθ y = rsinθ

1.1 Angle between the radius vector and the tangent

Let Φ be the angle between the radius vector OP and the tangent AB at the point ‘P‘ on the polar
curve r = f (θ).

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 3

Let Ψ be the angle made by the tangent with positive direction of x − axis.
From the figure,

Ψ=θ+Φ
tanθ + tanΦ
tanΨ = tan(θ + Φ) =

i.e.
dy
=
tanθ + tanΦ
IET
1 − tanθtanΦ
· · · · · · (1)
dx 1 − tanθtanΦ
On the other hand, we have x = rcosθ ; y = rsinθ as the relation between polar and Cartesian
Coordinates.
differentiating these, w.r.t θ , we obtain
dx dr
AJ
= −rsinθ + cosθ
dθ dθ
dy dr
and = rcosθ + sinθ
dθ dθ
dy
dy dθ
∴ = dx
dx dθ
dr
rcosθ + sinθ dθ
= dr
−rsinθ + cosθ dθ
dr
dividing the Numerator and Denominator by cosθ
dθ
r
dy dr + tanθ
dθ
= r
dx − dr tanθ+1
dθ
r
tanθ + dr
= r
dθ
· · · · · · (2)
1− dr
tanθ
dθ

Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get

r r dθ
tanΦ = dr
= =r
dθ
r1 dr

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 4

Note : We can also find angle Φ by using

1 dr
cotΦ =
r dθ
Problem 1.1.1. Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent to the curve r = a(1 +
π
cosθ). Also find slope of the tangent at θ = 3

Solution :

r = a(1 + cosθ) · · · · · · (1)

Applying log on both sides

log(r) = log(a) + log(1 + cosθ)

differentiate w.r.toθ,
1 dr −sinθ IET
=
r dθ 1 + cosθ
−2sin θ2 cos θ2
cotΦ =
2cos2 θ2
 
θ π θ
i.e.cotΦ = −tan = cot +
2 2 2
π θ
∴Φ= +
2 2
π π π
Atθ = , Φ = +
AJ
3 2 6
Slope = tanΨ = tan (θ + Φ) = tanπ = 0

Exercise 1.1

Find the angle between radius vector and tangent for the following curves.

π θ
1. r = a(1 + sinθ) Ans : Φ = 4
+ 4

π
2. r 2 cos2θ = a2 Ans : Φ = 2
− 2θ

2a −θ
3. r
= 1 − cosθ Ans : Φ = 2

1.2 Angle of intersection of two polar curves

If Φ1 and Φ2 are the angles between the common radius vector and the tangents at the point of
intersection of two curves r = f1 (θ) and r = f2 (θ), then the angle of intersection of the curves is
given by |φ1 − Φ2 |.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 5

Note 1. Two curves intersect orthogonally if any one of the following conditions are satisfied.

π
a) |Φ1 − Φ2 | =
2
or

b) tanΦ1 tanΦ2 = −1
or
IET
c) cotΦ1 cotΦ2 = −1

Note 2. If the angles Φ1 and Φ2 can not be obtained explicitly, then angle of intersection can be
found by using the formula

tanΦ1 − tanΦ2
AJ

|tan(Φ1 − Φ2 )| =
1 + tanΦ1 tanΦ2

Problem 1.2.1. Show that the following curves intersect each other orthogonally. r = a(1 + cosθ)
and r = b(1 − cosθ) (VTU 2015, July 2003)

Solution : Given

r = a(1 + cosθ)

Applying log on both sides

log(r) = log(a) + log(1 + cosθ)

differentiate w.r.toθ,
1 dr −sinθ
=
r dθ 1 + cosθ
−2sin θ2 cos θ2
cotΦ1 =
2cos2 θ2
 
θ π θ
i.e.cotΦ1 = −tan = cot +
2 2 2
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 6

π θ
∴ Φ1 = +
2 2
Now consider the curve, r = b(1 − cosθ)

Applying log on both sides

log(r) = log(b) + log(1 − cosθ)

differentiate w.r.toθ,
1 dr sinθ
=
r dθ 1 − cosθ
2sin θ2 cos θ2
cotΦ1 =
2sin2 θ2
θ
i.e.cotΦ2 = cot
2
θ
∴ Φ2 =
2 IET
π θ θ π
Consider |Φ1 − Φ2 | = 2
+ 2
− 2
= 2

This shows that the given curves intersect each other orthogonally.

a
Problem 1.2.2. Show that the following curves intersect each other orthogonally. r = aθ and r = θ

Solution :
AJ

Considerr = aθ

Applying log on both sides

logr = log(a) + logθ

differentiate w.r.toθ
1 dr 1
=
r dθ θ
1
i.e.cotΦ1 =
θ
=⇒ tanΦ1 = θ
a
Now considerr =
θ
Applying log on both sides

logr = log(a) − logθ

differentiate w.r.toθ
1 dr −1
=
r dθ θ
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 7

−1
cotΦ2 =
θ
i.e. tanΦ2 = −θ
a
Usingr = aθandr = , we can write
θ
a
aθ =
θ
i.eθ 2 = 1

=⇒ θ = ±1

Case 1 : If θ = 1 , then tanΦ1 = 1 and tanΦ2 = −1

∴ tanΦ1 tanΦ2 = −1
Case 2 : If θ = −1 , then tanΦ1 = −1 and tanΦ2 = 1
∴ tanΦ1 tanΦ2 = −1 IET
This shows that the given curves intersect orthogonally.

Problem 1.2.3. Show that the following curves intersect each other orthogonally. r = a(1 −
sin θ) , r = b(1 + sin θ)

r = a(1 − sin θ)
AJ

Solution : Diff. w.r.to θ we get, r1 = a(− cos θ)

r (1 − sin θ)
∴ tan φ1 = =−
r1 cos θ
For the curve, r = b(1 + sin θ)
Diff. w.r.to θ we get, r1 = b(cos θ)
r (1+sin θ)
∴ tan φ2 = r1
= cos θ
(1−sin2 θ)
tan φ1 · tan φ2 = − cos2 θ
= −1
This shows that the given curves intersect orthogonally.

Problem 1.2.4. Show that the following curves intersect each other orthogonally. Show that the
curves r m = am cos mθ and r m = am sin mθ

Solution: Equations of curves are r m = am cos mθ (1) r m = am sin mθ (2) Take natural
logarithm of both sides of (1)

m log r = m log a + log(cos mθ)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 8

Differentiate both sides w. r. t θ

m m sin mθ
r1 = −
r cos mθ
r
∴ = − cot mθ
r1
r
tan φ1 = = − cot mθ
r1
Take natural logarithm of both sides of (2) m log r = m log a + log(sin mθ) Differentiate both
sides w. r. t θ
m m cos mθ
r1 =
r sin mθ
r
∴ = tan mθ
r1
r
tan φ2 = = tan mθ
r1

∴ tan φ1 · tan φ2 = − cot mθ × tan mθ = −1

IET
∴ curves (1) and (2) cut orthogonally.

Problem 1.2.5. Find the angle between the following curves r = sin θ + cos θ , r = 2 sin θ
AJ

Sol :

r = sin θ + cos θ

Diff. w.r.to θ we get,

r1 = cos θ − sin θ
r sin θ + cos θ
∴ tan φ1 = =
r1 cos θ − sin θ
1 + tan θ
= (By dividing each term in Numerator and Denominator b y cos θ)
1 − tan θ
 
π
= tan θ +
4
π
⇒ φ1 = θ +
4
r = 2 sin θ

Diff. W.r.to θ we get,

r1 = 2 cos θ

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 9

r sin θ
∴ tan φ2 = = = tan θ
r1 cos θ
⇒ φ2 = θ
Angle of intersection is
π π
|φ1 − φ2 | = |θ + − θ| =
4 4
a
Problem 1.2.6. Find the angle between the following curves : r = alogθ and r = logθ
(VTU Jan
2015, July 2005, Aug 2001)

Consider the curve r = alogθ Applying log on both sides

logr = log(a) + log(logθ)
1 dr 1
differentiate w.r.to θ, r dθ
= θlogθ
1
cotΦ1 = θlogθ
IET
∴ tanΦ1 = θlogθ
a
Consider the curve r = logθ

Applying log on both sides

logr = log(a) − log(logθ)
1 dr −1
differentiate w.r.to θ, r dθ
= θlogθ
−1
cotΦ2 = θlogθ
AJ

∴ tanΦ2 = −θlogθ
a
Using the given curves r = alogθ and r = logθ
, we can write
a
alogθ = logθ

(logθ)2 = 1
i.e. θ = e (assuming positive value)
Consider
tanΦ1 − tanΦ2 2e
|tan(Φ1 − Φ2 )| = =
1 + tanΦ1 tanΦ2 1 − e2
 
2e
∴ |Φ1 − Φ2 | = tan−1 1−e2
= 2tan−1 e

Exercise 1.2

1. Show that the following curves intersect each other orthogonally.

(a) r = a(1 + cosθ), r = a(1 − cosθ) (VTU Jan 2016, July 2015, 2011)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 10

(b) r = a(1 + sinθ), r = a(1 − sinθ)

(c) r n = an cosnθ, r n = bn sinnθ

2. Find the angle of intersection of the following curves :

(a) r 2 sin2θ = 4 and r 2 = 16sin2θ (VTU Model 2015) Ans : π3

(b) r = sinθ + cosθ and r = 2sinθ (VTU July 2004, 2002) Ans : π4
a b π
(c) r = 1+cosθ
and r = 1−cosθ
(VTU Jan 2017, Jun 2012, June 2009, Jul 2008) Ans : 2

π
(d) r n = an (cosnθ + sinnθ) and r n = an sinnθ, Ans : 4

π
(e) r n = an cosnθ and r n sinnθ = bn , Ans : 2

π
(f) r m = am cosmθ and r m = bm sinmθ, Ans : 2

(g) r = 2sinθ and r = 2(sinθ + cosθ) IET (VTU July 2017).

(h) r = a(1 + sinθ) and r = b(1 − sinθ) (VTU July 2017)

The length p of perpendicular from pole to the tangent in a polar curve

The length p of perpendicular from pole to the tangent at a point (r, θ) in a polar curve is given by

2
AJ

1 1 1 dr
p = rsinΦ or = +
p2 r2 r4 dθ
Proof :

From the right angled triangle OPN,

ON
sinφ =
OP
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 11

p
i.e..sinφ = =⇒ p = rsinφ
r
1 1 1
Consider = =
cosecφ
p
rsinφ r
11 1
∴ 2 = 2 cosec2 φ = 2 (1 + cot2 φ)
p r r
"  #
1 dr 2

1
= 2 1+
r r dθ

 2
1 1 1 dr
= +
p2 r2 r4 dθ

1.3 Pedal equations (p − r equations)

For a plane curve r = f (θ) and a given point P (r, θ) on this curve, the pedal equation of the
IET
curve is a relation between r and p where r is the distance from O(origin) to a point P (r, θ), and p
is the perpendicular distance from O to the tangent to the curve at the point P.

Working rules to find pedal equations :

Let the polar equation of any curve be,

AJ

f (r, θ) = 0 (1)

Let Φ be the angle between the radius vector and the tangent, then we know that,
dθ
tan(Φ) = r. (2)
dr
and perpendicular distance from O to the tangent is given by using the formula

p = rsinΦ (3)

or
 2
1 1 1 dr
= + (4)
p2 r2 r4 dθ
Now , if we eliminate θ between the equations (1) and (3) or (1) and (4) , then we shall get an equation
in terms of p and r and thus will be required an equation of the curve .

2a
Problem 1.3.1. Find the pedal equation for the curve r
= 1 − cosθ

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 12

Solution : Given equation can be written as

2a 2a θ
r= = = acosec2 (1)
1 − cosθ 2sin2 θ2 2
 
dr 2
θ θ θ 1
= a2cosec −cosec cot .
dθ 2 2 2 2
θ θ
= −acosec2 cot
2 2
dθ θ 1
tanΦ = r = acosec2 ×
dr 2 −acosec2 θ2 cot θ2
 
θ θ
= tan = tan π −
2 2
 
θ
=⇒ Φ = π−
2
 
θ θ
Now p = rsinΦ = rsin π − = rsin
2 2
2
θ θ p IET
Squarring p2 = r 2 sin2 =⇒ sin2 = 2
2 2 r
Now (1) can be written as
2a a ar 2
r= 2sin2 θ2
= p2
= p2
r2

=⇒ p2 = ar This is the required pedal equation.

Problem 1.3.2. Find the pedal equation of the curve r n = an sin nθ

AJ

Solution : Equation of the curve is r n = an sin nθ

Take the natural logarithm of both sides

n log r = n log a + log(sin nθ)

Differentiate both sides w.r.t. θ

1 n cos nθ
n r1 =
r sin nθ
r sin nθ
∴ tan φ = = = tan nθ
r1 cos nθ
∴ φ = nθ
n
∴ p = r sin φ = r sin nθ = r ar n from (1)
∴ pan = r n+1
which is the pedal equation of the curve.

Problem 1.3.3. Find the pedal equation for the polar curve r m = am (cos(mθ) + sin(mθ)).

For this curve in the usual way, taking log on both sides,

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 13

m log r = log(am ) + log(cos(mθ) + sin(mθ))

Diff. w.r.to θ,

1 1
m r1 = 0 + · (−m sin mθ + m cos mθ)
r cos(mθ) + sin(mθ)
(cos mθ − sin mθ)
cot φ =
(cos mθ + sin mθ)
(cos mθ + sin mθ)
tan φ =
(cos mθ − sin mθ)
1 + tan mθ
= (By dividing each term in Numerator and Denominator b y cos mθ)
1 − tan mθ
 
π
= tan + mθ
4
π
⇒ φ = + mθ
4 IET
Pedal equation is
 
π
p = r sin φ = r sin + mθ
4
     
π π
= r sin cos θ + cos sin θ
4 4
r
= √ (cos(mθ) + sin(mθ))
2
rm

r
= √ (from the given equation)
2 am
AJ

r m+1
= √ .
am 2

Exercise 1.3

Find the pedal equations of the following curves.

1 −1
1. r n = sechnθ (VTU Jan 2015) Ans : p2
= r2
(r 2n − 2)

r 2(m+1)
2. r m = am sinmθ + bm cosmθ (VTU July 2015, Jan-2005) Ans : p2 = a2m +b2m

` 1 1 2
3. r
= 1 + ecosθ Ans : p2
=1− e2
+ lr

4. r = aeθcotα Ans : r 2 = p2 cosec2 α

5. r n = an cosnθ (VTU July 2017, Jan 2016, Model 2014, Jan 2014, June 2014, Jan 2010,
May 2001, Aug 2000) Ans : pan = r n+1
2
6. r = aθ Ans : p = √ r2
r +a2

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 14

7. r = a(1 + cosθ) Ans : r 3 = 2ap2

√
8. r m = am (sinmθ + cosmθ)(VTU 2010) Ans : r m+1 = 2am p

9. r m cosmθ = am (VTU July 2016) Ans : pr m−1 = am

10. r n = an sinnθ Ans : pan = r n+1

2a
11. r
= 1 − cosθ (VTU Jun 2011) Ans : p2 = ar

12. r = a + bcosθ (VTU July 2017)

2a
13. r
= 1 + cosθ (VTU Jan 2017)

Curvature.
IET
The curvature is the concept in geometry that indicates the change in direction of the curve at a
certain point. While the radius of curvature gives the radius of the approximate circle that matches
the curve at a particular point.
Consider a smooth curve C in XY-plane and let P, Q be any two neighbouring points on it. Let
AJ
arc AP = s and arc P Q = ∆s. Let the tangents drawn to the curve at P, Q respectively make
angles Ψ and Ψ + ∆Ψ with X-axis i.e., the angle between the tangents at P and Q is ∆Ψ. While
moving from P to Q through a distance ∆s, the tangent has turned through the angle ∆Ψ. This is
called the bending of the arc PQ. Geometrically, a change in Ψ represents the bending of the curve C
∆P si
and the ratio ∆s
represents the ratio of bending of C between the point P & Q and the arc length
between them.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 15

Rate of bending of Curve at P is

dΨ ∆Ψ
= limQ→P
ds ∆s
Curvature is a numerical measure of bending of the curve. Or, more simply, it measures the rate of
change of direction of the curve, and it is denoted by κ (kappa). Thus

dΨ
κ=
ds

Note : Intuitively the curvature of a plane curve at a point P can be thought of as the curvature
of that circle which approximates the curve most closely near that point. The curvature of a circle is
directly defined by the reciprocal of the length of its radius. The shorter the radius, the greater the
curvature of the arc in the vicinity of any point P on it. The longer the radius, the bigger the circle,
and the less the curvature of the arc in the vicinity of any point P on it. For a very large circle the
IET
curvature of an arc at some point P approaches that of a straight line and the curvature of a straight
line is zero since there exist no bending.

1.4 Radius of Curvature

1
If κ 6= 0, then is called the radius of curvature and is denoted by ρ.
AJ
κ

ie.
1 ds
ρ= =
κ dΨ
dΨ
The sign of ds
indicates the convexity and concavity of the curve in the neighbourhood of the point.

Radius of curvature in Cartesian form

Suppose y = f (x) is the Cartesian equation of a curve, then we know that

tan ψ = dy/dx = y1

or

ψ = tan−1 (y1 )

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 16

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x,

dψ 1 d (y1 )
=
dx 1 + y12 dx
y2
=
1 + y12
dψ
Curvature K =
ds
dψ dx
= ×
dx ds
From the derivative of arc length, we have
s  2
dS dy
= 1+
dx dx
dx 1
i.e. = q
ds 1 + y12

∴K=
IET =
dψ
dx
y2
×
dx
ds
×q
1
1+ y12 1 + y12

y2
=
3/2
1 + y12
1
∴ Radius of curvature ρ =
K

3/2
1 + y12
AJ

=
y2

the expression for radius of curvature is,

  32
dy 2


1+ dx
ρ= d2 y
dx2

32
1 + y12
i.e. ρ =
y2

Alternate formula for radius of curvature :

An alternate formula for radius of curvature is
  2  32
dx
1+ dy
ρ= d2 x
dy 2

dy
This formula can be used at a point where dx
doesn’t exist such as a point on a curve where the
dy
tangent line is parallel to the y-axis. (i.e. when dx
= ∞)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 17

Radius of curvature in Parametric form:

For the curve x = x(t) and y = y(t), where t is the parameter,

3
(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 ) 2
ρ=
ẋÿ − ẏ ẍ

dx dy d2 x d2 y
Where ẋ = , ẏ = , ẍ = , ÿ = .
dt dt dt2 dt2
Note : When parametric form x = x(t) and y = y(t) is given, we can also find the radius of
curvature using

23
1 + y12
IETρ=
y2
where
dy/dt
y1 =
dx/dt
and
d d dt
y2 = (y1 ) = (y1 ) ×
dx dt dx
AJ

Radius of curvature in polar form

For the curve r = f (θ) i.e., the curve in polar coordinates

With the usual notations, we have

ψ =θ+φ

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 18

Differentiating w.r.t. s,
dψ
κ=
ds
dθ dφ
= +
ds ds
dθ dφ dθ
= + ,
ds  dθ ds
dθ dφ
= 1+ (1)
ds dθ
Also we know that
r dθ
tan φ = r =
dr r
 1
r
or φ = tan−1
r1
Differentiating w.r.t. θ,
dφ IET 1 r1 · r1 − rr2
= 2 ×
dθ 1 + (r/r1 ) r12
(2)
r12 − rr2
=
r 2 + r12
Also,
ds q

= r 2 + r12 (3)
dθ
Substituting the value from (2) and (3) in (1),
r12 − r2
AJ
 
1
κ= p 2 + 1+ 2
r + r12 r + r12
r 2 + r12 − rr2
=
(r 2 + r12 )3/2

32
r 2 + r12
∴ ρ=
r 2 + r12 − rr2

dr d2 r
where r1 = dθ
and r2 = dθ 2

Radius of Curvature in Pedal form

For the curve in terms of p and r ( i.e., the curve in pedal form):

dr
ρ=r
dp

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 19

√ √ √
Problem 1.4.1. Find the radius of curvature for x+ y = a at the point where it meets the
line y = x.

√ √ √ √ √ a
Solution : On the line y = x, we have x+ x= a, i.e. 2 x = a or x = 4

Let
√ √ √
x+ y= a

differentiating w.r.tox,
1 1
√ + √ y1 = 0
2 x 2 y
√
y
i.e.y1 = − √ · · · · · · (1)
x
∴ y1 | a , a = −1
4 4

y2 =
IET
differentiating(1)w.r.tox,
√ 1 √ 1
x 2√y y1 − y 2√ x

x
4
y2 | a , a =
4 4 a

3 3
1 + y12 2 (1 + (−1)2 ) 2 a
∴ρ= = 4 = √
y2 a 2

3a 3a
AJ


Problem 1.4.2. Find ρ at the point 2
, 2 of the Folium x3 + y 3 = 3axy (VTU July 2017, July
2016, Model 2014, 2015, 2008)

Solution : Given

x3 + y 3 = 3axy (1)

Differentiating (1) w.r.to x, we get

x2 + yy1 = a(xy1 + y) = (y 2 − ax)y1 = ay − x2

ay − x2
i.e.y1 = · · · · · · (2)
y 2 − ax
y1 |( 3a , 3a ) = −1
2 2

Differentiating (2) w.r.to x, we get

(y 2 − ax)(ay1 − 2x) − (ay − x2 )(2yy1 − a)
y2 =
(y 2 − ax)2
−32
y2 |( 3a , 3a ) = on simplification
2 2 3a
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 20

23 3
1 + y12 (1 + 1) 2 3a
∴ Radius of Curvature, ρ = = −32 = √
y2 3a 8 2
Problem 1.4.3. Find the radius of curvature for the curve x = alog(sect + tant), y = asect
(VTU July 2015)

Solution:

Given x = alog(sect + tant) − − − − − − − −(1)

and y = asect − − − − − − − −(2)

differentiating (1)w.r.to t, we get

dx secttant + sec2 t
=a = asect
dt sect + tant
differentiating (2) w.r.to t, we get IET
dy
= asecttant
dt
dy
dy dt
∴ y1 = = dy
= tant − − − − − − − −(3)
dx dt

differentiating (3) w.r.to x, we get

dt 1
y2 = sec2 t = sect
dx a

3 3
1 + y12 2 (1 + tan2 t) 2
AJ

∴ Radius of Curvature, ρ = = 1 = asec2 t

y2 a
sect
√
Problem 1.4.4. Show that the R.O.C at any point of the cardioid r = a(1 − cosθ) varies as r.
(VTU 2003)

Solution : Given that

r = a(1 − cosθ) (1)

differentiating (1) w.r.to θ, we get

r1 = asinθ and r2 = acosθ
∴ Radius of Curvature ,

32
r 2 + r12
ρ=
r 2 + 2r12 − rr2
3
(a2 (1 − cosθ)2 + a2 sin2 θ) 2
=
a2 (1 − cosθ)2 + 2a2 sin2 θ − a2 (1 − cosθ)cosθ
√
2 2a √
= r on simplification
3
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 21

√
∴ρ∝ r

Problem 1.4.5. Find the radius of the curvature of r n = an cos nθ

Solution : Given curve is r n = an cos nθ Diff. w.r.to θ we get,

nr n−1 r1 = −nan sin nθ

rn
n r1 = −nan sin nθ
r
−nan sin nθ r
r1 = (from the given equation)
an cos nθ
∴ r1 = −r tan nθ
IET
r2 = −r1 tan nθ − nr sec2 nθ

= r tan2 nθ − nr sec2 nθ

3
r 2 + r12 2
ρ= 2
r + 2r12 − rr2
3
r 3 (1 + tan2 nθ) 2
=
r 2 + 2r 2 tan2 nθ − r (r tan2 nθ − nr sec2 nθ)
r sec3 nθ
=
1 + tan2 nθ + n sec2 nθ
AJ

r sec nθ
=
n+1
ran an
= = .
(n + 1)r n (n + 1)r n−1

Problem 1.4.6. Find the radius of the curvature of r 3 = 2ap2

Solution : Here r 3 = 2ap2

Differentiating w.r.t. p, we get
dr
3r 2 · = 4ap
dp
dr 4ap
⇒ =
dp 3r 2
Hence,
dr 4ap 4ap
ρ=r· =r· =
dp 3r 2 3r
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 22

 12
r3

where p =
2a
 3
 21
r
4a · 2a
ρ=
3r √
3
4ar 2 2 2ar
= √ =
3r 2a 3
Problem 1.4.7. Find the radius of the curvature of p2 = ar

Solution : Here p2 = ar
Differentiating w.r.t. p, we get

dr
2p = a ·
IET dp
dr 2p
⇒ =
dp a
√ dr
√
2· ar 2r 2
3
where p = ar. ρ = r dp =r· a
= √
a

a2 (a−x)
Problem 1.4.8. Find the radius of curvature of the curve y 2 = x
at the point (a, 0).

Solution :
a2 (a − x)
y2 =
AJ

x
y x = a − a2 x
2 3

Differentiating w.r.t x
a2 + y 2
2xyy1 + y 2 = −a2 ⇒ y1 = − .
2xy
at (a, 0), y1 = ∞
3
(1+x21)
2 1
therefore ρ = x2
= x2
.

dx 2xy
x1 = =−
dy y 2 + a2
then x1 = 0 at (a, 0)

y 2 + a2 x1 = −2xy.

differentiating w.r.t y

y 2 + a2 x2 + 2yx1 = −2x − 2yx1

⇒ y 2 + a2 x2 = −2x − 2yx1 − 2yx1

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 23

Then
2
x2 = − at (a, 0)
a
1 a
∴ρ= =−
x2 2
a
∴ The radius of curvature of the given curve is 2
.

Problem 1.4.9. Find ρ at any point on x = a(θ + sin θ) and y = a(1 − cos θ)

SOl : Here x = a(θ + sin θ), y = a(1 − cos θ)

Differentiating w.r.t. θ
dx dy
= a(1 + cos θ), = a sin θ
dθ dθ
dy
dy dθ
a sin θ
y1 = = dx
=
dx dθ
a(1 + cos θ)
IET θ θ
2 sin 2
cos 2
= θ
2 cos2 2
θ
y1 = tan
2
Again differentiating w.r.t. θ
 
d θ
y2 = tan
dx 2
 
d θ dθ
= tan ×
dθ 2 dx
AJ
 
θ 1 1
= sec2 × ×
2 2 a(1 + cos θ)
θ
sec2 2
=
2a × 2 cos2 θ2
1
y2 =
4a cos4 θ2
 3
1 + y12 2

ρ=
y2
3
1 + tan2 θ2
 2

= n o
1
θ
4a cos4 2
   32  
2
θ 4
θ
= sec × 4a cos
2 2
 
1 θ
= θ

× 4a cos4
3
cos 2 2
 
θ
= 4a cos .
2
Problem 1.4.10. Find the radius of curvature at any point on the curve y = a log sec(x/a).

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 24

3
{1+y12 } 2
Sol : Radius of curvature ρ = y2
x


Here, y = a log sec a
y1 = a × sec1 x · sec xa tan xa · a1



( )
x

a
y1 = tan a
y2 = sec2 xa · a1

3
x


1 + tan2 a
2

Hence ρ = 1 2 x


a
sec a
 2 x
3/2
sec a
= 1 2 x


a
sec

a
IET a sec3 xa
=
sec2 xa


 
x
= a sec
a
∴ Radius of curvature = a sec(x/a)

Exercise 1.4

a2 (a−x)
1. Find the radius of curvature of the curve y 2 = x
where the curve meets the x-axis. (VTU
AJ

a
Jan 2014, 2000) Ans : 2

2. Find the radius of curvature at (a, 0) of the curve y = x3 (x − a) (VTU 2010)

3. Find ρ at (−2a, 2a) for the curve x2 y = a(x2 + y 2 ) Ans : 2a

4. Find the radius of curvature of a2 y = x3 − a3 at the point where the curve cuts x-axis. (VTU
√
5 10a
July 2014) Ans : 3

5. Find the radius of curvature of the curve x4 + y 4 = 2 at the point (1,1) (VTU Jan 2017, July
√
− 2
2016) Ans : 3

23  2
ax 2ρ x y 2


6. For the curve y = (a+x)
, show that. a
= y
+ (VTU July 2017, 2008)
x

px qy
7. Prove that the radius of curvature ρ at any point (x,y) on the curve a + b = 1 is given by
3
2(ax+by) 2
ab
(VTU Jan 2014)
√
π 5 5
8. Show that the radius of curvature at x = 2
of the curve y = 4sinx − sin2x is 4
(VTU
2009)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 25

3 3 −3


9. Show that the radius of curvature of the curve x3 + y 3 = 3xy at ,
2 2
is √
8 2
(VTU Jan
2015)
2
2 (x2 +y2 ) 3
10. Show that for the rectangular hyperbola xy = c , ρ = 2xy
√
π 5 5
11. Show that the radius of curvature of the curve y = 4sinx − sin2x at x = 2
is 4

12. Find the radius of curvature of xy 2 = a3 − x3 at (a, 0).

dx d2 x −2
Hint : Here y1 = ∞ Hence find x1 = dy
= 0 and x2 = dy 2
= 3a
and use the formula
3
(1+x2
1)
2 3a
ρ= x2
Ans : 2

13. If ρ is the R.O.C at the point P on the parabola y 2 = 4ax & S be its focus, then show that ρ2
varies with (SP )3

14. Find the radius of curvature for the curve r 2 = a2 cos2θ.

IET (VTU July 2017)
2 2 2
15. Find the radius of curvature at any point of the astroid x 3 + y 3 = a 3 Ans : 3asinθcosθ
2 2 2
16. P.T the R.O.C at any point of the astroid x 3 +y 3 = a 3 is 3 times the length of the perpendicular
from the origin to the tangent at that point.

x2 y2
17. Show that the R.O.C at the end of the major axis (a, 0) of the ellipse a2
+ b2
= 1 is equal to
the semi - latus rectum.
AJ

18. Find the radius of curvature for the curve x = a(cost + tsint), y = a(sint − tcost) Ans
: at

19. Find the radius of curvature for the curve x = a(θ − sinθ), y = a(1 − cosθ) (VTU 2003)
Ans : 4asin θ2

20. Show that the radius of curvature at any point of the cycloid, x = a(θ + sinθ), y = a(1 −
cosθ) is 4acos θ2 (VTU Jan 2016)

21. Find the radius of curvature for the curve x = a(cost + logtan 2t ), y = asint (VTU July
2014) Ans : acott

22. Show that the radius of curvature at any point of the cycloid x = a(θ + sinθ), y = a(1 −
cosθ) is 4acos θ2


(VTU 2011)

ρ2
23. For the curve r = a(1 + cosθ) , show that r
is a constant.

24. For the curve r(1 − cosθ) = 2a , show that ρ2 varies as r 3 .

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 ) Page 26

am
25. For the curve r m = am cosmθ , show that ρ = (m+1)r m−1

26. If ρ1 & ρ2 are radii of curvature at the extremities of any chord of the cardioid r = a(1+cosθ)
16a2
which passes through the pole, then show that ρ21 + ρ22 = 9

27. Find the radius of curvature for the curve r n = an cosnθ. (VTU Jan 2017)

28. Show that the R.O.C at any point of the lemniscate r 2 = a2 cos2θ is inversely proportional to
r

2a
29. Find ρ for the curve r
= (1 − cosθ)

ρ
30. Show that for the equiangular spiral r = aeθcotα , is a constant.
r
√
r 2 −a2 a
− cos−1


31. Find the radius of curvature of the polar curve θ = a r
IET
32. Find the radius of curvature for the curve r n = an sinnθ

33. Show that the R.O.C at any point of the cardioid r 2 sec2θ = a2 is ρ = a2
3r

x


34. Find the radius of curvature of y = ccosh c
at the point where it crosses the y-axis. Ans : c
√
35. Find the radius of curvature of the curve xy = c2 at (c, c) Ans : 2c

(a+x) a
36. Find the radius of curvature of the curve y 2 = x2 (a−x) at the point (−a, 0) Ans : 4
AJ

√
37. Find the radius of curvature at ‘t’ on x = et cost, y = et sint Ans : 2t

38. Find the radius of curvature of r = aeθcotα Ans : ρ = rcosecα

39. Find the radius of the curvature of each of the following curves:
(i) r 3 = 2ap2 ( Cardiod )
(ii) p2 = ar
(iii) pr = a2
(iv) r 3 = a2 p
(v) p2 (a2 + b2 − r 2 ) = a2 b2
(vi) 1/p2 = 1/a2 + 1/b2 − r 2 /a2 b2

r n+1
40. For the curve p = an
, Show that ρ varies inversely as (n − 1)th power of the radius vector.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

 IET
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream - Lecture Notes

Subject Code : BMATC101

Module 2- Series Expansion and Multivariable

Calculus
AJ

Prepared By

Dr. Shantha Kumari. K.

Department of Mathematics

AJIET, Mangaluru
Module 2 - Series Expansion and

Multivariable Calculus

Syllabus
IET
Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series expansion for one variable (Statement only) – problems. Indeter-
minate forms - L’Hospital’s rule. Problems. Partial differentiation, total derivative - differentiation of
composite functions. Jacobian and problems. Maxima and minima for a function of two variables.
Problems.

2.1 Taylor’s series expansion of a function of single variable:

AJ

If y = f (x) be a function,then the Taylor’s series expansion for y = f (x) about x = a is

given by

(x − a)f 0 (a) (x − a)2 (x − a)3

f (x) = f (a) + + f 00 (a) + f 000 (a) + − − − − − − −
1! 2! 3!
(1)
where f 0 (a), f 00 (a), f 000 (a) —– stands for successive derivatives of f (x) at x = a.

1
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 2

2.2 Maclaurin’s series :

If y = f (x) be a function,then the Maclaurin’s series expansion for y = f (x) about is given by

x f 0 (0) x2 x3
f (x) = f (0) + + f 00 (0) + f 000 (0) + · · ·
1! 2! 3!

Problem 2.2.1. Expand y = cosx by Maclaurin’s series.

Solution: By Maclaurin’s series expansion

xf 0 (0) x2 00
x3
f (x) = f (0) + + f (0) + f 000 (0) + ··· (1)
1! 2! 3!
IET
f (x) = cosx,

f 0 (x) = −sinx,
f (0) = cos0 = 1

f 0 (0) = 0

f 00 (x) = −cosx, f 00 (0) = 1

f 000 (x) = sinx, f 000 (0) = 0

f 0000 (x) = cosx, f 0000 (0) = 1

AJ
Substituting in (1), we get
x2 x4 x6
∴ cosx = 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!
p
Problem 2.2.2. Expand (1 + sin2x) by Maclaurin’s series. (VTU July 2021, June 2019, June
2018,Model 2018, Jan 2016, July 2014)

Solution: By Maclaurin’s series expansion

xf 0 (0) x2 x3
f (x) = f (0) + + f 00 (0) + f 000 (0) + · · · (1)
1! 2! 3!
p p
f (x) = (1 + sin2x) = (sinx + cosx)2 = sinx + cosx

f (0) = sin0 + cos0 = 1

f 0 (x) = cosx − sinx f 0 (0) = 1

f 00 (x) = −sinx − cosx f 00 (0) = −1

f 000 (x) = −cosx + sinx f 000 (0) = −1

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 3

f 0000 (x) = sinx + cosx f 0000 (0) = 1

x2 x3 x4
p
∴ (1 + sin2x) = 1 + x − 2!
− 3!
+ 4!
+ ···

Problem 2.2.3. Obtain the Maclaurin series of f (x) = log sec x upto 6th degree term. (VTU Jan
2018, July 2017, 2009)

Solution : y = f (x) = log sec x

∴ f (0) = log 1 = 0

sec x tan x
y1 = f 0 (x) = = tan x ∴ f 0 (0) = 0
sec x
y2 = f 00 (x) = sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + y12 ∴ f 00 (0) = 1

y3 = 2y1 y2 ∴ f 000 (0) = 2(0)(1) = 0

y4 = 2y22 + 2y1 y3
IET ∴ f iv (0) = 2(1)2 + 2(0)(0) = 2

y5 = 4y2 y3 + 2y2 y3 + 2y1 y4 = 6y2 y3 + 2y1 y4 ∴ f v (0) = 6(1)(0) + 2(0)(2) = 0

y6 = 6y32 + 8y2 y4 + 2y1 y5 ∴ f v0 (0) = 6(0) + 8(1)(2) + 2(0) = 16

∴ By Maclaurin series expansion
0
x2 00
x3
ln sec x = f (0) + xf (0) + f (0) + f 000 (0) + · · ·
2! 3!
AJ

x2 2x4
16x6
= + + + ···
2! 4! 6!
Problem 2.2.4. Obtain the Maclaurin series of log(1 + cosx) upto 6th degree term. (VTU June
2019, July 2017)

Solution:

y(x) = log(1 + cos x)

y(0) = log(1 + 1) = log 2

Diff y with respect to x.
(0 − sin x)
y1 (x) =
(1 + cos x)

(1 + cos x)y1 (x) = − sin x.

Put x = 0

y1 (0) = 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 4

Diff again w.r.to x,

(1 + cos x)(y2 ) + y1 (− sin x) = − cos x
−1
Put x = 0, we get y2 (0) = 2

Diff again w.r.to x,

(1 + cos x)y3 − sin x(y2 ) − sin x(y2 ) − cos x(y1 ) = sin x
Put x = 0, we get y3 (0) = 0
Diff again w.r.to x,
(1 + cos x)y4 − sin x(y3 ) − 2 [sin x(y3 ) + cos x(y2 ]
− [cos x (y2 ) − sin x (y1 )] = cos x
−1
Put x = 0, we get y4 (0) = 4

∴ By Maclaurin series expansion

0
IET x2 00
x3 000
x4
ln sec x = f (0) + xf (0) + f (0) + f (0) + f (4) (0) + · · ·
2! 3! 4!
x2 x4
= log 2 − − + ···
4 96

√ √ h x2 x4
i
Problem 2.2.5. Using Maclaurin’s series Prove that 1 + cos 2x = 2 1 − 2
+ 24
+ ···
(VTU Jan 2021)
AJ

√ √
y= 1 + cos 2x = 2 cos2 x
√ √ √
⇒y = 2 cos x, ⇒ y(0) = 2 cos(0) = 2
√ √ √
y 0 (x) = 2 × (− sin x) ⇒ y 0 (0) = − 2 sin(0) = − 2(0) = 0
√ √ √ √
∴ y 00 (x) = − 2 × cos x = − 2 cos x, ⇒ y 00 (0) = − 2 cos 0 = − 2
√ √
y 000 (x) = − 2(− sin x) = 2 sin x
√
⇒ y 000 (0) = 2 sin(0) = 0
Maclaurin’s series expansion is given by
x x2 00 x3 000
y(x) = y(0) + y 0 (0) + y (0) + y (0) + . . .
2! 2! 3!
√ √ x x2 √ x3
⇒ 1 + cos 2x = 2 + (0) + (− 2) + (0) + . . . . . .
1! 2! 3!
√ √ x2 √
= 1 + cos 2x = 2 + (− 2) − 0 + . . . .
2!
√ 2
√ √ 2x
= 1 + cos 2x = 2 − + ...
2
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 5

2.3 Indeterminate Forms:

If f (x) and g(x) be two functions such that limx→a f (x) and limx→a g(x) both exists,
then
limx→a fg(x)
(x)
= limx→a f (x)
limx→a g(x)
.
If limx→a f (x) = 0 and limx→a g(x) = 0 then,
f (x) 0
limx→a =
g(x) 0
Which do not have any definite value. Such an expression is called indeterminate form.
∞
The other indeterminate forms are ∞
, 0 × ∞, ∞ − ∞ , 1∞ , 00 , ∞0 ,

L’-Hospital’s Rule:

If two functions f (x) and g(x) are such that

IET
(i) limx→a f (x) = 0 and limx→a g(x) = 0

(ii) f 0 (a) and g 0 (a) exist and g 0 (a) 6= 0

Then,
AJ

f (x) f 0 (x)
limx→a = limx→a
g(x) g 0 (x)
f 0 (x) 0
Note : If limx→a is in 0
form, we have to apply L’Hospital’s rule again.i.e.
g 0 (x)
f 0 (x) f 00 (x)
limx→a = limx→a
g 0 (x) g 00 (x)
and so on.

Note:

∞
(i) L’Hospital’s rule is applicable only when the expression has the form 00 , or ∞
in the limit.

(ii) Note that we do not take the derivative of the ratio using the quotient rule, but rather separately
find the derivatives of the numerator and denominator functions, then find the limit of their
ratio.(Do not confuse L’Hopital’s Rule with the quotient rule for derivatives.)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 6

(iii) Sometimes we need to repeat L’Hospital’s Rule more than once till we get definite value of the
limit.

(iv) Important Limits :

sinx
(a) limx→0 x
=1
x
(b) limx→0 sinx
=1
tanx
(c) limx→0 x
=1
x
(d) limx→0 tanx
=1
1 1
(e) limx→0 (1 + nx) x = en . In Particular, limx→0 (1 + x) x = e

x
x
(f) limx→∞ 1 + nx = en . In Particular, limx→∞ 1 + x1 = e
IET
(g) limx→∞ ex = ∞ and limx→∞ e−x = 0

(h) limx→0 ln(x) = −∞

(i) limx→1 logx = 0

(j) limx→∞ logx = ∞

(k) log(e) = 1
AJ

The indeterminate form 0.∞ :

If limx→a f (x)g(x) assumes the indeterminate form 0.∞ then the product may be converted
0 ∞
to one of the indeterminate forms 0
or ∞
by writing f (x)g(x) as
f (x) g(x)
f (x)g(x) = 1 or 1
g(x) f (x)

and then we can apply L’Hospitals rule to get the limit.

Problem 2.3.1. Evaluate the following limits. limx→0 logsinx sin2x

Solution:

k = limx→0 logsinx sin2x

logsin2x ∞
= limx→0 ( f orm)
logsinx ∞
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 7

By applying L’Hospital’s rule,

2cot2x ∞
k = limx→0 ( f orm)
cotx ∞
tanx 0
=2 limx→0 ( f orm)
tan2x 0
Again by applying L’Hospital’s rule,
sec2 x
=2 limx→0
2sec2 2x
=1

Problem 2.3.2. Evaluate limx→0 logtan x tan 2x

Solution :
log tan 2x ∞
lim logtan x tan 2x = lim IET:
x→0 x→0 log tan x ∞
Applying L’Hospital’s rule
1 tan x 0
= lim · 2 · sec2 2x · : form
x→0 tan 2x sec2 x 0
sin x · cos x · 2
= lim
x→0 sin 2x + cos 2x
2 · 12 sin 2x
= lim 1
x→0 sin 4x
2
AJ
sin 2x 4x
= lim · ·
x→0 2x sin 4x
=1·1

=1

x −bx
Problem 2.3.3. Evaluate limx→0 a x

Solution: Let
ax − bx 0
k = limx→0 ( form)
x 0
By applying L’Hospital’s rule ,
ax loga − bx logb
= limx→0
1
= loga − logb
(a)
= log
(b)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 8

The indeterminate form ∞ − ∞:

If limx→a f (x) − g(x) assumes the indeterminate form ∞ − ∞ , can be transformed into a
0 ∞
type 0
or ∞
by rewriting the expression as one function.

 
x 1
Problem 2.3.4. Evaluate limx→1 x−1
− ln(x)

Solution:
 
x 1
K = lim −
x→1 x−1 ln(x)
x · ln(x) − x + 1
= lim
(x − 1) · ln(x)

= lim
x→1

x→1 x−1
x
ln(x)
+ ln(x)
IET
x · ln(x)
= lim
x→1 x − 1 + x · ln(x)
1 + ln(x)
= lim
x→1 1 + 1 + ln(x)
1 + ln(x)
= lim
x→1 2 + ln(x)
AJ

1
=
2
h i
1 1
Problem 2.3.5. Evaluate limx→2 (x−2)
− log(x−1)

Solution :
 
1 1
k = limx→2 − (∞ − ∞form)
(x − 2) log(x − 1)
log(x − 1) − (x − 2)
 
0
k = limx→2 ( f orm) By applying L’Hospital’s rule,
(x − 2)log(x − 1) 0
2−x
 
0
k = limx→2 ( f orm)
(x − 2) + (x − 1)log(x − 1) 0
Again applying L’Hospital’s rule,
−1
 
k = limx→2
2 + log(x − 1)
−1
=
2
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 9

The indeterminate forms 1∞ , 00 , ∞0 :

If limx→a f (x)g(x) assumes the indeterminate form 1∞ , 00 or ∞0 , then let y = limx→a f (x)g(x)
and taking logarithm on both sides, we get logy = limx→a g(x) (log(f (x)). This limit will be in
0 ∞
any one of the forms 0
, ∞
or 0.∞ and can be evaluated easily. If this limit is K then the required
limit is obtained as y = limx→a f (x)g(x) = eK

ax +bx +cx

x1
Problem 2.3.6. Evaluate limx→0 3
(VTU Model 2022, Jan 2021, Jan 2020,June
2019, Jan 2018, July 2015, Model 2014)

Solution: Let
 x1
ax + bx + cx

k = limx→0 (1∞ f orm)
3
IET
Apply log on both sides
 x 1
a + bx + cx x
logk = log limx→0
3
 x 1
a + bx + cx x
= limx→0 log
3
 x
a + bx + cx

1
= limx→0 log
x 3
log (ax + bx + cx ) − log3 0
AJ
= limx→0 ( f orm)
x 0
By applying L’Hospital’s rule,
ax loga + bx logb + cx logc
logk = limx→0
ax + bx + cx
(loga + logb + logc)
=
3
log(abc)
=
3
1
i.e.logk = log(abc) 3
1
∴ k = (abc) 3

Problem 2.3.7. Evaluate limx→ π2 (tanxcosx )

Solution : Let

k = limx→ π2 (tanxcosx ) (∞0 f orm)

Apply log on both sides

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 10

logk = log limx→ π2 (tanx)cosx

logk = limx→ π2 log (tanx)cosx

= limx→ π2 cosx log (tanx) (0 ∗ ∞ f orm)

By applying L’Hospital’s rule,

log tanx ∞
logk = limx→ π2 ( f orm)
secx ∞
By simplifying we get,

logk = limx→ π2 cotx cosecx

i.elogk = 0 =⇒ k = e0 = 1

Problem 2.3.8. Prove that limx→a 2 −

IET x tan
a

πx
2a
= eπ .
2

Solution : Let
AJ
tan πx
x 2a
L = lim 2−
x→a a
   
πx x
log L = lim tan log 2 −
x→a 2a a
x

 
log 2 − a 0
= lim πx


x→a cot 0
2a
 
1 1 1
= lim −
[Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→a 2 − x − cosec2 πx π



a
a 2a 2a
2
=
π
2
log L =
π
2
L = eπ

1 1
tan x


Problem 2.3.9. Prove that limx→0 x2 = e3 .
x

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 11

Solution: Let
  1  
tan x x2
∞
tan x
L = lim [1 form] ∵ lim =1
x→0 x x→0 x
 
1 tan x
log L = lim log
x→0 x2 x
tan x

 
log x 0
= lim
x→0 x2 0
2
x sec x − tan x
 
x 1
= lim · [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 tan x x2
2x
x sec2 x − tan x
   
0 x
= lim ∵ lim =1
x→0 2x3 0 x→0 tan x

sec2 x + x · 2 sec2 x tan x − sec2 x

= lim [Applying L’Hospital’s rule]
x→0 6x2
sec2 x tan x 1
= lim · =
x→0 3 x 3
1 IET
log L =
3
1
L = e3

Problem 2.3.10. Evaluate limx→π/2 (sin x)tan x

Solution :

K = lim (sin x)tan x (= 1∞ )

x→π/2
AJ

⇒ log k = lim log (sin x)tan x

 
x→π/2

= lim tan x · log(tan x)

x→π/2

log(sin x)
= lim
x→π/2 (1/ tan x)
 
log(sin x) 0
⇒ log k = lim =
x→π/2 cot x 0
Applying L-Hospital’s rule,
1
sin x
· (cos x)
log k = lim
x→π/2 (− cosec2 x)
cot x
= lim −
x→π/2 cosec2 x
cot(π/2)
=−
coscc(π/2)
0
= =0
2
⇒ k = e0 = 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 12

2.4 Partial Differentiation :

Let z = f (x, y) be a function of two variables x and y. The first order partial derivative of z
∂z
w.r.to x, denoted by ∂x
or zx is defined as
∂z f (x + ∆x, y) − f (x, y)
= lim∆x→0
∂x ∆x
∂z
From the above definition, we understand that ∂x
is obtained by differentiating z only w.r.to x, treating
y as a constant.
∂z
Similarly, the first order partial derivative of z w.r.to y, denoted by ∂y
or zy is defined as
∂z f (x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y)
= lim∆y→0
∂y ∆y
∂z
From the above definition, we understand that ∂y
is obtained by differentiating z only w.r.to y, treating
x as a constant.
The second order partial derivatives are
IET
∂ 2z
 
∂ ∂z
or zxx =
∂x2 ∂x ∂x
∂ 2z
 
∂ ∂z
or zyy =
∂y 2 ∂y ∂y
∂ 2z
 
∂ ∂z
AJ

or zyx =
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y
∂ 2z
 
∂ ∂z
or zxy =
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x

Problem 2.4.1. If u = sinxy then find ux , uy , uxx , uyy , uxy , uyx . Also verify that uxy = uyx .

Solution :

u = sinxy (1)

differentiate (1) partially w.r.to x,

∂
ux = [sin(xy)] = ycos(xy)
∂x
differentiate (1) partially w.r.to y,
∂
uy = [sin(xy)] = xcos(xy)
∂y
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 13

differentiate ux partially w.r.to x,

∂
uxx = [ycos(xy)] = −y 2 sin(xy)
∂x
differentiate uy partially w.r.to y,
∂
uyy = [xcos(xy)] = −x2 sin(xy)
∂y
differentiate uy partially w.r.to x,
∂
uxy = [xcos(xy)] = −xysin(xy) + cos(xy)
∂x
differentiate ux partially w.r.to y,
∂
uyx = [ycos(xy)] = −xysin(xy) + cos(xy)
∂y
From last 2 results ,it is clear that uxy = uyx .
IET
Problem 2.4.2. If u = e(ax+by) f (ax − by) ,then prove that bux + auy = 2abu. (VTU Model
2022)

Solution :

u = e(ax+by) f (ax − by) (1)

AJ

differentiate (1) partially w.r.to x,

∂
ux = [e(ax+by) f (ax − by)]
∂x

ux = a[e(ax+by) f 0 (ax − by)] + au

differentiate (1) partially w.r.to y,

∂
uy = [e(ax+by) f (ax − by)]
∂y
0
uy = −b[eax+by f ax − by] + bu

Consider,
h 0
i h 0
i
LHS = bux + auy = b aeax+by f (ax − by) + au + a −beax+by f (ax − by) + bu

= 2abu

= RHS

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 14

∂2z 2
∂ z
Problem 2.4.3. If u = f (x + ct) + g(x − ct) ,then prove that ∂t2
= c2 ∂x 2 (VTU Jan 2018)

Solution :

u = f (x + ct) + g(x − ct) (1)

differentiate (1) partially w.r.to x,

0 0
ux = f (x + ct) + g (x − ct)

differentiate again partially w.r.to x,

00 00
uxx = f (x + ct) + g (x − ct) (2)

differentiate (1) partially w.r.to t,

0 0
ut = c[f (x + ct) − g (x − ct)]
IET
differentiate again partially w.r.to t,
00 00
utt = c2 [f (x + ct) + g (x − ct)] (3)

Using (2) in (3), we get utt = c2 uxx

Problem 2.4.4. If f = tan−1 ( xy ) then find fx , fy , fxx , fyy , fxy , fyx . Also verify that fxy =
fyx .
AJ

Solution: We have
 
−1
y
f = tan (1)
x
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x, we get
−y −y
   
∂f 1
=
2 = (2)
∂x 1+ y x2
x
x2 + y 2
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to y, we get
∂f 1 1 x
= y 2
= (3)
x2 + y2


∂y 1+ x
x
Differentiating (2) partially with respect to y, we get
∂ 2f −y (x2 + y 2 ) (−1) − (−y)(2y)
 
∂
= =
∂y∂x ∂y x2 + y 2 (x2 + y 2 )2

y 2 − x2
= (4)
(x2 + y 2 )2
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 15

Differentiating (3) partially with respect to x, we get

∂ 2f (x2 + y 2 ) (1) − x(2x)
 
∂ x
= =
∂x∂y ∂x x2 + y 2 (x3 + y 2 )2
(5)
y 2 − x2
=
(x2 + y 2 )2
∂2f ∂2f
∴ From eqns. (4) and (5), we get ∂y∂x
= ∂x∂y
.

3
Problem 2.4.5. If u = log(x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz), then prove that ux + uy + uz = x+y+z
and
hence show that
 2
∂ ∂ ∂ −9
∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
u= (x+y+z)2
(VTU Jan 2014)

Solution : Given u = log (x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz)

∂u 3x2 −3yz
∴ ∂x
= x3 +y 3 +z 3 −3xyz
. . . (i)
∂u 3y 2 −3xz IET
Similarly, ∂y
= x3 +y 3 +z 3 −3xyz
. . . (ii)
∂u 3z 2 −3xy
and ∂z
= x3 +y 3 +z 3 −3xyz
. . . . (iii)
Adding eqns. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
∂u ∂u ∂u 3 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx)
+ + =
∂x ∂y ∂z x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz
3 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx)
or =
(x + y + z) (x2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx)
∂u ∂u ∂u 3
+ + =
AJ

∂x ∂y ∂z x+y+z
As a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca

∂u
or + ∂u
∂x∂y
+ ∂u
∂z
3
= x+y+z (iv)

∂ 2
    
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
Now, + + u= + + + + u
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
  
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂u ∂u ∂u
= + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
  
∂ ∂ ∂ 3
= + + from (iv)
∂x ∂y ∂z x+y+z
      
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1
=3 + +
∂x x + y + z ∂y x + y + z ∂z x + y + z
 
1 1 1
=3 − − −
(x + y + z)2 (x + y + z)2 (x + y + z)2
−9
=
(x + y + z)2
1
Problem 2.4.6. If u = (1 − 2xy + y 2 )− 2 and x ∂u
∂x
− y ∂u
∂y
= y 2 uk , then find the value of K.
(VTU Jan 2016)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 16

−1
Solution : u = (1 − 2xy + y 2 ) 2

Differentiate partially w. r. t. x and y

∂u 1
− 23
=− 1 − 2xy + y 2 (−2y)
∂x 2
= u3 y
∂u 1
− 23
=− 1 − 2xy + y 2 (−2x + 2y)
∂y 2
= (x − y)u3

∂u ∂u
= u3 xy + −xy + y 2 u3 = u3 y 2


∴x −y
∂x ∂y
 2  
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
Problem 2.4.7. If z(x + y) = x2 + y 2 , show that ∂x
− ∂y
=4 1− ∂x
− ∂y
.

Solution:
IET
z(x + y) = x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2 (1)
⇒z=
x+y
Differentiate (1) partially w.r.t. x
∂z (x + y)(2x) − (x2 + y 2 ) (1) x2 − y 2 + 2xy
= = (2)
∂x (x + y)2 (x + y)2
AJ

By Symmetry
∂z y 2 − x2 + 2xy
=
∂y (x + y)2
∴
2 2
2 (x2 − y 2 )
 
∂z ∂z
− =
∂x ∂y (x + y)2
4(x + y)2 (x − y)2
= (3)
(x + y)4
4(x − y)2
=
(x + y)2

∂z ∂z x2 − y 2 + 2xy y 2 − x2 + 2xy
1− − =1− −
∂x ∂y (x + y)2 (x + y)2
(4)
4xy (x + y)2 − 4xy (x − y)2
=1− = =
(x + y)2 (x + y)2 (x + y)2
From (3) and (4)
 2  
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
− =4 1− −
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 17

2.5 Total Derivative

If u = f (x, y) is a function of two variables, Then its total differential is denoted by du and is
defined as
∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy .
∂x ∂y
Similarly if u = f (x, y, z) is a function of three variables then
∂u ∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z

Problem 2.5.1. Find the total derivative for the following function : u = x3 + y 3 + x2 y + xy 2

Solution :

du =
∂(x3 + y 3 + x2 y + xy 2 )
∂x
IET dx +
∂(x3 + y 3 + x2 y + xy 2 )
∂y
dy.

= (3x2 + 2xy + y 2 )dx + (3y 2 + x2 + 2xy)dy

Problem 2.5.2. Find the total derivative of u = xy 2 z 3

Solution :
∂(xy 2 z 3 ) ∂(xy 2 z 3 ) ∂(xy 2 z 3 )
du = dx + dy + dz
AJ

∂x ∂y ∂z
= (y 2 z 3 )dx + (2xyz 3 )dy + (3xy 2 z 2 )dz

du
Problem 2.5.3. Find dt
as a total derivative and verify the result by direct substitution if u =
x2 + y 2 + z 2 and x = e2t , y = e2t cos 3t, z = e2t sin 3t.

Solution : Here u is a function of x, y, z and x, y.z are in turn functions of t. Thus u is a

function ‘ t ’ via the intermediate variables x, y, z. Then
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz
= + +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
=2x · 2e2t + 2y · 2e2t cos 3t − 3e2t sin 3t

+ 2z 2e2t sin 3t + 3e2t cos 3t

Rewriting in terms of x, y =

= 2x · 2 · x + 2 · y(2y − 3 · z) + 2z(2z + 3y)

= 4 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 18

or in terms of t
du
= 4 e4t + e4t cos2 3t + sin2 3t = 8e4t



dt
verification by direct substitution:

u = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = e4t + e4t cos2 3t + e4t sin2 3t = 2e4t

du
dt
= 8e4t

Problem 2.5.4. Find the total differential coefficient of x2 y w.r.t. x when x.y are connected by
x2 + xy + y 2 = 1

Solution : Let u = x2 y. then the total differential is

∂u ∂u
du =
IET dx + dy
∂x ∂y
Thus the total differential coefficient of u w.r.t. x is
du ∂u ∂u dy
dx
= ∂x
+ ∂y dx
du dy
dx
= 2xy + x2 dx

From the implicit relation f = x2 + xy + y = 1, we calculate

dy fx 2x + y
=− =−
dx fy x + 2y
AJ

so
 
du dy (2x+y)
dx
= 2xy + x2 · dx
= 2xy + x2 − (x+2y)
du x2 (2x+y)
dx
= 2xy − (x+2y)

2.6 Differentiation of Composite functions :

Note 1:
If u = f (x, y) and x and y are functions of single variable t, then

du ∂u dx ∂u dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt

Note 2 : (Chain Rule)

If u = f (x, y) and x and y are functions of r, s, then u is a function of r, s. In this case,

∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
= +
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 19

∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
= +
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t

Note : The above formulae can be extended to functions of three or more variables.
 
x du
Problem 2.6.1. If u = sin y
, x = et , y = t2 find dt
as a function of t.

dy
Solution : We have dudt
= ∂u dx
∂x dt
+ ∂u
∂y dt
   
i.e du
dt
= 1
y
cos x
y
e t
− x
y2
cos x
y
2t
t
 t
 t
 t

= et2 cos et2 − 2 et3 cos et2
 t 
= e cos et2 t12 − t23
t


Problem 2.6.2. If z is a function of x and y and x = eu + e−v , y = e−u − ev Prove that

∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
∂u
− ∂v
= x ∂x − y ∂y IET
Solution : Here z is a function of x and y, where x and y are functions of u and v.
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
∴ ∂u
= ∂x ∂u
+ ∂y ∂u
... (i) and ∂v
= ∂x
· ∂v
+ ∂y
· ∂v
... (ii)
Also given that
x = eu + e−v and y = e−u − ev
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∴ ∂u
= eu , ∂v
= −e−v , ∂u
= −e−u , ∂v
= −ey
∴ From (i) we get
AJ

∂z ∂z ∂z
∂u
= ∂x
(eu ) + ∂y
(−e−u ) (iii)
and from (ii) we get
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂v
= ∂x
(−e−v ) + ∂y
(−e−v ) . . . (iv)
Subtracting (iv) from (iii) we get
∂z ∂z
∂z
∂z
− = eu + e−v − e−u − ev
∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
=x −y
∂x ∂y
Problem 2.6.3. If u = f (2x − 3y, 3y − 4z, 4z − 2x) then Prove that 12 ux + 13 uy + 14 uz = 0
(VTU June 2019, July 2017)

Solution : Let r = 2x − 3y, s = 3y − 4z, t = 4z − 2x, then

u → (r, s, t) → (x, y, z)

∴ u → (x, y, z)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 20

∂r ∂r ∂r
= 2, = −3, = 0,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂s ∂s ∂s
= 0, = 4, = −4,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂t ∂t ∂t
= −2, = 0, =4
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂t
= + +
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂s 
∂x ∂t ∂x
∂u ∂u
= 2 −
∂r ∂t
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂t
= + +
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y ∂t ∂y
 
∂u ∂u
= 3 − +
∂r ∂t
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂t
= + +
∂z ∂r ∂z ∂s ∂z ∂t ∂z
∂u ∂u

∴
1
ux +
1
uy +
1
uz =
= 4 −

∂u
−
IET
∂s
+
∂u
∂t
 
+ −
∂u
+
∂u
 
+ −
∂u
+
∂u


2 3 4 ∂r ∂t ∂r ∂t ∂s ∂t
=0
 
x y z
Problem 2.6.4. If u = f , ,
y z x
then Prove that xux + yuy + zuz = 0 (VTU Model 2022,
June 2019, June 2018, July 2017, July 2016)
AJ

Solution : Let r = xy , s = yz , t = xz , then u → (r, s, t) → (x, y, z)

∴ u → (x, y, z)
∂r ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s∂u ∂t
= + +
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x ∂t ∂x 
−z
  
∂u 1 ∂u
= +0−
∂r y ∂t x2
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂t
= + +
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y ∂t ∂y
−x
    
∂u ∂u 1
= + +0
∂r y2 ∂s z
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂t
= + +
∂z ∂r ∂z
 ∂s
 ∂z ∂t  ∂z  
∂u 1 ∂u 1
= 0− 2
+
∂s z ∂t x
∴ xux + yuy + zuz

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 21

−z −x
               
∂u x ∂u ∂u ∂u y ∂u 1 ∂u z
= − + + − +
∂r y ∂t x ∂r y ∂s z ∂s z ∂t x
=0

 
y−x z−x
Problem 2.6.5. If u = f xy
, xz then prove that x2 ux + y 2 uy + z 2 uz = 0 (VTU July
2014)

Solution : Let
y−x 1 1 z−x 1 1
v= = − , w= = −
xy x y xz x z
Differentiate V and W partially w.r.to x, y, and z
∂v 1 ∂v 1 ∂v
=− , = , = 0,
∂x IET x2 ∂y y2 ∂z
∂w 1 ∂w ∂w 1
=− , = 0, =
∂x x2 ∂y ∂z z2
Now

u = u(v, w)

∴
∂u ∂u ∂v 1 ∂u ∂u ∂w
1 ∂u
= =− 2 +− 2
∂x ∂v ∂x
 ∂w ∂x x ∂v x ∂w
(1)
AJ
1 ∂u ∂u
=− 2 +
x ∂v ∂w

∂u ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂w 1 ∂u
= + = (2)
∂y ∂v ∂y ∂w ∂y y 2 ∂v

∂u ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂w 1 ∂u
= + = (3)
∂z ∂v ∂z ∂w ∂z z 2 ∂w
from (1), (2), and (3),
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
x2 + y2 + z2 =− − + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂v ∂w ∂v ∂w

2.7 Jacobians (J) :

If u and v are any 2 functions of 2 independent variables x and y ,then the Jacobian of (u,v) w.r. to
∂u ∂u
∂(u,v) ∂x ∂y
(x,y) is denoted by J = ∂(x,y)
and is defined as J = Similarly , If (u,v,w) are functions of
∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y
∂(u,v,w)
3 independent variables (x,y,z)then the Jacobian of (u,v,w) w.r. to (x,y,z) is denoted by J = ∂(x,y,z)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 22

∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z

and is defined as J = ∂v ∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂(u,v,w)
Problem 2.7.1. If u = x + y + z v =y+z w=z , then find J = ∂(x,y,z)

Solution :
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z

J = ∂v ∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z

1 1 1
= 0 1 1

0 0 1
IET
=1

Problem 2.7.2. If u = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , v = xy + yz + zx, w = x+y+z ,then Find

J (u,v,w)
(x,y,z)
AJ

Solution :
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z

J = ∂v ∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z

2x 2y 2z
= y+z x+z y+x

1 1 1

= 2x[(x + z) − (y + z)] − 2y[(y + z) − (y + x)] + 2z[(y + z) − (x + z)]

== 2(xz − xy − yz + xy + yz − xz)

=0

yz zx xy ∂(u,v,w)
Problem 2.7.3. If u = x
, v= y
, w= z
,then prove that J = ∂(x,y,z)
= 4 (VTU July
2015, July 2014).

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 23

Solution : We have
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z

J = ∂v ∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z

−yz z y
x2 x x

J = z −xz x
y y2 y
y x −xy
z z z2

−yz
x
z y
1 −xz
= z x
xyz y
−xy
y x z
1
= [4xyz] IET
xyz
=4

∂(u,v)
Problem 2.7.4. If u + v = ex cosy u − v = ex siny ,then find ∂(x,y)
.

∂u ∂u
∂(u,v) ∂x ∂y
Solution : We have J = ∂(x,y)
=
∂v ∂v
AJ
∂x ∂y
ex
By adding given equations, we get u = 2
(cosy + siny)
ex
By subtracting equations ,v = 2
(cosy − siny)

ex ex
2
(cosy + siny) 2
(cosy − siny)
∴J =
ex −ex
2
(cosy − siny) 2
(cosy + siny)

e2x (cosy + siny) (cosy − siny)

J =
4 (cosy − siny) (cosy + siny)
−e2x −e2x
= (2) =
4 2

∂(x,y,z)
Problem 2.7.5. If x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ Find ∂(r,θ,φ)

Solution :
Given x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 24

sin θ cos φ r cos θ cos φ −r sin θ sin φ

∂(x, y, z)
= sin θ sin φ r cos θ sin φ r sin θ cos φ
∂(r, θ, φ)
cos θ −r sin θ 0

= r 2 sin θ cos2 θ + r 2 sin θ sin2 θ

= r 2 sin θ

Problem 2.7.6. If u = x + 3y 2 − z 3 , v = 4x2 yz, w = 2z 2 − x − y , then find J (u,v,w)

(x,y,z)

at (1, −1, 0) (VTU June 2019, June 2018)

Solution :

u = x + 3y 2 − z 3 · · · (1)
IET
v = 4x2 yz

w = 2z 2 − x − y
· · · (2)

· · · (3)

∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z

J = ∂v ∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z
AJ

1 6y −3z 2
= 8xyz 4x2 z 4x2 y

−1 −1 4z

At the point (1, −1, 0),

1 −6 0
J = 0 0 −4
−1 −1 0

= 1(0 − 4) + 6(0 − 4) = −4 − 24 = −28

2.8 Maxima and Minima for a function of two variables

A function f (x, y) is said to be a maximum at (a, b) when f (a, b) is greater than f (x, y) for
all values of x and y in the neighborhood of (a, b).
Similarly, f (a, b) is said to be a minimum at (a, b) when f (a, b) is less than f (x, y) for all values

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 25

of x and y in the neighborhood of (a, b).

These definitions may be stated in analytical form as follows:
If, for all values of h and k numerically less than some small positive quantity,

• If f (a + h, b + k) − f (a, b) = a negative number, then f (a, b) is a maximum value of

f (x, y).

• If f (a + h, b + k) − f (a, b) = a positive number, then f (a, b) is a minimum value of

f (x, y)f (x, y).

Necessary and sufficient Conditions for extreme values

We know that a necessary condition that a function of one variable to have a maximum or a
IET
minimum for a given value of the variable is that its first derivative should be zero for the given value
of the variable. Similarly, for a function f (x, y) of two independent variables, a necessary condition
that f (a, b) should be a maximum or a minimum (i.e. a turning value) is that for x = a, y = b,
∂f ∂f
= 0, = 0.
∂x ∂y
Hence the following steps are used for finding maximum and minimum values of a function f (x, y)

∂f ∂f
AJ
Step 1. Solve the simultaneous equations = 0, = 0. and find the values of (x, y) in
∂x ∂y
the form (a, b), (c, d), (e, f )...These points are called as stationary points.

∂2f ∂2f
Step 2. For each stationary point, calculate the value of ∆ = rt − s2 where r = ∂x2
, s= ∂x∂y
∂2f
and t = ∂y 2

Step 3. The function will have a

maximum if ∆ > 0 and r < 0
minimum if ∆ > 0 and r > 0
neither a maximum nor a minimum if ∆ < 0
The question is undecided if ∆ = 0

Problem 2.8.1. Examine f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 12x − 3y + 20 for its extreme values

Solution :

fx = 3x2 − 12, fy = 3y 2 − 12

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 26

r = fxx = 6x, s = fxy = 0, t = fyy = 6y

Solving fx = 0 and fy = 0, we get

⇒ 3x2 − 12 = 0, and 3y 2 − 3 = 0

⇒ x2 − 4 = 0 and y2 − 1 = 0

⇒ x2 = 4 and y2 = 1

⇒ x = ±2 and y = ±1
Hence stationary points are (2, 1), (2, −1), (−2, 1), (−2, −1)
∆ = rt − s2 = (6x)(6y) − 0 = 36xy
At (2,1) ∆ = 72 > 0 and r = 12 > 0.
IET
Therefore function takes minimum value at (2,1)
and the Minimum Value = f (2, 1) = 2
At (2,-1) and (-2,1), ∆ = −72 < 0 Hence (-2,1) and (2,-1) are saddle points.
At (-2,-1) ∆ = 72 > 0 and r = −12 < 0. Therefore function takes maximum value at (2,1)
Maximum Value= f (−2, −1) = 38
AJ

Problem 2.8.2. Find the extreme points of the function f (x, y) = 2 (x2 − y 2 ) − x4 + y 4 .

Solution : f (x, y) = 2 (x2 − y 2 ) − x4 + y 4 · · · (1)

diff (1) w,r.t x & y partially
∂f
∂x
= 4x − 4x3 · · · (2)
∂f
∂y
= −4y + 4y 3 · · · (3)
Solving fx = 0 and fy = 0, we get

⇒ 4x − 4x3 = 0 and − 4y + 4y 3 = 0

⇒ x − x3 = 0 and − y + y3 = 0

⇒ x(1 − x2 ) = 0 and y(−1 + y 2 ) = 0

⇒ x = 0, x2 = 1 and y = 0, y 2 − 1 = 0

⇒ x = 0, x = 1, x = −1 and y = 0, y = 1, y = −1

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 27

Hence stationary points are

(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, −1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, −1), (−1, 0), (−1, 1), (−1, −1)

r = fxx = 4 − 12x2 , s = fxy = 0, t = fyy = −4 + 12y 2

Points r s t rt − s2 conclusion
(0, 0) 4>0 0 −4 −16 < 0 Saddle point
(0, 1) 4>0 0 8 32 > 0 minimum
(1, 0) −8 < 0 0 −4 32 > 0 maximum
(1, 1) −8 < 0 0 8 −64 < 0 saddle point
(0, −1) 4 0 8 32 > 0 minimum
(1, −1) −8 0 8 −64 < 0 saddle point
(−1, 0) −8 < 0 IET 0 −4 32 > 0 maximum
(−1, 1) −8 0 8 −64 < 0 saddle point
(−1, −1) −8 0 8 −64 < 0 saddle point

max f = f (1, 0) = f (−1, 0) = 2(1 − 0) − 1 + 0 = 2 − 1 = 1

min f = 2(0 − 1) − 0 + 1 = −2 + 1 = −2
Problem 2.8.3. Find the extreme values of the function f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 3axy
AJ

Solution : We have, f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 3axy

∂f ∂f
p= ∂x
= 3x2 − 3ay, q = ∂y
= 3y 2 − 3ax
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f
r= ∂x2
= 6x, s= ∂x∂y
= −3a, t= ∂y 2
= 6y
For maxima and minima
∂f ∂f
= 0 and =0
∂x ∂y
3x2 − 3ay = 03y 2 − 3ax = 0
x2
⇒ x2 = ay ⇒ y = a
... (1)
⇒ y 2 = ax ... (2)
Putting the value of y from (1) in (2), we get

x4 = a3 x ⇒ x x3 − a3 = 0

x(x − a) x2 + ax + a2 = 0


⇒

⇒ x = 0, a

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 28

Putting x = 0 in (1), we get y = 0,

Putting x = a in (1), we get y = a,
Stationary pairs (0, 0) (a, a)
r 0 6a
s −3a −3a
t 0 6a
rt − s2 −9a2 < 0 27a2 > 0
At (0, 0) there is no extremum value, since rt − s2 < 0.
At (a, a), rt − s2 > 0, r > 0
Therefore (a, a) is a point of minimum value.
The minimum value of f (a, a) = a3 + a3 − 3a3 = −a3

Problem 2.8.4. Find the extreme values of the function f (x, y) = x4 + y 4 –2x2 + 4xy–2y 2

Solution:
IET
f (x, y) = x4 + y 4 − 2x2 + 4xy − 2y 2
For stationary point of f (x, y), we solve fx = 4x3 − 4x + 4y = 0 or x3 − x + y = 0 (1)
fy = 4y 3 + 4x − 4y = 0 or y 3 + x − y = 0 (2)
Adding (1) and (2), we get x3 + y 3 = 0
∴ y = −x
AJ

Substituting this value in (1), we get x3 − x − x = 0

√ √
x3 − 2x = 0 → x(x2 − 2) = 0 → x = 0, x = 2, − 2
√ √ √ √
for x = 0, y = 0; for x = 2, y = − 2 and for x = − 2, y = − 2
√ √ √ √
∴ Stationary points of f are (0, 0), ( 2, − 2) and (− 2, 2)

r = fxx = 12x2 − 4, s = fxy = 4, t = fyy = 12y 2 − 4

Point r s t rt − s2
(0, 0) −4 4 −4 0
√ √
( 2, − 2) 20 > 0 4 20 384 > 0
√ √
(− 2, 2) 20 > 0 20 384 > 0
4
√ √
∴ Minima at both the points ( 2, − 2) and
√ √
(− 2, 2) and minimum value at both these points = 4 + 4 − 4 − 8 − 4 = −8.

Problem 2.8.5. Examine the function f (x, y) = x3 + 3xy 2 − 15x2 − 15y 2 + 72x (VTU
Model ME 2022)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 29

Solution :

f (x, y) = x3 + 3xy 2 − 15x2 − 15y 2 · · · (1)

∂f
= 3x2 + 3y 2 − 30x + 72 · · · (2)
∂x
∂f
= 6xy − 30y · · · (3)
∂y
For stationary point of f (x, y), we solve
∂f ∂f
= 0, =0
∂x ∂y
3x2 + 3y 2 − 30x + 72 = 0 · · · (4)

and 6xy − 30y = 0 · · · (5)

⇒ xy − 5y = 0

⇒ y(x − 5) = 0
IET
⇒ y = 0, x−5=0

⇒y=0 x=5
When y = 0, from (4) we get

x2 − 10x + 24 = 0

⇒ x2 − 4x − 6x + 24 = 0
AJ
⇒ x(x − 4) − 6(x − 4) = 0

⇒ (x − 4)(x − 6) = 0

⇒ x = 4, 6
∴ When y = 0 stationary points are (4, 0), (6, 0),
when x = 5 from (4) we get

⇒ 25 + y 2 − 50 + 24 = 0

y2 − 1 = 0

y2 = 1

y = ±1
∴ when x = 5 the stationary point are (5, 1), (5, −1)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 30

∂ 2f
r= = 6x − 30
∂x2
∂ 2f
s= = 6y
∂x∂y
∂ 2f
t= = 6x − 30
∂x∂y
Points r s t rt − s2 conclusion
(4, 0) −6 < 0 0 −6 36 > 0 max
(6, 0) 6>0 0 6 36 > 0 min
(5, 1) 0 6 0 −36 < 0 saddle point
(5, −1) 0 -6 0 −36 < 0 saddle point
Maximum value is f (4, 0) = 43 + 0 − 15(42 ) − 0 + 72(4) = 112
Minimum value is f (6, 0) = 63 + 0 − 15(62 ) − 0 + 72(6) = 108

Question Bank- Module 2

IET
Maclaurin’s series :
√
1. Determine the Maclaurin series expansion of the function, y = 1 + sin2x by Maclaurin’s
series. (VTU July 2021, June 2019, June 2018,Model 2018, Jan 2016, July 2014) Ans :
AJ

x2 x3 x4
1+x− 2!
− 3!
+ 4!
+ ···

2. Determine the Maclaurin series expansion of the function, f (x) = log(1 + cosx) upto the
term containing x4 . (VTU Model CV 2022, June 2019, July 2017) Ans :
x2 x4
log 2 − 4
− 96
+ ···

3. Expand log(secx) upto 6th degree term by Maclaurin’s series (VTU Jan 2018, July 2017,
x2 2x4 16x6
2009) Ans : 2!
+ 4!
+ 6!
+ ···

4. Expand tanx by Maclaurin’s series (VTU July 2015)

x2 4
5. Expand sin(ex − 1) by Maclaurin’s series (VTU June 2014) Ans : x + 2!
− 5 x4! + . . .

6. Expand f (x) = esinx by Maclaurin’s series (VTU Model EE 2022, June 2018, 2011) Ans :
x2 x4
1+x+ 2
− 8
+ ···

7. Expand y = log(1 + ex ) by Maclaurin’s series (VTU Model CV 2022, July 2016) Ans :

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 31

x x2
log2 + 2
+ 8
+ ···

x
8. Expand y = by Maclaurin’s series (VTU Jan 2015) Ans :
(ex−1 )
3 4
e(x − x2 + x2 − x6 + · · ·

ex
9. Expand (1+ex )
using Maclaurin’s series upto 3rd degree terms. (VTU Jan 2017)

10. Expand y = secx using Maclaurin’s series up to x4 term. (VTU Jan 2016)
√ √ h x2 x4
i
11. Using Maclaurin’s series Prove that 1 + cos 2x = 2 1 − 2
+ 24
+ ··· (VTU Jan
2021)

12. Expand log(1 + sinx) up to the term containing x4 using Maclaurin’s series (VTU Model
x2 x3
2022) Ans : x − 2!
+ 3!
+ ···

13. Expand log cos x by Maclaurin’s series up to the term containing x6 (VTU Model ME 2022)
IET
14. Expand f (x) = ecosx by Maclaurin’s series up to the term containing x4 (VTU Model ME
2022)

15. Determine the Maclaurin series expansion of the function, tanx (VTU July 2015) Ans :
x3 x5 1 x2 1 x4
x + 2 3! + 16 5! + . . . Ans : log2 − 2
− 2!
− 4
+ 4!
+ ...

16. Determine the Maclaurin series expansion of the function, f (x) = ex sinx Ans :
AJ
x2 3 4 8 5
1+x+ 2!
− 4!
x − 5!
x + ...

17. Determine the Maclaurin series expansion of the function, log(1 + x) Ans :
x2 x3 x4
x− 2
+ 3
− 4
+ ...
−1 x
18. Determine the Maclaurin series expansion of the function, etan Ans :
x2 x3 4
1+x+ 2!
− 3!
− 7 x4! + . . .

19. Determine the Maclaurin series expansion of the function, excosx Ans :
x2 x3 x4
1+x+ 2!
− 2 3! − 11 4! + . . .

x2 x3
20. Determine the Maclaurin series expansion of y = etanx Ans : 1 + x + 2
+ 2
+ ···

Indeterminate Forms:

lim
x1
ax +bx +cx
1. Evaluate x → 0 3
(VTU Model 2022, Jan 2021, Jan 2020,June 2019, Jan 2018,
1
July 2015, Model 2014) Ans : (abc) 3

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 32

πx
x tan( 2a ) 2
 
2. Evaluate limx→a 2− a
(VTU May 2010) Ans : e π

2x
3. Evaluate limx→0 (cosx)cot (VTU July 2017)
1 1
4. Evaluate limx→0 [ tanx
x
] x2 (VTU Model EE 2022, Jan 2017, July 2016) Ans : e 3
1
5. Evaluate limx→0 [ sinx
x
] x2 (VTU Model ME 2022, July 2017)

1
6. Evaluate limx→0 [ sinx
x
]x (VTU Jan 2015)

x +3x +4x 1
7. Evaluate limx→0 (2 3
)x (VTU Jan 2018, Jan 2014)

x +bx +cx +dx 1

8. Evaluate limx→0 (a 4
)x (VTU Model ME 2022, July 2021, June 2019, June
2018, Model 2018, July 2017, Jan 2016, July 2014, Dec 2011)
h i
1 log(1+x)
9. Evaluate limx→0 x
− x2
IET (VTU Jan 2018)
 1 2sinx
10. Evaluate limx→0 x
(VTU Model 2018)

1 2 sin x


11. Evaluate limx→0 x
(VTU Jan 2021)
1 1
12. Evaluate limx→0 (cos x) x2 (VTU Model EE 2022, July 2021) limx→0 [ax + x] x (VTU
Model 2022) Ans : ae
AJ
1
13. limx→0 [ tanx
x
]x (VTU Model 2022)

14. Evaluate limx→ π2 (tanxtan2x ) (VTU Model EE 2022)

15. Evaluate limx→ π2 (tanxcosx ) Ans : 1

16. Evaluate limx→π/2 (sin x)tan x (VTU Model CV 2022, June 2018) Ans : 1

17. Evaluate limx→0 (cotx)tanx (VTU Model CV 2022)

Partial Differentiation :

1. If u = e(ax+by) f (ax − by) ,then prove that bux + auy = 2abu. (VTU Model 2022)

∂2z ∂ z2
2. If z = sin(ax + y) + cos(ax − y), prove that ∂x2
= a2 ∂y 2 (VTU July 2017)
 2  
2 2 ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
3. If u(x + y) = x + y , then prove that ∂x
− ∂y
=4 1− ∂x
− ∂y
(VTU Model
ME 2022, July 2017)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 33

  2 
∂2r ∂2r 1 ∂r 2 ∂r


4. If x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ then show that ∂x2
+ ∂y 2
= r ∂x
+ ∂y
(VTU July
2017)

3
5. If u = log(x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz), then prove that ux + uy + uz = x+y+z
and hence show
that
 2
∂ ∂ ∂ −9
∂x
+ ∂y
+ ∂z
u= (x+y+z)2
(VTU Jan 2014)
1
6. If V = (1 − 2xy + y 2 )− 2 and x ∂V
∂x
− y ∂V
∂y
= y 2 V k , then find the value of K. (VTU Jan
2016) Ans : 3

∂2z ∂ z2
7. If u = f (x + ct) + g(x − ct) ,then prove that ∂t2
= c2 ∂x2 (VTU Jan 2018)

8. If u = log(tan x + tan y + tan z) show that sin 2x ∂u

∂x
+ sin 2y ∂u
∂y
+ sin 2z ∂u
∂z
= 2.
(VTU Model 2022) IET
1
9. If u = √ , then prove that vxx + vyy + vzz = 0
(x2 +y 2 +z 2 )

2 2
10. If u = log[ xx+y
+y
] then show that xux + yuy = 1

11. If u = log(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ), then show that (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )(uxx + uyy + uzz ) = 2

12. If u = tan−1 ( xy ) then find the value of uxx + uyy (VTU Model EE 2022) Ans : 0
AJ

Differentiation of Composite functions :

y
1. Find total derivative of u with respect to t where u = tan−1 , x = et −e−t , y = et +e−t


x

(VTU Model EE 2022, July 2017)

du
2. If u = x3 y 2 + x2 y 3 , x = at2 , y = 2at, then find dt

du
3. If u = xy 2 + x2 y, x = at2 , y = 2at, then find dt
(VTU Model ME 2022)

4. If u = f (2x − 3y, 3y − 4z, 4z − 2x) then find the value of 12 ux + 31 uy + 14 uz (VTU

June 2019, July 2017)
 
5. If u = f xy , yz , xz then Prove that xux + yuy + zuz = 0 (VTU Model 2022, June 2019,
June 2018, July 2017, July 2016)

6. If u = f (x − y, y − z, z − x) then Prove that ux + uy + uz = 0 (VTU Model ME 2022,

July 2021, Jan 2020, Model 2018, Model 2014, July 2003)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 34

7. If u = f (y − z, z − x, x − y) then Prove that ux + uy + uz = 0 (VTU July 2019)

8. If u = f xz, yz then Prove that xux − yuy − zuz = 0

(VTU July 2004)
 
9. If u = f y−x
xy
, z−x
xz
then prove that x2 ux + y 2 uy + z 2 uz = 0 (VTU Model EE 2022 ,
July 2014)
 2
∂z 2

2 ∂z
= ∂z


10. If z = f (x, y), x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ, then prove that + ∂r ∂x
+ ∂y
1 ∂z

2
r 2 ∂θ
(VTU Jan 2018, July 2018, Jan 2015)

11. If z = f (x, y), x = eu + e−v , y = e−u − ev , then prove that xzx − yzy = zu − zv .
(VTU Jan 2016)

12. If u = log(tan x + tan y + tan z) show that sin 2x ∂u

∂x
+ sin 2y ∂u
∂y
+ sin 2z ∂u
∂z
= 2. (VTU
Model 2022) If u = e(ax+by) f (ax − by) ,then prove that bux + auy = 2abu by using the
IET
concept of composite functions. (VTU Model 2022)

du
13. If u = sin−1 (x − y), x = 3t, y = 4t3 , then show that dt
= √3
1−t2

14. If z = f (x, y) where x = u − v, y = uv then show that

(i)uzu − vzv = (u + v)zx
(ii)zu + zv = (u + v)zy
AJ

Jacobians (J) :

yz zx xy ∂(u,v,w)
1. If u = x
, v= y
, w= z
,then prove that J = ∂(x,y,z)
=4 (VTU Model EE
2022, Model 2018, June 2018, July 2015, July 2014).

2. If u = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , v = xy + yz + zx, w =x+y+z ,then Find J (u,v,w)

(x,y,z)

(VTU Model ME 2022, Jan 2020, Jan 2018, July 2017, Jan 2015) Ans : 0

∂(x,y,z)
3. If u = x + y + z vu = y + z uvw = z , then find J = ∂(u,v,w)
(VTU Model 2022,
Jan 2016) Ans : u2 v

4. If x = rsinθcosφ, y = rsinθsinφ, z = rcosθ ,then find the Jacobian of x, y, z

w.r.to r, θ, φ. (VTU Model 2022, July 2016, July 2014) Ans : r 2 sin θ

x y z ∂(u,v,w)
5. If u = y−z
,v = z−x
,w = x−y
, find the Jacobian ∂(x,y,z)
. Determine whether u, v, w are
functionally dependent. (VTU July 2017)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 35

x2 x3 x1 x3 x1 x2 ∂(u,v,w)
6. If u = x1
, v= x2
, w= x3
,then find the value of J = ∂(x1 ,x2 ,x3 )
(VTU Jan
2017)

7. If u = x + 3y 2 , v = 4x2 yz, w = 2z 2 − xy, then Find J (u,v,w)

(x,y,z)
at (1, −1, 0) (VTU
Jan 2018)

8. If u = x+3y 2 −z 3 , v = 4x2 yz, w = 2z 2 −x−y , then find J (u,v,w)

(x,y,z)
at (1, −1, 0)
(VTU June 2019, June 2018) Ans : -28

9. If u = x + 3y 2 − z 3 , v = 4x2 yz, w = 2z 2 − xy, then Find J (u,v,w)

(x,y,z)
at (1, −1, 0)
(VTU Model CV 2022)
 
2 u,v,w
10. If u = 3x + 2y − z, v = x − 2yz, w = x + 2xy − xz, then Show that J x,y,z
=0
(VTU 2021) IET ∂(u,v,w)
11. If u = x + y + z v =y+z w=z , then find J = ∂(x,y,z)
Ans : 1

∂(u,v) −e2x
12. If u + v = ex cosy u − v = ex siny ,then find ∂(x,y)
. Ans : 2

Maxima and minima for a function of two variables

Find the extreme values of the following functions

AJ

1. f (x, y) = x3 + 3xy 2 − 3y 2 − 3x + 4 (VTU Model 2022)

2. f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 + 6x − 12 (VTU Model 2022)

3. f (x, y) = x3 + 3x2 + 4xy + y 2 (VTU Model ME 2022 )

4. f (x, y) = x3 + 3xy 2 − 15x2 − 15y 2 + 72x (VTU Model ME 2022) Ans : Maximum
value is f (4, 0) = 112 and Minimum value is f (6, 0) = 108

5. f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 3axy (VTU Model EE 2022) Ans : Extreme value=−a3

6. f (x, y) = x4 + y 4 –2x2 + 4xy–2y 2 Ans : Minimum value attwo points = −8.

7. f (x, y) = x3 y 2 (1–x–y)

a3 a3
8. f (x, y) = xy + x
+ y

9. f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 –3x–12y + 20 (VTU Jan 2020, June 2019)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics-I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 2 Notes ) Page 36

10. f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 12x − 3y + 20 Ans : Minimum Value = f (2, 1) = 2, Maximum

Value= f (−2, −1) = 38

11. f (x, y) = 2 + 2x + 2y − x2 − y 2 (VTU Jan 2021)

a a


12. S.T. f (x, y) = xy(a − x − y) is max. at ,
3 3
. Find the maximum value. (VTU Model
CV 2022, July 2021)

13. Find the extreme points of the function f (x, y) = 2 (x2 − y 2 ) − x4 + y 4 (VTU Model CV
2022) Ans : max f = 1& min f = −2

14. Find the extreme values of the function f (x, y) = SinxSinySin(x + y) Where 0 < x <
π π
2
,0<y < 2

15. In a plane triangle find the maximum value of CosACosBCosC (VTU June 2019) Ans :
IET
maximum value is 18 )

16. In a plane triangle find the maximum value of sin x sin y sin z (VTU 2021)

17. Examine the function f (x, y) = Sinx + Siny + Sin(x + y) for extremum. Ans : Max
√
3 3
value is 2

18. Examine the function f (x, y) = 1 + Sin(x2 + y 2 ) for extremum

AJ

( Ans : minimum value is f (0, 0) = 1)

19. Find the stationary points of z = x2 − xy + y 2 − 2x + y and hence find its maximum and
minimum values. (Ans:Minimum value is f (1, 0) = −1)

20. Show that the function f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 3xy + 1 is minimum at the point (1, 1) (VTU
Model EE 2022 )

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

 IET
Mathematics I for Civil Stream - Lecture Notes

Subject Code : BMATC101

Module 3 - Ordinary Differential Equations

(ODEs) of First Order
AJ
Prepared By

Dr. Shantha Kumari. K.

Department of Mathematics

AJIET, Mangaluru
Module 3-Ordinary Differential Equations
(ODE’s) of first order

Syllabus
IET
Linear and Bernoulli’s differential equations. Exact and reducible to exact differ-

ential equations, Orthogonal trajectories, L-R & C-R circuits, Problems

Non-linear differential equations: Introduction to general and singular solutions,

solvable for p only, Clairaut’s equations, reducible to Clairaut’s equations. Prob-

lems.
AJ
Self-Study: Applications of ODE, Solutions of nonlinear ODEs-Solvable for x and

Definition of ODE: A differential equation is any equation which contains deriva-

tives, either ordinary derivatives or partial derivatives. A differential equation is

called an ordinary differential equation(ODE), if it has ordinary derivatives in it.

An ODE involves derivatives of an unknown function with respect to a single inde-

pendent variable, which we usually call y(x) (or sometimes y(t) if the independent

variable is time t).

dy
e.g. : dx
+ 5y = sinx is an ordinary differential equation.

Partial Differential Equations:

1
Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 2

A differential equation is called a partial differential equation(PDE), if it has par-

tial derivatives of an unknown function of two or more variables.

Order of a Differential Equation: The order of a differential equation is the order

of the highest order derivative occurring in it.

Degree of a Differential Equation: The degree of a differential equation is the de-

gree of the highest order derivative occurring in it, when the derivatives are free from

radicals and fractions.

Solution of a Differential Equation: A solution or Integral of a differential equation

IET
is a relation between the independent and the dependent variables which satisfies the

given differential equation.

General Solution or Complete Integral: A solution containing the number of ar-

bitrary constants equal to the order of the equation is called the general solution or

complete integral.

Particular Solution : Any solution obtained from the general solution by giving
AJ
specific values to one or more of the arbitrary constants is called a particular solu-

tion.

Initial Value Problem: In most cases the unique solution of a given problem, hence

a particular solution, is obtained from a general solution by an initial condition

y(x0 ) = y0 with given values and , that is used to determine a value of the arbitrary

constant c. Geometrically this condition means that the solution curve should pass

through the point (x0 , y0 ) in the xy-plane. An ODE, together with an initial condi-

tion, is called an initial value problem. Thus, if the ODE is explicit, y 0 = f (x, y)

the initial value problem is of the form y 0 = f (x, y), y(x0 ) = y0

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 3

3.1 Exact Differential equation:

A differential Equation of the form M dx + N dy = 0 or M (x, y)dx +

N (x, y)dy = 0 is said to be exact if

∂M ∂N
=
∂y ∂x
and its solution is obtained by using the formula,
Z Z
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)

IET
Problem 3.1.1. Solve (x2 − 4xy − 2y 2 )dx + (y 2 − 4xy − 2x2 )dy = 0

Solution: Given equation is of the form M dx + N dy = 0

where M = x2 − 4xy − 2y 2 and N = y 2 − 4xy − 2x2

∂M
∴ ∂y
= −4x − 4y, ∂N
∂x
= −4y − 4x
∂M ∂N
∴ ∂y
= ∂x

∴ Given equation is exact.

AJ
R R
∴ solution is M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)
i.e. (x − 4xy − 2y 2 )dx + y 2 dy = c
R 2 R

x3 2 y3
3
− 4 x2 y − 2y 2 x + 3
=c

i.e. x3 − 6x2 y − 6xy 2 + y 3 = 3c = C

2 2
Problem 3.1.2. Solve (y 2 exy + 4x3 )dx + (2xyexy − 3y 2 )dy = 0.(VTU Jan

2014, Model 2014)

Solution : Here
2 2
M = y 2 exy + 4x3 , N = 2xyexy − 3y 2

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 4

∂M 2 2 2
= y 2 · exy 2xy + exy · 2y = 2y + 2xy 3 exy


∴
∂y
∂N xy 2
h
xy 2 2
i 2
= 2y + 2xy 3 exy


= 2e y + 2xy e y
∂x
∂M
and since ∂y
= ∂N
∂x
, the given equation is exact.
R R
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c (1)
(y−constant)
Integrating M w.r.t. x keeping y as constant, we get
xy 2
2 e x4
Z  
2 xy 2 3 xy 2
y e + 4x dx = y 2
+ 4 = e + x4
y 4
Integrating the terms of N which are free from x, w.r.t. y, we have
Z
IET
2


−3y dy == −3
y3
3
= −y 3

Substituting in (1) we get the solution in the form :

2
x4 + exy − y 3 = c
 x
   x
x
Problem 3.1.3. Solve 1 + e y dx + 1 − y
e y dy = 0. (VTU June 2014)

Solution : Here
AJ
 
x x x x x x
M =1+e , N =e 1− y = ey − ey y
y y
x
 
∴ ∂M∂y
= e y − yx2
 x x
 x
∂N x/y 1
and ∂x = e · y − y e + xe y = − yx2 e y
1 y y 1

∂M ∂N
since ∂y
= ,
the equation is exact.
∂x
R R
Solution is given by M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)
(1)

Integrating M w.r.t. x keeping y as constant, we have

x
ey
Z  
x
1 + e y dx = x + = x + yexy
(1/y)
(y−constant)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 5

since in N there is no term free from x, hence the solution (1) becomes

x + yex/y = c

Problem 3.1.4. Solve (ycosx + siny + y)dx + (sinx + xcosy + x)dy = 0

(VTU Jan 2016)

(or)
dy (ycosx+siny+y)
Solve dx
+ (sinx+xcosy+x)
=0 (VTU Jan 2020, Jan 2019, June 2018, Jan 2018)

Solution :Given equation is of the form M dx + N dy = 0

Here

Since
∂M

∂M
∂y
= ∂N
IET
M = y cos x + sin y + y,

= cos x + cos y + 1,

,
N = sin x + x cos y + x

the equation is exact.

∂N
∂x
= cos x + cos y + 1

∂y ∂x

Solution is given by
R R
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)

(y cos x + sin y + y)dx = c

AJ
(y−constant)
Z
i.e.y sin x + (sin y + y)x = c. (∵ kdx = kx, where k is a constant)

Problem 3.1.5. Solve y 1 + x1 + cos y dx + [x + log x − x sin y] dy = 0




(VTU Jan 2021)

Solution :Given equation is of the form M dx + N dy = 0

Here  
1
M =y 1+ + cos y
x
N = x + log x − x sin y
∂M 1 dN
∴ =1+ − sin y =
∂y x dx
Equation is exact.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 6

R R
Solution is given by M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)

Z    
1
y 1+ + cos y dx + 0 = C
x
(y−constant)

i.e. y(x + log x) + x cos y = C

Problem 3.1.6. Solve yexy dx + (xexy + 2y)dy = 0 (VTU Jan 2018)

Solution :Given equation is of the form M dx + N dy = 0

Here M = yexy , N = xexy + 2y

IET
∂M
∂y
∂N
= y (exy · x) + exy = exy (xy + 1)

= x (exy · y) + exy = exy (xy + 1)

∂x
∂M ∂N
= , the equation is exact.
∂y ∂x
AJ
R R
Solution is given by M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)
Z Z
xy
ye dx + 2ydy = c
(y−constant)
exy y2
y· +2· =c or exy + y 2 = c.
y 2
Problem 3.1.7. Solve (ey + 1) cos xdx + ey sin xdy = 0.

Solution : Here M = (ey + 1) cos x, N = ey sin x

∂M ∂N
⇒ ∂y
= ey cos x, ∂x
= ey cos x.
∂M ∂N
Since ∂y
= ∂x
, the equation is exact.

Solution is given by
R R
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 7

Integrating M w.r.t. x keeping y as constant, we have

Z
(ey + 1) cos xdx = (ey + 1) sin x

Now since in N there is no term free from x, the solution is

(ey + 1) sin x = c

Problem 3.1.8. Solve:

5x4 + 3x2 y 2 − 2xy 3 dx + 2x3 y − 3x2 y 2 − 5y 4 dy = 0

Solution : Here, M = 5x4 + 3x2 y 2 − 2xy 3 , N = 2x3 y − 3x2 y 2 − 5y 4

Since, ∂M
∂y
=
∂M
∂y
∂N
∂x
,
IET
= 6x2 y − 6xy 2 ,

the given equation is exact.

∂N
∂x
= 6x2 y − 6xy 2

R R
Now Solution is given by M dx + ( terms of N is not containing x)dy = C

( y constant)
Z Z
5x4 + 3x2 y 2 − 2xy 3
−5y 4 dy = C


dx +
AJ
⇒x5 + x3 y 2 − x2 y 3 − y 5 =C

3.2 Equations Reducible to exact form

Sometimes a differential equation which is not exact may become exact on mul-

tiplication by a suitable function known as an Integrating Factor.(I.F.)

Consider the general differential equation M dx + N dy = 0

∂M ∂N ∂M ∂N
If ∂y
6= ∂x
then compute ∂y
−
and check whether it is near to M or N.
∂x
( ∂N − ∂M )
Case 1 : If it is near to M then compute ∂x M ∂y and if this gives a function of y

only, say f (y) , then

R
f (y)dy
I.F. = e

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 8

( ∂M
∂y
− ∂N
∂x )
Case 2 : If it is near to N then compute N
and if this gives a function of x

only, say g(x) , then

R
g(x)dx
I.F. = e

Finally multiply the given differential equation by the integrating factor which re-

duces to the exact form. and the Solution is given by

R R
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)

Problem 3.2.1. Solve (x2 + y 2 + x)dx + xydy = 0. (VTU July 2017, Aug

2001, Mar 2000)

∂M
∂y
= 2y ∂N
∂x
IET
SOlution : Here M = x2 + y 2 + x and N = xy

=y
∂M ∂N
∴ ∂y
6= ∂x
 
∂M ∂N
Consider ∂y
− ∂x
= 2y − y = y which is near to N.
( ∂M
∂y
− ∂N
∂x ) 1 1
∴ compute N
= xy
y= x
= g(x)
AJ
1
R R
g(x)dx dx
I.F. = e =e x = elogx = x

Multiplying the given differential equation by the integrating factor (i.e. x), we get

(x3 + xy 2 + x2 )dx + x2 ydy = 0.

This is in exact form.

∴ its solution is
Z Z
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)
R
i.e. (x3 + xy 2 + x2 )dx + 0 = c
x4 (x2 y 2 ) x3
i.e. 4
+ 2
+ 3
=c



Problem 3.2.2. Solve xy 3 + y dx + 2 x2 y 2 + x + y 4 dy = 0. ( VTU Jan

2015)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 9

Solution : Here M = xy 3 + y, N = 2 x2 y 2 + x + y 4 .
∂M ∂N
= 3xy 2 + 1, = 4xy 2 + 2
∂y ∂x



4xy + 2 − 3xy 2 + 1
2
 
1 ∂N ∂M
Now − =
M ∂x ∂y y (1 + xy 2 )
xy 2 + 1
=
y (1 + xy 2 )
1
=
y
1
R
dy
Hence I.F. = e y

= elog y
IET
Multiplying the equation by y , we have
=y

xy 4 + y 2 dx + 2 x2 y 3 + xy + y 5 dy = 0

Above equation is exact.

Solution is given by
AJ
Z Z
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)
Z Z
4 2
y 5 dy = cc


i.e. xy + y dx + 2
(y−constant)

or
x2 y 4 2 y6
+y x+2 =c
2 6
or

3x2 y 4 + 6y 2 x + 2y 6 = c1



Problem 3.2.3. Solve y 4 + 2y dx + xy 3 + 2y 4 − 4x dy = 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 10

Solution :
Here M = y 4 + 2y, N = xy 3 + 2y 4 − 4x
∂M
= 4y 3 + 2,
∂y
∂N
= y3 − 4
∂x
∂N ∂M
−



∂x ∂y y 3 − 4 − 4y 3 + 2
=
M y 4 + 2y


−3 y 3 + 2
=
y (y 3 + 2)
3
= − = f (y)
y
∴
IET I.F. = e

=e
R

R
f (y)dy

− y3 dy

= e−3 log y
−3
= elog y
1
= y −3 =
y3
AJ
Multiplying the given equation by y13 , it becomes
   
2 4x
y + 2 dx + x + 2y − 3 dy = 0
y y
Which is exact.

Hence the solution is

Z Z
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)
Z  
2
Z
i.e. y + 2 dx + 2ydy = c
y
y−constant
 
2
or y + 2 x + y 2 = c.
y


Problem 3.2.4. Solve x2 + y 2 + 2x dx + 2ydy = 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 11

Solution : Here M = x2 + y 2 + 2x , N = 2y
∂M ∂N
⇒ ∂y
= 2y, ∂x
=0
 
Now 1
N
∂M
∂y
− ∂N
∂x
= 2y
2y
=1

This can be treated as a function of x only.

R
dx
Hence, the I.F. = e = ex

Multiplying the equation by ex , we have

ex x2 + y 2 + 2x dx + 2yex dy = 0

Above equation is exact.

Solution is given by
R
M
(y−constant)
R
IET
dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
R

Hence the solution is ex x2 + y 2 + 2x dx + 0 = c

(∵ 2yex is not free from x)

R

x2 + 2x ex dx + y 2 ex dx = c
R
or

Integrating by parts
AJ
Z Z
x + 2x ex −
2 x
ex dx = c 2


(2x + 2)e dx + y
Z
2

x x
x + 2x e − [(2x + 2)e − 2ex dx] + y 2 ex = c

x2 + 2x ex − (2x + 2)ex + 2ex = c

[x2 + 2x − 2x − 2 + 2]ex = c


or x2 + y 2 ex = c

Problem 3.2.5. Solve x2 ydx − (x3 + y 3 )dy = 0 (VTU Jan 2010, Dec 2009)

Solution : The given equation is x2 ydx − x3 + y 3 dy = 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 12

Comparing it with Mdx + Ndy = 0

M = x2 y; N = −x3 − y 3

∂M ∂N
= x2 ; = −3x2
∂y ∂x
∂N
∂x
− ∂M
∂y −3x2 −x2 −4
M
= x2 y
= y

Hence I.F. is
R −4
dy −4 1
I.F. = e y = e−4logy = elogy = y −4 =
y4
1
Multiplying the given equation by it becomes
y4

Solution is given by
Z
IET x2
y3
dx −
 3

Z
x
y4
+
1
y

dy = 0

M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c

(y−constant)

Hence the solution is

x2 1
Z Z
dx − dy = c
AJ
y3 y
(y−constant)
or
x3
− log y = c.
3y 3
1
Problem 3.2.6. Solve (xy 2 − e x3 )dx − x2 ydy = 0. (VTU Jan 2015)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 13

Solution : Here
1
M = xy 2 − e x3 , N = −x2 y
∂M ∂N
= 2xy, = −2xy
∂y ∂x
∂M
∂y
− ∂N
∂x 2xy − (−2xy)
=
N −x2 y
4xy
=
−x2 y
4
= − = f (x)
x
R
f (x)dx
I.F. = e

IET =e
R

= e−4 log x
− x4 dx

−4
= elog x

= x−4
1
=
x4
AJ
Multiplying the given equation by x14 , it becomes
 2 
y 1 13 y
− e x dx − dy = 0
x3 x4 x2
which is exact.

Hence the solution is

Z Z
M dx + (Terms of N not containing x)dy = c
(y−constant)

y2
Z  
1 1
− 4e dx + 0 = c
x3
x3 x
1 1 13
Z Z
2
or y dx − e x dx = c
x3 x4
−2
x 1 13
Z
y2 · − e x dx + c (∗)
−2 x4

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 14

1 x13 1
= t, i.e. x−3 = t
R
To evaluate x4
e dx, put x3
3 1 1
∴ − 4 dx = dt or 4
dx = − dt
x  x  3
1 13 1
Z Z
∴ 4
e x dx = et − dt
x 3
1
= − et
3
1 1
= − e x3
3
Hence, from (*), the solution is
y2 1 13
− + e x = c.
2x2 3
Problem 3.2.7. Solve (x2 + y 3 + 6x)dx + y 2 xdy = 0 (VTU Model 2021, July

2016)
IET
Solution : Here M = x2 + y 3 + 6x and N = xy 2

∂M ∂N
= 3y 2 , = y2
∂y ∂x
 
1 ∂M ∂N 1 2
AJ
− = 2
(3y 2 − y 2 ) =
N ∂y ∂x xy x
which is a function of x alone.

Hence
2 2
R
dx
I.F. = e x = e2 log x = elogx = x2

Multiplying the given equation by x2 we get

(x4 + x2 y 3 + 6x3 )dx + x3 y 2 dy = 0

This is exact. Hence the solution is

Z
(x4 + x2 y 3 + 6x3 )dx + 0 = c
y−constant
x5 3 4
i.e. 5
+ y 3 x3 + 6 x4 = c

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 15

3.3 Linear Differential Equation

A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependant variable and its differ-

ential co-efficients occur only in the first degree, and are not multiplied together

The first order linear differential equation is of the form

dy
+ Py = Q
dx
where P and Q are functions of x only or constants. Its solution is given by
Z R
y(I.F.) = Q(I.F.)dx + c where I.F. = e P dx

dy
dx
IET
Note : A first-order ODE is said to be linear if it can be brought into the form

+ P y = Q where P and Q are functions of x only or constants (linear in y)

The equation linear in x can be written as

dx
+ Px = Q
dy
where P and Q are functions of y only or constants.
AJ
In this case solution is given by
Z R
P dy
x(I.F.) = Q(I.F.)dy + c where I.F. = e

3.4 Equations reducible to linear

dy
General equation reducible to linear form is f 0 (y) + P f (y) = Q (1)
dx
where P and Q are functions of x only or constants.
dy dz
Putting f (y) = z so that f 0 (y) dx = dx
dz
Equation (1) becomes dx
+ P z = Q, which is linear in z.

Its solution is given by

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 16

R R
P dx
z(I.F.) = Q(I.F.)dx + c where I.F. = e

3.5 Bernoulli’s Linear differential Equation :

General Form :
dy
+ P y = Qy n
dx
(1)

where P and Q are functions of x only.

Divide by y n
1 dy 1
IET
To solve this, we use the following method.

then y n dx
+ yn
Py =Q (2)
dy
i.e.y −n dx + y 1−n P = Q
dy dt
Put y 1−n = t then (1 − n)y −n dx = dx
dy 1 dt
=⇒ y −n dx =
AJ
1−n dx
1 dt
∴ (2) becomes 1−n dx
+ Pt = Q
dt
or dx
+ (1 − n)P t = Q(1 − n) which is linear in t.

Its integrating factor is given by

R
(1−n)P dt
I.F. = e .

And its solution is given by

R
t(I.F.) = (1 − n)Q(I.F.)dt + c

Note : Another form of Bernoulli’s equation is

dx
+ P x = Qxn
dy
where P and Q are functions of y.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 17

dy
Problem 3.5.1. Solve dx
+ x sin 2y = x3 cos2 y.

1 dy sin 2y
Solution : Dividing by cos2 y, we get cos2 y dx
+ cos2 y
x = x3
1 dy 2 sin y cos y
i.e. cos2 y dx
+ cos2 y
x = x3
dy
or sec2 y dx + 2x tan y = x3
dy dz
Putting tan y = z, we get sec2 y dx = dx
dz
Therefore equation reduces to dx
+ 2xz = x3
dz
This is in the form dx
+ P z = Q, where p = 2x and Q = x3
2x2
I.F. = e( 2xdx)
R 2
= ex

Hence the solution is

IET
z(I.F.) =
Z
Q(I.F.)dx + c
=e 2

Z
x2 2
ze = x3 ex dx + c
Z
2
= x · x2 ex dx + c · · · (∗)
AJ
Put t = x2
dt
dt = 2xdx ⇒ xdx =
2
So (*) becomes
1
Z
2
zex = tet dt + c
2 
1
Z
= tet − et dt + c (by using integration by parts)
2
1 t
te − et + c

=
2
1 h 2 x2 x2
i
= x e −e +c
2
or
x2 1 2
z= − + ce−x
2 2
Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 18

or
1 2
x2 − 1 + ce−x


tan y =
2
dy
Problem 3.5.2. Solve dx
+ ytanx = y 3 secx ( VTU June 2019, Jan 2018, Jan

2015)

Solution : Dividing by y 3 we get

1 dy 1
y 3 dx
+ y2
tan x = sec x . . . (1)
1
Let =z y2
−2

Then y3 (dy/dx) = (dz/dx) ⇒
IET
So given equation can be written as
−1 dz
2 dx
+ tan x z = sec x
1 dy
y 3 dx
= −1 dz
2 dx

dz
⇒ dx
− 2 tan x z = −2 sec x

This is linear equation in variable z.

Here P = −2 tan x and Q = −2 sec x

AJ
R R
−2 tan xdx 1
∴ I.F. = e P dx
=e = e−2 log sec x = sec2 x

Hence solution is
Z
z(I.F.) = Q (I.F.)dx + c
1 1
Z
2
⇒ (1/y ) · = (−2 sec x) dx + c [∵ z = 1/y 2 ]
sec2 x sec2 x
1
Z
⇒ (1/y 2 ) · = −2cosx + c
sec2 x
1
i.e. (1/y 2 ) · = −2sinx + x + c
sec2 x
dy
Problem 3.5.3. Solve x dx + y = x3 y 6 . (VTU Model 2014)

dy
Solution : Let x dx + y = x3 y 6 . (1)

Divide both sides by xy 6

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 19

dy y −5
y −6 dx + x
= x2 (2)

Put y −5 = t
dy dt
Then −5y −6 dx = dx
dy 1 dt
∴ y −6 dx = −5 dx
(3)

Using (3) in (2), we get

− 15 dx
dt
+ t
x
= x2
dt
i.e. dx − 5 xt = −5x2
dt
This is in the form dx
+ P t = Q,

IET
which is linear in t, where P = −5
x
,Q = −5x2

∴ I.F. = e

=e
R

−5
P dx

R 1
x
dx

= e−5logx
−5
= elogx
1
=
AJ
x5
Solution is given by
Z
t(I.F.) =
Q(I.F.)dx + c
1
Z
t 5 = −5 x−3 dx + c
x
x−2
= −5 +c
−2
1 5
i.e. 5 5 = +c
x y 2x2
Problem 3.5.4. Solve: 1 + y 2 dx = tan−1 y − x dy.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 20

Solution : The given equation is 1 + y 2 dx = tan−1 y − x dy

dx
1 + y2 = tan−1 y − x
dy

dx
1 + y2 + x = tan−1 y
dy
dx 1 tan−1 y
+ x=
dy 1 + y2 1 + y2
dx
It is of the form dy
+ Px = Q
1
R
dy −1
R
P dy
I.F. = e =e 1+y 2 = etan y

The solution is

xe
x(I.F.) =

tan−1 y
=
IET
Z

Z
Q (I.F.)dx + c
tan−1 y
1+ y2
etan
−1
y
dy + c
1
= tet dt + c, where t = tan−1 y, dt = dy
1 + y2
Z
= te − et dt + c (Integrating by parts)
t

= tet − et + c
AJ
= et (t − 1) + c

−1 −1
i.e. x etan y
= etan y
tan−1 y − 1 c

−1
or x = tan−1 y − 1 + ce− tan y
.

dy
Problem 3.5.5. Solve: xy 1 + xy 2 dx = 1. VTU July 2017

dx


Solution: The given equation can be written as dy
= xy 1 + xy 2
dx
dy
= xy − x2 y 3
dx
dy
− yx = y 3 x2

Dividing by x2 , we have x−2 dx

dy
− yx−1 = y 3 (1)

Putting x−1 = z so that −x−2 dx

dy
= dz
dy

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 21

or x−2 dx
dy
dz
= − dy
dz
Equation (1) becomes − dy − yz = y 3
dz
or dy
+ yz = −y 3 ,
dz
This is in the form dy
+ Pz = Q

which is linear in z, with P = y and Q = −y 3

1 2
R R
P dy ydy
I.F. = e =e = e2y

∴ The solution is
Z
z (I.F.) = Q (I.F.)dy + c
1
z · e2y
2
=
IET
Z h

Z
3 21 y 2
−y e
1 2
i
dy + c

= − y 2 e 2 y ydy + c · · · (∗)
1 1
Put t = y 2 then dt = (2ydy) = ydy and y 2 = 2t
2 2
Now (*) becomes
Z
1 2
y
z·e 2 =− 2tet dt + c,
AJ
 Z 
= −2 tet − 1 · et dt + c (integrating by parts)

= −2 tet − et + c

= −2et (t − 1) + c
 
1 2 1 2 1
i.e. z · e 2 y = −2e 2 y y2 − 1 + c
2
 
1 2 1 2
⇒ z = −2 y − 1 + ce− 2 y
2
1 1 2
⇒ = 2 − y 2 + ce− 2 y
x
dy
Problem 3.5.6. Solve (x + 2y 3 ) dx =y (VTU July 2015)

dy
Sol: The given equation is x + 2y 3 dx
=y

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 22

dx
y· dy
= x + 2y 3

Divide by y, we get
dx x
dy
= y
+ 2y 2
dx 1
dy
− y
· x = 2y 2
dx
It is of the form dy
+ Px = Q

Here P = − y1 , Q = 2y 2
− y1 dy
R
−1 1
∴ I.F. = e = e− log y = elog y = y −1 = y

∴ The solution is
Z

IET x (I.F.) =

x·
1
y
=

=
Z

Z
Q (I.F.)dy + c

2y 2 ·

2ydy + c
1
y
dy + c

= y2 + c

or x = y 3 + cy
AJ
dr
Problem 3.5.7. Solve rsinθ − cosθ dθ = r 2 (VTU Jan 2020, June 2018, Model

2018)

Solution : The given equation can be written as

dr
− dθ cos θ + r sin θ = r 2

Dividing by r 2 cos θ, we get

dr
−r −2 dθ + r −1 tan θ = sec θ

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 23

dr dz
Putting r −1 = z so that −r −2 dθ = dθ
in the above equation, we get
dz
+ z tan θ = sec θ
dθ
R
tan θdθ
I.F. = e = elog sec θ = sec θ

solution is given by
Z Z
z sec θ = sec θ, sec θ + C ⇒ v sec θ = sec2 θdθ + C
sec θ
i.e. = tan θ + C
r
⇒ r −1 = (sin θ + C cos θ)
1

3.6
∴ r=
IET sin θ + C cos θ

Nonlinear differential equations:Differential Equations of First

order and higher Degree

We are already familiar with differential equations of the first order and first de-

gree , Now we shall study differential equations of first order and degree higher than
AJ
the first. We are familiar with the solution of differential equations (d.e.) of first or-

der and first degree Now, we shall study the methods of solving differential equations

of first order and higher degree. In addition to the general solution and particular so-

lution associated with the D.E., we also introduce singular solution. The differential

equations of first order but not of first degree are also branded as p − y − x equa-

tions.
dy
If y = f (x), we use the notation = p throughout this section. A differential
dx
equation of first order and nth degree is the form

A0 pn + A1 pn−1 + A2 pn−2 + · · · + An = 0 (1)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 24

Where A0 , A1 , A2 , · · · , An are functions of x and y. This being a differential

equation of first order, the associated general solution will contain only one arbitrary

constant.

3.7 Differential Equations solvable for p

Supposing that the LHS of (1) is expressed as a product of n linear factors, then

the equivalent form of (1) is

IET
(p − f1 (x, y))(p − f2 (x, y)) · · · (p − fn (x, y)) = 0

Equating each of the factors to Zero, we have

p = f1 (x, y), p = f2 (x, y), p = f3 (x, y), · · · p = fn (x, y)

All these are differential equations of first order and first degree. They can be solved

by the known methods.

Solving each of these equations of the first order of first degree, we get the solutions
AJ

F1 (x, y, c) = 0, F2 (x, y, c) = 0, · · · Fn (x, y, c) = 0

respectively.

General solution of (1) may be written as the product of all these solutions. i.e.

F1 (x, y, c).F2 (x, y, c).F3 (x, y, c) · · · Fn (x, y, c) = 0

Note : We need to present the general solution with the same arbitrary constant in

each factor.

Problem 3.7.1. Solve the equation p2 + p(x + y) + xy = 0 (VTU Jan 2013,

Dec 2014)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 25

Solution: The equation can be written as p2 + px + py + xy = 0

i.e. p(p + x) + y(p + x) = 0

i.e. (p + y)(p + x) = 0

i.e. p = −y and p = −x
dy
Solving p = −y =⇒ dx
= −y

i.e. dy
y
= −dx

Integrating on both sides

logy = −x + c

i.e. logy + x − c = 0
IET
Similarly Consider p = −x =⇒

i.e. dy = −xdx
dy
dx
= −x
(1)

Integrating,
2
y = − x2 + c
x2
i.e. y + 2
−c=0 (2)
AJ
General Solution is obtaied by multiplying the solutions (1) and (2).
x2
Hence the General Solution is , (logy + x − c)(y + − c) = 0
2
dy dx x y
Problem 3.7.2. Solve dx
− dy
= y
− x
(VTU Model ME 2022, June 2018, July

2017, Jan 2016, June 2015, Jan 2016)

dy dx x y
Solution : dx
− dy
= y
− x

1 x2 − y 2 dy
p− = , where p =
p xy dx

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 26

xyp2 − x2 − y 2 p − xy = 0


q
± (x2 − y 2 )2 + 4x2 y 2
2 2


x −y
p=
2xy
2 2



x −y ± x + y2
2
=
2xy
or
x y
p= ; p=−
y x
dy x dy y
= ; =−
dx y dx x
1 1
ydy = xdx ; dy = − dx

Integrating both sides

IET or y 2 − x2 − 2c = 0
y2
2
=
x2
2
y

+ c;

log xy = c or xy = ec
or
x

log y = − log x + c

∴ The general solution of given equation is y 2 − x2 − 2c (xy − ec ) = 0.
 2
dy dy
Problem 3.7.3. xy dx
− (x2 + y 2 ) dx + xy = 0 (VTU Model 2022, Jan

2019, Jan 2018)

AJ
or
 2 
dy dy
xy dx
+ 1 = (x2 + y 2 ) dx (VTU June 2018)

Solution :
xy(dy/dx)2 − x2 + y 2 dy/dx + xy = 0

Put dy/dx = p

xy · p2 − x2 + y 2 p + xy = 0

This is a quadratic equation in powers of p.

q
x + y ± (x2 + y 2 )2 − 4(xy)(xy)
2 2
∴p=
2xy

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 27

p
x2 + y 2 ± x4 + y 4 + 2x2 y 2 − 4x2 y 2
p=
2xy

p
x2 + y 2
± x4 + y 4 − 2x2 y 2
=
2xy



x2 + y 2
± x2 − y 2
=
2xy
x2 + y 2 + x2 − y 2 2x2 x
⇒p= = =
2xy 2xy y
x2 + y 2 − x2 + y 2 2y 2 y
&p = = =
2xy 2xy x
i.e. values of p are
dy x
dx

and
=
dy
dx
y

= y
x

Solution of (1) :
IET (1)

(2)

dy x
=
dx y
ydy = xdx
Z Z
ydy = xdx
AJ
y2 x2
= + c1
2 2
y 2 = x2 + 2c1

y 2 − x2 − 2c1 = 0 · · · (3)
Solution of (2) :

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 28

dy y
=
dx x
dy dx
=
y x
dy dx
Z Z
=
y x
log y = log x + log c

= log(cx)

y = cx

IET y − cx = 0
∴ The general solution of given equation is

(y 2 − x2 − 2c1 )(y − cx) = 0

· · · (4)

Problem 3.7.4. Solve p2 + 2pycotx = y 2 . (VTU Model 2022, Jan 2020, July

2016, June 2012)

AJ
Solution : Given p2 + 2pycotx = y 2

Adding y 2 cot2 x on both sides, The above equation can be written as

(p + y cot x)2 = y 2 1 + cot2 x

or p + y cot x = ±y cosec x

∴ The component equations are p = y(− cot x + cosec x) (1)

and p = y(− cot x − cosec x) (2)

From (1),
dy
dx
= y(− cot x + cosec x)
dy
or y
= (− cot x + cosec x)dx

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 29

Integrating
x
log y = − log sin x + log tan + log c
2
c tan x2
= log
sin x
c tan x2
y=
2 sin x2 cos x2
c
= x
2 cos2 2
x c
or y cos2 = c1 , where c1 =
2 2
dy
From (2), dx
= y (− cot x − cosecx)

or dy
y

Integrating
IET
= (− cot x − cosecx)dx

log y = − log sin x − log tan

x
+ log c
2
c
= log
sin x tan x2
or
c x
AJ
y= or y sin2 =C
2 sin2 x
2
2
x
y sin2 x



∴ The general solution of the given equation is y cos2 2
−C 2
−C =

Problem 3.7.5. Solve p(p + y) = x(x + y) (VTU Dec 2014, July 2011, Dec

2011)

Solution: Given equation is

p2 + py = x2 + xy

or

p2 + py − x2 + xy = 0, which is quadratic in p

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 30

p
−y ± y 2 + 4 (x2 + xy)
∴ p=
p 2
−y ± (y + 2x)2
=
2
−y + y + 2x −y − y − 2x
∴ p= or p =
2 2
Thus p = x (1)

or p = −y − x (2)
dy
From (1), dx
= x or dy = xdx

Integrating both sides,

x2

and From (2)

IETor y−
x2
2
y=

−c=0
2
+c

· · · (3)

dy
= −y − x
dx
dy
or + y = −x
dx
which is linear equation in y with P = 1 and Q = −x
AJ
R
Z
I.F. = e P dx = ex dx = ex

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 31

∴ Its solution is
Z
y(I.F.) = Q (I.F.)dx + c
Z
⇒ yex = (−x)ex + c
Z
= (−x)e − (−1)ex dx + c [Integrating by parts]
x

= −xex + ex + c

= (−x + 1)ex + c

y = −x + 1 + ce−x


y−
IET
or y + x − 1 − ce−x = 0

2

· · · (4)
Combining (3) and (4), general solution is
x2
− c y + x − 1 − ce−x = 0.

3.8 Clairaut’s equation

The equation of the form

AJ
y = px + f (p) (1)

is known as Clairaut’s equation.

Using p = c in (1) we obtain the general solution of clairaut’s equation in the form

y = cx + f (c)

Differentiating the general solution partially w.r.to c and eliminating the constant c,

we get the singular solution.

Problem 3.8.1. Solve p = log(px − y)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 32

Solution :
or ep = px − y or y = px − ep , which is Clairaut’s equation where f (p) = −ep

∴ Its solution is obtained by putting p = c

∴ solution is y = cx − ec .

Problem 3.8.2. Solve sin px cos y = cos px sin y + p. Also find the singular

solution. (Jan 2014)

Solution :
Given sin px cos y − cos px sin y = p

or

or
IET
sin(px − y) = p

px − y = sin−1 p

or y = px − sin−1 p,

this is in the formy = px + f (p) which is Clairaut’s form

Solution is obtained by replacing p by c.
AJ
Hence the General solution is

y = cx + sin−1 c (∗)

Differentiating equation (*) partially w.r.to c

0=x+ √ 1
1−c2

√ 1 = −x
1−c2
√
1 = −x 1 − c2

1 = x2 (1 − c2 )
1
1 − c2 = x2
1 x2 −1
c2 = 1 − x2
= x2
√
x2 −1
c= x

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 33

√ √
x2 −1 −1 x2 −1
Substitute for c in (*) we get, y = x
x + sin x

Problem 3.8.3. Obtain the general solution and singular solution of the Clairaut’s

equation xp3 − yp2 + 1 = 0. (VTU July 2017, Jan 2015,June 2014, Dec 2011)

Solution: The given equation can be written as

xp3 + 1
y=
p2
1
⇒ y = px + which is in the Clairaut’s form y = px + f (p)
p2
1
Thus general solution is given by y = cx + c2
(*)

IET
Differentiating partially w.r.to c we get

⇒
2
0=x+

=x
−2
c3

c3
2
⇒ c3 =
x
 1/3
2
⇒c=
x
AJ
Thus general solution (*) becomes
 1/3  2/3
2 x
y= x+
x 2
x2/3
= 21/3 x1−1/3 + 2/3
 2 
1
= x2/3 21/3 + 2/3
2
 
2+1
= x2/3
22/3
22/3 y = 3x2/3

41/3 y = 3(x2 )1/3

Cubing both sides, we get

4y 3 = 27x2

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 34

This is the singular solution of the given Clairaut’s equation.

Problem 3.8.4. Find the general and singular solution for xp2 +xp−yp+1−y =

0 (VTU June 2018)

Solution :
xp2 + px − py + 1 − y = 0

xp2 + px + 1 = y(p + 1)
xp2 + px + 1
y=
(p + 1)

y = px + 1
p+1
IET
⇒y=
xp(p + 1) + 1
(p + 1)

G.S. is given by putting p = c

1
Hence G.S. is y = cx + c+1
(1)

Diff. partially w.r.t. c,

1
0=x−
AJ
(c+1)2
1
or (c+1)2
=x
1
or (c + 1)2 = x

(c + 1) = √1
x

or c= √1 −1
x

Hence (1) becomes


1
 √
y = √x − 1 x + x

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 35

 √  √
1− x
⇒y= √
x
x + x
√ √ √
y = (1 − x) x + x
√ √
⇒y= x−x+ x
√
y =2 x−x
√
⇒x+y =2 x

squaring

(x + y)2 = 4x

IET
Reducible to Clairaut’s equations

Problem 3.8.5. Solve: (px − y)(py + x) = 2p by reducing into Clairaut’s

form,taking the substitution X = x2 , Y = y 2 .

Solution : Put X = x2 and Y = y2

so that dX = 2xdx and dY = 2ydy

AJ
dX dY
i.e. dx = 2x
, dy = 2y
√
dy x dY √X P,
∴ p= dx
= y dX
= Y
dY
where P = dX

The given equation becomes

√
X
√ √   √X √ √  √
√ P· X − Y √ P· Y + X = 2 √X P
Y Y Y

or (PX − Y)(P + 1) = 2P
2P
or PX − Y = P+1
2P
or Y = PX − P +1
, which is of Clairaut’s form.

∴
2c
Its solution is Y = cX − c+1

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 36

2c
and hence y 2 = cx2 − c+1
.

Problem 3.8.6. Solve (px − y)(py + x) = a2 p , use the substitution X =

x2 , Y = y 2 . (VTU Jan 2018, July 2017, June 2014, June 2015, Dec 2011)

Solution:

Solution: Given (px − y)(py + x) = a2 p (1)

dX
X = x2 ⇒ = 2x ⇒ dX = 2xdx
dx
dY
Y = y2 ⇒ = 2y ⇒ dY = 2ydy
dY
dX
IET
=
ydy
xdx
√
P = √ p
Y
=
dy
y dy
x dx

√X
X
or p = √ P
Y
dY dy
where P = dX
, p= dx

Substitute for P , x and y in the given equation, i.e. (px − y)(py + x) = a2 p we

AJ
get
√ ! √ ! √
X √ √ X √ √ X
√ P X− Y √ P Y + X = a2 √ P
Y Y Y
√
XP − Y √ √ 
 
X
√ XP + X = a2 √ P
Y Y

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 37

√
Multiplying both sides by Y we get
√ √  √
(XP − Y ) XP + X = a2 P X
√ √
(XP − Y ) (P + 1) X = a2 P X

(XP − Y ) (P + 1) = a2 P
a2 P
(XP − Y ) =
P +1
a2 P
or Y = XP −
P +1
This is in the Clairaut’s form and hence the associated genertal solution is Y =
a2 c
Xc − c+1

y 2 = cx2 − a2 c
c+1
IET
Resubstituting for X and Y we get

Problem 3.8.7. Find the general and singular solution of the equation x2 (y−px) =

p2 y by reducing into Clairaut’s equation using the substitution X = x2 , Y = y 2

(VTU July 2016)

AJ

SOlution :
dX
X = x2 ⇒ = 2x ⇒ dX = 2xdx
dx
dY
Y = y2 ⇒ = 2y ⇒ dY = 2ydy
dy
dY ydy y dy
= =
dX xdx
√ x dx
Y
P = √ p
√X
X
or p = √ P
Y
dY dy
where P = dX
, p= dx

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 38

Substitute for P , x and y in the given equation, i.e. x2 (y − px) = p2 y

" √ #
√ X √ X 2√
X Y − √ ·P · X = P Y
Y Y
Y − PX
 
X
X √ = √ · P2
Y Y
⇒ Y − PX = P2

⇒ Y = P X + P 2 Which is Clairaut’s form.

Its solution is
Y = cX + c2

y 2 = cx2 + c2 · · · (∗)
IET Diff. partially w.r.to c

0 = x2 + 2c
x2
c=−
2
Hence (*) becomes
2
x2 x2

2 2
y =− x + −
2 2
AJ
4 4
x x
y2 = − +
2 4
4
x
=−
4
4y 2 = −x4

x4 + 4y 2 = 0

3.9 Orthogonal trajectories

Definition: If two family of curves are such that every member of one family

intersect every member of the other family at right angles then they are said to be

orthogonal trajectories of each other.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 39

Example : the orthogonal trajectory of the family of straight lines defined by the

equation y = kx, where k is a parameter(the slope of the straight line), is the fam-

ily of circle having centre at the origin (Figure 1)

Note :
IET
dy
• If y = f (x) be a curve then dx
= m = slope of the tangent.

• Two curves intersect each other orthogonally, if the tangents at point of inter-

section are at right angles.

AJ
• Condition for orthogonality of two curves is given bym1 m2 = −1 where m1

and m2 are slopes of tangents.

• If each member of a family cuts every other member of the same family orthog-

onally, then we say that family of curves is self-orthogonal.

Rules to find the equation of orthogonal trajectories of a family of cartesian

curves: Given a relation in the form f (x, y, c) = 0 (1)

Step 1. Diff (1) and eliminate c, which gives the differential equation of the given

family (1).

dy
Step 2. Replace dx
by − dx
dy
which gives the differential equation of orthogonal tra-

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 40

jectory(OT).

Step 3. Solve this new equation to get the required orthogonal trajectory.

Rules to find the equation of orthogonal trajectories of a family of Polar curves

Given a polar family of curves in the form f (r, θ, c) = 0 (1)

(i) Differentiate (1) and eliminate c which gives the differential equation of the

given family (1).

(ii) Replace dr
dθ

jectory(OT).
IET
by −r 2 dθ
dr
which gives the differential equation of orthogonal tra-

(iii) Solve this new equation to get the required orthogonal trajectory.

Problem 3.9.1. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the family of parabola y 2 = 4ax
AJ
(VTU Jan 2020)

Solution :
y 2 = 4ax
y2
= 4a
x
Differentiate w.r.to x
dy
x 2y dx − y2 · 1
=0
x2
dy
2xy − y2 = 0
dx
dy y
=
dx 2x

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 41

dy
Replace dx
by − dx
dy
to get the D.E. of Orthogonal trajectory in the form
−dx y
=
dy 2x
dy 2x
=− (by rearranging the terms)
dx y
−ydy = 2xdx

2xdx + ydy = 0

integrating both sides

Z Z Z
2xdx + ydy = 0

IET 2
x +

2x2 + y 2 = 2C
y2
2
=C

2x2 + y 2 = c1 , where c1 = 2c

Problem 3.9.2. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the family of confocal ellipses
x2 y2
a2
+ (b2 +λ)
= 1, where λ is a parameter . (VTU July 2021, Model 2018, July
AJ
2015, Dec 2011, Jule 2011, June 2009, Aug 2000, Mar 2000, Aug 1999)

x2 y2
Solution : Let a2
+ (b2 +λ)
=1 (1)

Differentiate (1) w.r.to x, we get

2x 2y dy
2
+ =0
a (b2 + λ) dx
x y dy
=⇒ + =0
a2
(b2 + λ) dx
dy
x −y dx
=⇒ 2 = 2 · · · (2)
a (b + λ)
x2 −y 2
From (1) we have 2 − 1 = 2
a (b + λ)
2 2
x −a −y 2
=⇒ = 2 · · · (3)
a2 (b + λ)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 42

Dividing (2) from (3) we obtain,

x 1 dy
=
x2 − a2 y dx
dy dx
Replace by − ,
dx dy
x −1 dx
=
x2 − a2 y dy
 2
x − a2

i.e ydy = − dx
x
 2 
a
i.e ydy = − x dx
x

IET
Integrating on both sides
Z
ydy =
y2
Z 2

2
a
x
= a logx −
Z
− xdx
x2
+c
2 2
y2 x2
+ = a2 logx + c
2 2
Problem 3.9.3. Show that the family of confocal parabolas having x-axis as their
AJ
axis, is of the form y 2 = 4a(x + a) is self orthogonal (VTU Jan 2021, June 2019,

June 2018, Jun 2013)

Solution : The given equation is y 2 = 4a(x + a) (1)

Differentiating w.r. to x,
dy
y dx = 2a (2)

Substituting the value of a from (2) in (1), we get

 
2 dy 1 dy
y = 2y dx x + 2 y dx
 2
dy dy
y dx + 2x dx −y =0 (3)

This is the differential equation of the given family.

dy
Replacing dx
by − dx
dy
in (3), we obtain

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 43

 2
dx
y − 2x dx
dy dy
−y =0
 2
dy
Multiplying both sides by dx , we get
 2
dy dy
y − 2x dx − y dx =0

Multiplying by -1 and rearranging the terms we get

 2
dy dy
y dx + 2x dx − y = 0 which is the same as (3).

Thus we see that a system of confocal and coaxial parabolas is self-orthogonal,

i.e., each member of the family cuts every other member of the same family orthog-

onally.

IET
Problem 3.9.4. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the confocal conics a2x+λ + b2y+λ =

1, λ being the parameter.

2

(VTU July 2017, Jan 2016, Jan 2015, Jan 2013)

2

x2 y2
Solution: Solution: The given family is a2 +λ
+ b2 +λ
= 1. (1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to x,

2x 2yy1
a2 +λ
+ b2 +λ
=0
AJ



x b2 + λ + yy1 a2 + λ = 0
2 2

(b2 x+a2 yy1 )
λ (x + yy1 ) = − b x + a yy1 ⇒ λ = − (x+yy1 ) (2)

(b2 x+a2 yy1 ) (a2 −b2 )x
Now, a2 + λ = a2 − (x+yy1 ) = (x+yy1 ) (3)

(b2 x+a2 yy1 ) (a2 −b2 )yy1
Similarly b2 + λ = b2 − (x+yy1 ) = − (x+yy1 ) (4)

On using results (3) and (4) in (1), we get

x (x + yy1 ) y (x + yy1 )
+ =1
(a2 − b2 ) − (a2 − b2 ) y1
 
(x + yy1 ) y
x− =1 (5)
(a2 − b2 ) y1
Equation (5) is the differential equation of the given family.

In order to find the differential equation of the desired orthogonal trajectory, replace

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 44

y1 by − y11 in (5) i.e.

 
y
x− y1
[x + yy1 ] = 1 (6)
(a2 − b2 )
Clearly equations (5) and (6) are the same.

Hence the given system is self orthogonal.

Problem 3.9.5. Find the O.T of the family of astroids x2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3

Solution : Consider x2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3

Differentiating w.r.to x, we have

ie.,
IET 2
3
· x−1/3 +
2
3
· y −1/3
dy
dx
=0

dy
x−1/3 + y −1/3 =0
dx
. This is the D.E of the given family.
dy
Replacing by − dx we have
AJ
dx dy
 
dx
x−1/3 + y −1/3 − =0
dy
ie., x−1/3 dy = y −1/3 dx

y 1/3 dy = x1/3 dx

by separating the variables.

Z Z
3/3
⇒ y dy − x1/3 dx = c

y 4/3 x4/3
⇒ − =c
(4/3) (4/3)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 45

or
4c
x4/3 − y 4/3 = − = k (say)
3
Thus x4/3 − y 4/3 = k is the required O.T.

Problem 3.9.6. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the cardioid r = a(1 − cosθ)

. (VTU Model 2022, Jan 2015, Jan 2014, Mar 2001, Jul 2007, Jan 2011)

Solution : Let r = a(1 − cosθ) (1)

Apply log on both sides

logr = loga + log(1 − cosθ)

1 dr
r dθ
=

Replacing
1
1−cosθ
(sinθ)
dr
dθ
IET
by −r 2 dθ
dr
we get,
(2) differentiate (1) w.r.to θ, we get

−r dθ
dr
= 1
1−cosθ
(sinθ)
−dr
i.e. 1−cosθ
(sinθ)
dθ = r
−dr
tan θ2 dθ = r
( This is the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectory)
AJ
Integrating on both sides
−log (cos θ2 )
1 = − log r − logc
2

i.e.2log cos θ2 = log r + logc = log(rc)

i.e.cos2 θ2 = rc or r = 1c cos2 θ2 = 1
2c
(1 + cosθ)
1
i.e.r = b(1 + cosθ) where b = 2c
and

Problem 3.9.7. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r 2 = a2 cos2θ (VTU Jun

2014, Jan 2009, Aug 2003)

Solution: Given r 2 = a2 cos 2θ (1)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 46

On differentiating (1), we have

dr
r = −a2 sin 2θ (2)
dθ
Eliminate ’a’ from (2), using (1)
dr
r = −r 2 tan 2θ
dθ
dr
i.e. dθ
= −r tan 2θ (3)

which is the differential equation of the given family.

dr
To obtain the differential of the trajectories, replace dθ
by −r 2 dθ
dr
in equation (3).

−r 2 dθ
i.e.

or

system.
dr

cot 2θdθ = r
IET
= −r tan 2θ
dr
(4) Integration of (4), gives the equation of the desired

log sin 2θ
∴ 2
+ log c = log r

log(sin 2θ) + 2 log(c) = 2 log r

i.e. log(sin 2θ) + log(c2 ) = log r 2

AJ
i.e. log(c2 sin 2θ) = log(r 2 )

i.e. c2 sin 2θ = r 2

Problem 3.9.8. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r n = an cosnθ (VTU July

2016, Feb 2003)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 47

Solution :
r n =an cos nθ

Diff. w.r. to θ
dr
nr n−1 = −an sin nθ(n)
dθ
n
r dr an sin nθ
=−
r dθ rn
n
1 dr −a sin nθ
=
r dθ an cos nθ
1 dr
= − tan nθ
r dθ
dr
Replace = −r 2 dθ
dθ
IET
dr
1
r
1


dr =
−r 2 dθ
dr


1
= − tan nθ

dθ
r tan nθ
Integrating on both sides
1 1
Z Z
dr = dθ
r Z tan nθ
log r = cot nθdθ
AJ

log(sin nθ)
log r = + log c
n
n log r = log sin nθ + n log c

log r n = log(sin nθ) + log cn

log r n = log [sin nθ cn ]

r n = cn sin nθ

Problem 3.9.9. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r n = an sinnθ (VTU July

2017)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 48

SOlution :
dr
nr n−1 = an (cos nθ)n
dθ
r n dr
= an cos nθ
r dθ
1 dr an cos nθ
=
r dθ rn
n
1 dr a cos nθ
=
r dθ an sin nθ
1 dr
= cotn θ
r dθ
r 2 dθ
 
dr
Replace =−
dθ dr

−1
r dr
= 1
cot nθ
dθ

Integrating on both sides

IET 1
r

−r 2
dθ
dr

= cot nθ

R −1 R
r
dr = tan nθdθ
log(sec nθ)
⇒ − log r = n
− log c

⇒ −n log r = log sec nθ − n log c

AJ
⇒ − log r n = log sec nθ − log cn

⇒ log cn − log r n = log sec nθ

n

⇒ log rcn = log(sec nθ)
cn
⇒ rn = sec nθ

⇒ r n = cn cos nθ

L-R and C-R circuits

Generally, an electrical circuit is made up of a combination of resistors, inductors

and capacitors. If a circuit is made up of resistors and capacitors, then it is known

as an RC circuit. Similarly, when the circuit is containing capacitors and inductors,

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 49

then it is known as an LC circuit. An LR circuit is a circuit which is made up of

resistors and inductors.

Let i = I(t) denote the current in the circuit and q = q(t) denote the charge on the

capacitor. Furthermore, let L denote inductance in henrys (H), R denote resistance

in ohms (Ω) , and C denote capacitance in farads (F). Last, let E(t) denote electric

potential in volts (V).

The formation of differential equation for an electric circuit depends upon the fol-

lowing laws.

(i) i = dq
dt
,
IET
(ii) Voltage drop across resistance, R is VR = Ri (Ohm’s law)

(iii) Voltage drop across inductance L is VL = L · di

dt
(Faraday’s law and Lenza’s

law)
q
(iv) Voltage drop across capacitance C is, VC = C
AJ
Kirchhoff’s Voltage law :

The algebraic sum of the voltage drop around any closed circuit is equal to the

resultant electromotive force in the circuit.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 50

L - R series circuit :

Let i be the current flowing in the circuit containing resistance R and inductance L

in series, with voltage source E, at any time t.

By voltage law IET Ri + L

di
dt
di
=E
R E
⇒ + i= ...
dt L L
di
This is the linear differential equation of the form dt +P i=Q
R R
R R
P dt dt
I.F. = e =e L = eLt
AJ

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 51

Its solution is
Z
i × (IF ) = Q × (IF ) dt + c
E
Z
R R
t
⇒i×e L = × e L t dt + c
L
E L R
= × eLt + c
L R
R
Dividing by e L t
E Rt
⇒ i= + ce− L
R
This represents the current in the circuit, at any time t
E
IET
i=
At t = 0,

1−e − Rt
L ]
i=0⇒c=−

Thus, above current i becomes

Eh i
R

Growth of Current

An LR Circuit is analysed in three ways. The first one is the initial state, which
AJ
is present at the instant of closing the switch or opening the switch in the circuit.

The second one is the transient state, which appears at any instant after closing or

opening the switch. The third one is steady-state, which appears after a long time

after closing and opening the switch.

Let’s start with the initial and steady states of an LR circuit.

Initial State : Let us assume a circuit of EMF E has the inductance L and the

resistance R, as shown in the figure.

The voltage drop across the inductor is VL and the voltage drop across the resistor is

VR .

At t = 0, the inductor offers an infinite opposition to the current flow and hence

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 52

there is no current flow in the circuit at the time of closing the switch. Due to high

opposition to the current flow, the voltage is dropped entirely at the inductor and

there is no voltage drop across the resistor.

i.e., at t = 0, VR = 0 and VL = E.

Steady State: At a certain point of time, say t = ∞, the current in the inductor

does not vary with time after closing or opening the switch for a long period of

time. We can see that the current has reached its maximum value and therefore the

inductor does not offer any position to the current flow. So, the voltage drop across

IET
the inductor becomes zero and the entire voltage drops across a resistor.

At t = ∞, VR = E and VL = 0

Transient State : In this state, the voltage is dropped both across the resistor and the

inductor. At any instant t = 0 and t = ∞ is taken for this state. We know that the

voltage drop across the inductor is equal to the inductance multiplied by the rate of

change in current across the inductor.

AJ
i.e., VL = L dI
dt

And the voltage across the resistor is given by VR = IR.

In the transient state, when the switch is closed gradually, the current starts increasing

across the inductor. Due to the increase in the current, there will be a self-induced

EMF in the inductor which opposes the change of the current in the circuit.

C − R series circuit :

Let i be current in the circuit containing resistance R, L, and capacitance C in

series with voltage source E, at any time t.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 53

By voltage law
q
Ri + =E
C  
dq q dq
IET
⇒ R
dt
di
Problem 3.9.10. Solve the equation L dt
+
C
=E ∵i=
dt
+ Ri = E0 sin wt where L, R and E0

are constants and discuss the case when t increases indefinitely. (VTU July 2021,

Jan 2021)

Solution :
AJ

di
L dt + Ri = E0 sin wt
di R E0
⇒ + i= sin wt
dt L L
R R
R
dt
I.F. = e = eLt
L

E0
Z
R R
i. e L t = e L t sin wtdt + c
L

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 54

eax
Z  
b
eax sin bxdx = √ sin bx − tan−1
2
a +b 2 a
R
eLt
 
R
t E0 −1 Lw
⇒ i eL = q sin wt − tan +c
L R2 + w 2 R
L2
 
E0 Lw R
i= √ sin wt − tan−1 + ce− L t
R2 + L2 w2 R

Rt
As t increases indefinitely, then ce− L tends to zero. SO
 
E0 −1 Lw
i= √ sin wt − tan
R2 + L2 w2 R

IET
Problem 3.9.11. Show that the differential equation for the current i in an electrical

circuit containing an inductance L and a resistance R in series and acted on by an

electromotive force E sinwt satisfies the equation

di
iR + L dt = Esinωt

Find the value of the current at any time t, if initially there is no current in the circuit.

(VTU Model EE 2022)

AJ

Solution : By Kirchhoff’s first law, we have sum of voltage drops across R and
di
L = E sin ωt i.e., Ri + L dt = E sin ωt This is the required differential equation
di R E
which can be written as dt
+ L
i = L
sin ωt

This is a linear equation.

R Rt
R
dt
Its I.F. = e L = eL

∴ the solution is i( I.F. ) = E

R
L
sin ωt · ( I.F.) )dt + c
Rt/L
or ieRttL = E sin ωtdt+c = E √ e 2 2 sin ωt − tan−1 Lω
R Rt/L

L
e L R
+c
[(R/L) +ω ]
E
or i= √ sin(ωt − φ) + ce−Rt/L where tan φ = Lω/R
(R2 +ω 2 L2 )

Initially when t = 0; i = 0 .

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 55

∴ 0 = √E sin(−φ)
2 2 2
+ c,
(R +ω L )

i.e., c = √ E 2sin φ2 2
(R +ω L )
E sin(ωt−φ)
Thus (i) takes the form i = √ + √ E 2sin φ2 2 · e−Rt/L
(R2 +ω 2 L2 ) (R +ω L )

or i = √ 2E 2 2 sin(ωt − φ) + sin φ · e−RttL

 
(R +ω L )

which gives the current at any time t.

Problem 3.9.12. A resistance of 100 Ω s, an inductance of 0.5 henry are connected

in series with a battery of 20 volts. Find the current in the circuit at t = 0.5sec, if

i = 0 at t = 0

Solution :
IET L
di
dt
+ Ri = E
di Ri E
∴ + =
dt L L
Solution is given by,
( RL )dt E dt+c
R
R
i, e ( L )dt=
R R
e L
AJ
Rt
Rt Ee L
∴ i. e L = +c
R
E
At t = 0, i = 0 ∴ c =
R
Rt
Rt Ee L −E
∴ i. e L = +
R R
E Rt

∴i= 1 − e− L
R
For given condition R = 100, L = 0.5, E = 20

∴ i = 0.2 1 − e−200t

Problem 3.9.13. When a resistance R Ohms is connected in series with an induc-

tance L henries with an emf of E volts, the current i amperes at time t is given by
di
L dt + Ri = E. If E = 10sint volts, and i = 0 when t = 0, find i as a function

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 56

of t. (VTU Model EE 2022)

Solution : We have,
di
L + Ri = E
dt
di R E
⇒ + i= ....
dt L L
R
R
dt
∴ I.F. = e L

R
= eLt
R
Multiplying both sides of (1) by I.F. = e L t , we get

IET
eL
R
t

di
dt
R di
R
L

+ i = eLt ×
R R
⇒ eLt + eLt i = eLt ×
dt L
Integrating both sides with respect to t, we get
R

R
E
L
E
L

E
Z
R R
t
eL i = e L t dt + C
L
R E L R
⇒ e L ti = × eLt + C
L R
AJ
R E R
⇒ e L ti = eLt + C . . . . . .
R
Now,

i = 0 at t = 0
E
∴ e0 × 0 = e0 + C
R
E
⇒C=−
R
Putting the value of C in (2), we get
R E R E
e L ti = eLt −
R R
E E R
⇒i= − e− L t
R R
E −R t

⇒i= 1−e L
R

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 57

Question Bank

Exact, Reducible to Exact Differential Equations

2 2
1. Solve (y 2 exy + 4x3 )dx + (2xyexy − 3y 2 )dy = 0.(VTU July 2017, Jan
2
2014, Model 2014) Ans : x4 + exy − y 3 = c
 x
   x
x
2. Solve 1 + e dx + 1 − y e y dy = 0.
y (VTU June 2019, June 2014)

Ans : x + yex/y = c

2016)

(or)
IET
3. Solve (ycosx + siny + y)dx + (sinx + xcosy + x)dy = 0 (VTU Jan

dy (ycosx+siny+y)
Solve dx
+ (sinx+xcosy+x)
= 0 (VTU Model ME 2022, Jan 2020, Jan 2019,

June 2018, Jan 2018, 2016) Ans : y sin x + (sin y + y)x = c

4. Solve (x2 − 4xy − 2y 2 )dx + (y 2 − 4xy − 2x2 )dy = 0 (VTU June

AJ
2013) Ans : x3 − 6x2 y − 6xy 2 + y 3 = 3c = C

5. Solve (x2 + y 2 + x)dx + xydy = 0. (VTU Model 2022, July 2021, June
x4 (x2 y 2 ) x3
2018, July 2017, Aug 2001, Mar 2000) Ans : 4
+ 2
+ 3
=c

6. Solve x2 ydx − (x3 + y 3 )dy = 0 (VTU Jan 2010, Dec 2009) Ans :
x3
3y 3
− log y = c

7. Solve (x2 + y 3 + 6x)dx + y 2 xdy = 0 (VTU Model ME 2022, July 2016)

5 3 4
Ans : x5 + y 3 x3 + 6 x4 = c
1
8. Solve (xy 2 − e x3 )dx − x2 ydy = 0. (VTU Jan 2015) Ans :
2 1
y 1 x3
− 2x 2 + 3e = c.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 58

9. Solve (xy 3 + y)dx + 2(x2 y 2 + x + y 4 )dy = 0. ( VTU Jan 2015) Ans :

3x2 y 4 + 6y 2 x + 2y 6 = c1

10. Solve (4xy + 3y 2 − x)dx + x(x + 2y)dy = 0 (VTU Jan 2020)

11. Solve y 1 + x1 + cos y dx + [x + log x − x sin y] dy = 0 (VTU Jan




2021) Ans : y(x + log x) + x cos y = C

12. Solve yexy dx + (xexy + 2y)dy = 0 (VTU Jan 2018) Ans : exy + y 2 = c

13. ylogydx + (x − logy)dy = 0 (VTU Model ME 2022) Ans :

IET
xlogy − 12 (logy)2 = c

14. Solve (ey + 1) cos xdx + ey sin xdy = 0. Ans : (ey + 1) sin x = c

15. (1 + 2xycosx2 − 2xy)dx + (sinx2 − x2 )dy = 0 (July 2015) Ans

:x + ysinx2 − x2 y = c

2x (y 2 −3x2 )
16. Solve y3
dx + y4
dy = 0. Ans : x2 − y 2 = cy 3
AJ
17. Solve (5x4 + 3x2y2 − 2xy 3 )dx + (2x3 y − 3x2 y 2 − 5y 4 )dy = 0.

x5 + x3 y 2 − x2 y 3 − y 5 = c

18. Solve ysin2xdx − (1 + y 2 + cos2 x)dy = 0. Ans :

3ycos2x + 6y + 2y 3 = c



19. Solve y 4 + 2y dx + xy 3 + 2y 4 − 4x dy = 0 Ans :
 
2
y + y2 x + y 2 = c



20. Solve x2 + y 2 + 2x dx + 2ydy = 0 Ans : x2 + y 2 ex = c

21. (x − ylogy + ylogx)dx + x(logy − logx)dy = 0 Ans :

logx + xy logy − xy (logx + 1) = c

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 59

x2 y 2
22. y(x + y + 1)dx + x(x + 3y + 2)dy = 0 Ans : 2
+ xy 3 + xy 2 = c

23. (xy + y 2 )dx + (x + 2y − 1)dy = 0 (VTU Feb 2004) Ans :

xyex − yex + y 2 ex = c

24. (3x2 y 4 + 2xy)dx + (2x3 y 3 − x2 )dy = 0 (VTU Feb 2002) Ans :

x2
x3 y 2 + y
=c

25. y(x + y)dx + (x + 2y − 1)dy = 0 Ans : y(xex − ex ) + ex y 2 = c

26. (4xy + 3y 2 − x)dx + (x2 + 2xy)dy = 0 (VTU Model CV 2022) Ans :

IET
x4 y + x3 y 2 − x4 = c

27. y(2x − y + 1)dx + x(3x − 4y + 3)dy = 0 Ans :

x2 y 3 − xy 4 + xy 3 = c

x
28. y(2xy + 1)dx − xdy = 0 Ans : x2 + y
=c
AJ
Linear and Bernoulli Differential Equations:

dy
1. Solve x dx + y = x3 y 6 . (VTU Model 2022, Model 2014) Ans :
1 5
x5 y 5
= 2x2
+c

dy
2. Solve xy(1 + xy 2 ) dx =1 VTU June 2018, July 2017 Ans :
1 1 2

x
= 2 − y 2 + ce− 2 y

dy
3. Solve dx
+ ytanx = y 3 secx (VTU June 2019, Jan 2018, Jan 2015) Ans :
1
(1/y 2 ) · sec2 x
= −2sinx + x + c

dy
4. Solve (x + 2y 3 ) dx =y (VTU July 2015) Ans : x = y 3 + cy

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 60

−1
5. Solve (1 + y 2 )dx + (x − etan y
)dy = 0 (VTU Jan 2014, June 2013)
−1
Ans : x = tan−1 y − 1 + ce− tan y

dy
6. Solve dx
+ xsin2y = x3 cos2 y (VTU July 2017, Jan 2015, June 2013, July

2014, July 2011) Ans : tany = 12 x2 − 1 + ce( − x2 )

2
dy e−x 2
7. Solve dx
= xy 3 − xy (VTU Jan 2017) Ans : y2
= e−x + c

dy y2
8. Solve dx
− x2 y = x3
(VTU Jan 2018)

dr
9. Solve rsinθ − cosθ dθ = r2 (VTU Jan 2020, June 2018, Model 2018)

11. Solve dy
dx
IET
10. Solve y(2xy + 1)dx − xdy = 0

+ ytanx = y 2 secx
(VTU Model 2022, Model 2018)

(VTU Model ME 2022, Jan 2019) Ans :

secx = (tanx + c)y

−1
12. Solve (1 + y 2 )dx + (x − etan y
)dy = 0 (VTU Jan 2014, June 2013)
−1
Ans : xetan y
= tan−1 y + c
AJ
dy −x2
1
13. Solve ey dx + 1 = ex . (VTU Jan 2016) Ans : y
= x2 − 2 + ce 2

14. Solve (2xlogx − xy)dy + 2ydx = 0 (VTU Jan 2017) Ans :

2y log x − 12 y 2 = c

dy y
15. Solve dx
+ x
= y 2 x. (VTU Model 2022)

Differential Equations solvable for p and Clairaut’s equations

 2
dy dy
1) xy dx
− (x2 + y 2 ) dx + xy = 0 (VTU Model 2022, Jan 2019, Jan 2018)

or

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 61

 2 
dy dy
xy dx
+ 1 = (x2 + y 2 ) dx (VTU June 2018) Ans :

(y 2 − x2 − 2c1 )(y − cx) = 0

2) x2 p2 + 3xyp + 2y 2 = 0 (VTU Jan 2017) Ans:(x2 y − c)(xy − c) = 0

3) x2 p2 + xyp − 6y 2 = 0 (VTU July 2017)

4) Solve the equation p2 + p(x + y) + xy = 0 (VTU Jan 2013, Dec 2014) Ans
x2
: (logy + x − c)(y + 2
− c) = 0

5) Solve xyp2 + p(3x2 − 2y 2 ) − 6xy = 0 (VTU July 2017, July 2013) Ans

6) Solve dy
dx
− dx
dy
=
IET
:(y − cx2 )(y 2 + 3x2 − c) = 0

x
y
− y
x
(VTU Model ME 2022, June 2018, July 2017, Jan


2016, June 2015, Jan 2016) Ans : y 2 − x2 − 2c (xy − ec ) = 0.

7) Solve p2 + 2pycotx = y 2 . (VTU Model 2022, Jan 2020, July 2016, June
x
− C y sin2 x2 − C = 0 Ans:y(1 ± Cosx) = c



2012) Ans : y cos2 2
AJ
8) xp2 − (2x + 3y)p + 6y = 0 (VTU Jan 2015)

Ans:(y − 2x − c)(y − cx3 ) = 0

9) Solve p(p + y) = x(x + y) (VTU Dec 2014, July 2011, Dec

 
x2
2011) Ans : y − 2
− c (y + x − 1 − ce−x ) = 0 or

(2y − x2 − c)(ex (y + x + 1) − c) = 0

10) Solve p3 + 2xp2 − y 2 p2 − 2xy 2 p = 0 (VTU Model EE 2022)

11) Solve p2 + 2pcoshx + 1 = 0 (VTU Jan 2014)

12) Solve p2 − 2psinhx − 1 = 0 (VTU Jan 2015)

Ans:(y − Coshx − Sinhx − c)(y − Coshx + Sinhx − c) = 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 62

13) Solve p2 + p(x + y) + xy = 0 (VTU Jan 2013)

 2
dy dy
14) Solve y dx
+ (x − y) dx −x=0 (VTU July 2016)

Ans:(y − x − c)(y 2 + x2 − c) = 0

dy 2
15) Solve dx
− 5dy/(dx) + 6 = 0 Ans:(y − 3x − c)(y − 2x − c) = 0
 2
2 dy dy
16) Solve x dx
− xy dx − 6y 2 = 0 Ans:(y − cx2 )(x3 y − c) = 0

17) Obtain the general solution and singular solution of the equation, y = px + p3

(VTU Jan 2016) Ans : y = cx + c3

yp2 + 1 = 0.
IET
18) Obtain the general solution and singular solution of the Clairaut’s equation xp3 −

1
(VTU July 2017, Jan 2015, June 2014, Dec 2011) Ans : cx + c2
and

4y 3 = 27x2

19) Obtain the general solution and singular solution of the Clairaut’s equation (y −
AJ
px)(p − 1) = p (VTU Jan 2015)

1
20) Solve the equation y 2 (y − xp) = x4 p2 using the substitution, X = x
and
1
Y = y
(VTU June 2014)

21) Solve (px − y)(py + x) = 2p , by reducing into Clairaut’s form,taking the

substitution X = x2 , Y = y 2 . (VTU Model 2022, June 2018, July 2017, July

2016, June 2012, Dec 2011).

22) Solve (px − y)(py + x) = a2 p , use the substitution X = x2 , Y = y 2 .

(VTU Model 2022, June 2019, Jan 2018, July 2017, June 2014, June 2015, Dec
a2 c
2011) Ans : y 2 = cx2 − c+1

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 63

23) Solve x2 (y − px) = yp2 using the substitution X = x2 , Y = y 2 (VTU

Model ME 2022, July 2016) Ans : y 2 = cx2 + c2 , x4 + 4y 2 = 0

24) Find the general and singular solution of the equation p = log(px − y) (VTU

Model 2015). Ans: y = xlogx − x

25) Solve y = 2px − y 2 p3 Take X = 2x, Y = y 2

26) Obtain the general solution and singular solution of the equation sinpxcosy =
√ √
x2 −1 x2 −1
cospxsiny + p (VTU Jan 2013) Ans : y = x
x + sin−1 x

IET
27) Solve p + CosySinpx = SinyCospx Ans: y = cx + sin−1 c

28) Find the general and singular solution of the equation xp2 − py = a = 0

VTU Model 2018)

(

29) Find the general and singular solution for xp2 + xp − yp + 1 − y = 0 (VTU
1
Model ME 2022, June 2018) Ans : y = cx + c+1
and (x + y)2 = 4x
AJ
Orthogonal trajectories

1. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the family of parabola y 2 = 4ax (VTU

Jan 2020) Ans : 2x2 + y 2 = c1

2 2
2. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the family of confocal ellipses xa2 + (b2y+λ) =

1, where λ is a parameter . (VTU July 2021, Model 2018, July 2015, Dec

2011, Jule 2011, June 2009, Aug 2000, Mar 2000, Aug 1999) Ans :
y2 x2
2
+ 2
= a2 logx + c

3. Show that the orthogonal trajectories of a family of circles passing through the

origin having centres on x-axis is a family of circles passing through the origin

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 64

having their cetres on y-axis.

(VTU Model 2014)

4. P.T. the system of confocal and coaxial parabolas y 2 = 4a(x + a) is self

orthogonal.

(VTU Model EE 2022, Jan 2021, June 2019, June 2018, Jun 2013)
2
x2
5. Prove that the family of curves (a2 +λ)
+ (b2y+λ) = 1, where λ is the parameter

is self - orthogonal.

(VTU Model 2022, July 2017, Jan 2016, Jan 2015, Jan 2013)
IET
6. Given y = ke−2x + 3x find member of its orthogonal trajectory passing

through the point (0, 3) (VTU Feb 2006)

7. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves y 2 = cx3 (VTU Jan

2018)

8. Find the O.T of the family of astroids x2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3 Ans :
AJ
x4/3 − y 4/3 = k

9. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the family y 2 = cx3 Ans :

3y 2 + 2x2 = k

x2
10. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the family y = ax2 Ans :y 2 + 2
=c

11. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the family of coaxial circles x2 + y 2 +

2λx + c = 0 , λ is a parameter . (VTU Feb 2002) Ans : x2 + y 2 − ky = c

12. Show that the orthogonal trajectories of a family of circles passing through the

origin having centers on x-axis is a family of circles passing through the origin

having their centers on y-axis. (VTU Model 2014)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 65

13. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves x3 − 3xy 2 = c Ans

: y 3 − 3x2 y = c

14. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of the cardioid r = a(1 + cosθ) (VTU

Model 2022, Aug 2001) Ans : r = b(1 − cosθ)

15. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r n = an sinnθ Ans : r n = bn cosnθ

16. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r = 2acosθ, where ‘a0 is a parameter.

VTU July 2017

Aug 2003)
IET
17. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r 2 = a2 cos2θ (VTU Jun 2014, Jan 2009,

k2
Ans : r 2 = c2 sin2θ

18. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of (r + r

)cosθ = a where a is the param-

eter. (VTU Feb 2005) Ans :

k2
(r − r
)sinθ =c
AJ
2a
19. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r
= 1 − cosθ Ans :

r(1 + cosθ) = 2b

2a 2b
20. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r = 1+cosθ
Ans :r = 1−cosθ

21. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r = 4a(secθtanθ). Ans :

1
r(1 + sin2 θ) 2 = c

22. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r n sinnθ = an (VTU Model 2022) Ans

: r n cosnθ = bn

23. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r n cosnθ = an (VTU Jan 2017, June

2013, Jun 2011, Jan 2010,, Dec 2009) Ans : r n sinnθ = bn

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 66

24. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r n = asinnθ (VTU Jun 2012,July

2006,Aug 2002 , Mar 1999 ) Ans : r n = bcosnθ

25. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r n = an cosnθ (VTU July 2016, Feb

2003) Ans :r n = bn sinnθ

26. Find the Orthogonal trajectories of r n = an sinnθ (VTU July 2017) Ans

:r n = cn cos nθ

27. r = csin2 θ Ans : r 2 = bcosθ

IET
28. Show that orthogonal trajectories of the family of cardioids r = acos2 θ2 is

another family of cardioids r = bsin2 θ2

(VTU Jan 2015)

29. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family curve r = 2a(cosθ + sinθ)

(VTU Model ME 2022)

L-R and C-R circuits

AJ

1. An RL circuit has an emf of 5 V, a resistance of 50ω, an inductance of 1H,

and no initial current. Find the current in the circuit at any time t. Distinguish

between the transient and steady-state current.

2. If we close a switch in a circuit that contains a battery E , an inductance L, and

di
a resistance R, the current i builds up at a rate given by L dt + Ri = E. Find i

as a function of t. How long does it will be before the current has reached one-

half of its final value if E=6 Volts , R=100 ohms, and L = 0.1 henry? (VTU

Model 2022, Jan 2020) ANS : 0.0006931 sec

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

Mathematics -I for Civil Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101- Module 3 ) Page 67

3. When a resistance R Ohms is connected in series with an inductance L henries

di
with an emf of E volts, the current i amperes at time t is given by L dt + Ri =

E. If E = 10sint volts, and i = 0 when t = 0, find i as a function of t.

10 Rt
(VTU Model EE 2022) ANS : L2 +R2
(RSint − Lcost + Le− L

4. A resistance of 100 Ω s, an inductance of 0.5 henry are connected in series with

a battery of 20 volts. Find the current in the circuit at t = 0.5sec, if i = 0 at

t=0

5. Show that the differential equation for the current i in an electrical circuit con-
IET
taining an inductance L and a resistance R in series and acted on by an electro-

motive force E sinwt satisfies the equation

di
iR + L dt = Esinωt

Find the value of the current at any time t, if initially there is no current in the

circuit. (VTU Model EE 2022)

AJ
di
6. Solve L dt + Ri = E0 sin ωt, where L, R&E0 are constants and disuss the

case when t increases indefinitely. (VTU July 2021, Jan 2021)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K AJIET, Mangaluru

 IET Lecture Notes

VTU - BMATC101 - Mathematics-I for Civil

Stream- Module 4 : Differential Equations of
Higher order
AJ
Prepared By

Dr. Shantha Kumari. K

Department of Mathematics

AJIET, Mangaluru
Module 4

Differential Equations of higher order

Module 4 Syllabus IET

Module 4: Differential Equations of higher order:-Second order linear ODE’s with constant co-
efficients - Inverse differential operators, method of variation of parameters; Cauchy’s and Legendre
homogeneous equations. (RBT Levels: L1 ,L2 and L3)

Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order

AJ

The general form of nth order linear differential equation is

n
d y d n−1
y dy
a0 (x) dxn + a1 (x) dxn−1 + · · · + an−1 (x) dx + an (x)y = R(x) ··· (1)
where a0 , a1 , · · · , an , and R(x) are functions of only x.
The general form of nth order linear differential equation with constant coefficients is
n
d y d n−1
y dy
k0 dxn + k1 dxn−1 + · · · + kn−1 dx + kn y = R(x) ··· (2)
where k0 , k1 , · · · , kn are constants and R(x) is a function of only x.
d d2 d3
Operator D : Denoting D = dx
, D2 = dx2
, D3 = dx3
, · · · , (2) can be written in symbolic form
as
(k0 D n + k1 D n−1 + k2 D n−2 + · · · + kn )y = R(x)

This takes the form

f (D)y = R(x)

where f (D) = (k0 D n + k1 D n−1 + k2 D n−2 + · · · + kn )

1
Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 2

4.1 Method of Solving a linear differential equation

To solve the differential equation f (D)y = R(x), we use the following steps :
Step 1 :
Find the Complementary function:
Solve the Auxiliary Equation(A.E.), f (D) = 0.( or f (m) = 0).
Solving the A.E. we get n roots m1 , m2 , m3 , · · · , mn .
Then the solution of the homogeneous linear differential equation part f (D)y = 0 is called as the
Complementary Function (C.F.) or yc and is given by using the following rules.
Sl. Roots Complementary Function (C.F.)
No.
1. One real root m1 C.F. = c1 em1 x
Two real and different roots m1 and m2 C.F = c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x
Three real and different roots m1 , m2 C.F = c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x + c3 em3 x
and m3
2. Two real and equal roots m1 = m2
IET C.F = (c1 + c2 x)em1 x
Three real and equal roots m1 = m2 = C.F = (c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 )em1 x
m3
3 One pair of complex roots a ± ib C.F = eax (c1 cosbx + c2 sinbx)
eax [(c1 + c2 x)cosbx
4 Two pair of complex and equal roots C.F =
+ (c3 + c4 x)sinbx]
( say m = a ± ib, a ± ib)
Some Examples :

Roots of A.E. Complementary Function (C.F.)

AJ
m = 1, 2 yc = c1 ex + c2 e2x
m = 2, −2, 5, 6 y = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x + c3 e5x + c4 e6x
m = 3, 3 y = (c1 + c2 x)e3x
m = 2, 2, 2 y = (c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 )e2x
m = ±i = 0 ± i y = e0x (c1 cosx + c2 sinx)
m = 2 ± 3i y = e2x (c1 cos3x + c2 sin3x)
m = 2, −1, 6, 6 y = c1 e2x + c2 e−x + (c3 + c4 x)e6x
m = −1 ± 2i, −1 ± 2i y = e−x ((c1 + c2 x)cos2x + (c3 + c4 x)sin2x)
Step 2 :
Find the Particular Integral: For the Differential Equation f (D)y = R(x), by considering the
Right Hand Side function R(x), we find a particular solution which is also called as particular In-
tegral (P.I.).
The methods used for this are:

(i) Inverse Operator method

(ii) Method of Variation of Parameters

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 3

4.2 Inverse Operator method :

For a differential equation of the type f (D)y = R(x), where R(x) is a function of the form eax ,
sin(ax + b), cos(ax + b), xn , The particular integral, P.I or yp is given by

1
yp = R(x)
f (D)

and the general solution is

y = C.F. + P.I.

4.3 Type 1 : R(x) = eax :

If R(x) = eax then

1 IET
yp = eax , provided f (D)|D=a = f (a) ̸= 0
f (D) D=a
1
= x ′ eax , provided f (D)|D=a = f (a) = 0, and f ′ (D)|D=a = f ′ (a) ̸= 0
f (D) D=a
1
= x2 ′′ eax , provided f ′ (D)|D=a = f ′ (a) = 0, and f ′′ (D)|D=a = f ′′ (a) ̸= 0
f (D) D=a
..
.
and so on
AJ

4.4 Type 2: R(x) = sin(ax + b)orcos(ax + b)

If R(x) = sin(ax + b) or cos(ax + b) or k1 sin(ax + b) + k2 cos(ax + b) then

1
yp = sinax provided f (D)|D2 =−a2 ̸= 0
f (D) D2 =−a2
1
yp = x ′ sinax, provided f (D)|D2 =−a2 = 0 and f ′ (D)|D2 =−a2 ̸= 0
f (D) D2 =−a2
1
yp = x2 ′′ sinax provided f ′ (D)|D2 =−a2 = 0 and f ′′ (D)|D2 =−a2 ̸= 0
f (D) D2 =−a2
..
.
and so on.

4.5 Type 3 : If R(x) is a polynomial

If R(x) is a polynomial of degree n,
(say, R(x) = k0 + k1 x + k2 x2 + kx3 + · · · + kn xn ) then

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 4

1
yp = f (D) R(x) Take out the lowest degree term(or constant term) from the Denominator and
express the Denominator in the form (1 + ψ(D)).
Then yp reduces to any one of the following forms.

• [1 + ψ(D)]−1 R(x)

• [1 − ψ(D)]−1 R(x)

• [1 + ψ(D)]−2 R(x)

• [1 − ψ(D)]−2 R(x)

These are expanded as far as the term containing D n by using following binomial expansions, and
then operated on R(x) term by term.

• (1 + z)−1 = 1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + · · ·

• (1 − z)−1 = 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + · · ·
IET
• (1 + z)−2 = 1 − 2z + 3z 2 − 4z 3 + · · ·

• (1 − z)−2 = 1 + 2z + 3z 2 + 4z 3 + · · ·

d 1
Z
Remember : Df (x) = (f (x)) and f (x) = f (x)dx
dx D
Depending on the type of the function R(x) we use the above three rules for finding the particular
AJ
integral.
Note : The number of roots of A.E. is equal to the order of the D.E.

d2 y dy
Example 4.5.1. Solve dx2
+ dx
− 2y = 0

Solution :
The given Differential Equation in symbolic form is (D 2 + D − 2)y = 0
Auxiliary equation (A.E.) is m2 + m − 2 = 0
Solving this we get (m − 1)(m + 2) = 0 =⇒ m = 1, −2 (real and different roots)
Hence the Solution is, y = c1 ex + c2 e−2x

Problem 1. Solve (D2 − 3D − 4) y = 0

Solution : Auxiliary equation is m2 − 3m − 4 = 0

or (m − 4)(m + 1) = 0
m = 4, −1 (real and distinct roots)
∴ The solution is y = c1 e4x + c2 e−x .

Problem 2. Solve : (D 2 + 2D + 2) y = 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 5

Solution: A.E. is m2 + 2m + 2 = 0
√
−2 ± 4−8
m=
2
−2 ± 2i
=
2
= −1 ± i = −1 + i, −1 − i (Complex roots in the form a + ib, a − ib)
C.F = e−x [c1 cos x + c2 sin x]
d2 y dy
Problem 3. Solve dx2
− 4 dx +y =0

Solution : Given equation in the symbolic form is (D 2 − 4D + 1) y = 0

Auxiliary equation
√ is m2 − 4m + 1 = 0
4 ± 16 − 4
m=
2
√
4±2 3
=
2√ IET
=2± 3
√ √
= 2 + 3, 2 − 3
Note that The roots are real and distinct. ( √
and not complex!)
√
(2+ 3)x
Hence the general solution is y = c1 e + c2 e(2− 3)x
d3 y 2
d y dy
Problem 4. Solve: dx3
+ 6 dx2 + 11 dx + 6y = 0

d
Solution : Using the operator D = dx the given DE can be written as (D 3 + 6D 2 + 11D + 6) y =
0
AJ

Auxiliary Equation(A.E.) is m3 + 6m2 + 11m + 6 = 0 (This cannot be factorized)

We shall find one root by inspection by taking values for m = 1, −1, 2, −2 etc. Since all the terms
are positive we have to try only negative values for m.
Putting m = −1 we have
(−1)3 + 6(−1)2 + 11(−1) + 6 = −1 + 6 − 11 + 6 = 0
∴ m = −1 is a root.
The other roots can be found through the process of synthetic division.

Remaining factor is, m2 + 5m + 6 = 0.

Solving: (m + 2)(m + 3) = 0 ⇒ m = −2, −3
Hence, m = −1, −2, −3 are the roots of the A.E. which are all real and distinct.
Thus y = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + c3 e−3x is the general solution.

Problem 5. Solve : (D 3 − 3D 2 + 3D − 1) y = 0

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 6

Solution : Given : (D 3 − 3D 2 + 3D − 1) y = 0
The auxiliary equation is m3 − 3m2 + 3m − 1 = 0.
(m − 1)3 = 0
m = 1, 1, 1 ( Three roots are real and equal. )
The general solution is given by y = [c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 ] ex

Problem 6. Solve : (D 3 − 3D + 2) y = 0

A.E. is m3 − 3m + 2 = 0, i.e. m3 + 0m2 − 3m + 2 = 0

By inspection we can see that m = 1 is a root.
The other two roots can be found through synthetic division.

IET
Now, m2 + m − 2 = 0 or (m − 1)(m + 2) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, −2
Hence, m = 1, 1, −2 are the roots of the A.E.
Thus y = (c1 + c2 x) ex + c3 e−2x is the general solution.
d3 y
Problem 7. Solve : dx3
+y =0

Solution : We have (D 3 + 1) y = 0
AE is is m3 + 1 = 0,
AJ
m = −1 is a root by inspection.
The other two roots are found by synthetic division.

solve m2 −√m + 1 =√0

Now, let us √ √
1± 3i2
∴ m = 1± 21−4 = 1± 2−3 = 2
= 1±i 3
2
 √
Hence m = −1, 12 ± i 2
3
are the roots of the AE.
x
h √  √  i
Thus y = c1 e + e c2 cos 2 x + c3 sin 23 x
−x 2
3

Problem 8. Solve: (4D 4 − 4D 3 − 23D 2 + 12D + 36) y = 0

Solution : A.E. is 4m4 − 4m3 − 23m2 + 12m + 36 = 0

By inspection, if m = 2 then 64 − 32 − 92 + 24 + 36 = 124 − 124 = 0
⇒ m = 2 is a root by inspection.
Now by synthetic division,

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 7

Remaining factor is 4m3 + 4m2 − 15m − 18 = 0

If m = 2, 32 + 16 − 30 − 18 = 48 − 48 = 0
Hence m = 2 is a root.
Again by Synthetic division,

Remaining factor is 4m2 + 12m + 9 = 0

or (2m + 3)2 = 0 ⇒ m = − 32 , − 32
IET
Hence, roots of the AE are 2, 2, − 23 , − 32
3
Thus y = (c1 + c2 x) e2x + (c3 + c4 x) e− 2 x is the general solution.

Problem 9. Solve (D 3 + D 2 + 4D + 4) = 0.

Solution: Here the A.E. is D 3 + D 2 + 4D + 4 = 0

(m2 + 4) (m + 1) = 0 ∴ m = −1, ±2i.
i.e. m = −1, 0 + 2i, 0 − 2i
AJ

Hence the G.S. is y = c1 e−x + e0x (c2 cos 2x + c3 sin 2x)

y = c1 e−x + c2 cos 2x + c3 sin 2x
4
d y
Problem 10. Solve : dx4 − y = 0

Solution: Given equation in symbolic form is (D4 − 1) y = 0

A.E. is D4 − 1 = 0 or m4 − 1 = 0
i.e. (m2 − 1) (m2 + 1) = 0
∴ m = ±1, ±i
i.e. m = 1, −1, 0 + i, 0 − i
Solution is
C.F. = c1 ex + c2 e−x + e0x (c3 cos x + c4 sin x)
= c1 ex + c2 e−x + c3 cos x + c4 sin x
Problem 11. Solve : (D 3 − D 2 − D − 2) y = 0

Solution : The given equation is (D 3 − D 2 − D − 2) y = 0

Auxiliary equation is m3 − m2 − m − 2 = 0
m = 2 satisfies this equation.
∴ m = 2 is a root.
By synthetic division

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 8

∴ remaining factor
√
is (m2 +√m + 1) = 0
⇒ m = −1±2 −3 = −1±i 2
3
√ √
1 3 1 3
Hence roots of AE are ⇒ m = 2, − 2
+i 2
, − 2
−i 2
The general solution is
√ √ !
2x −1 x
3 3
y = c1 e +e2 c2 cos x + c3 sin x
2 2

Example 4.5.2. Solve (4D 4 − 8D 3 − 7D 2 + 11D + 6)y = 0 (VTU Jan 2017, July 2016, June
2012, June 2015, Jan 2008)

Solution :
A.E. is 4m4 − 8m3 − 7m2 + 11m + 6 = 0
IET
By inspection, we get m = 2 as one of the roots.
Using syn-

Using synthetic division, we obtain,

4m3 − 7m − 3 = 0
m = −1 is a root of this equation.
AJ

thetic division again, we get

4m2 − 4m − 3 = 0
−1
Solving this equation, we get the remaining two roots as m = 2
and m = 32 .
∴ roots of the A.E. are
m = 2, m = −1, m = −1 2
, m = 32
Hence the solution is
1 3x
C.F. or yc = c1 e−x + c2 e2x + c3 e− 2 x + c4 e 2
d4 y 2
d y
Problem 12. Solve : dx4
+ 8 dx2 + 16y = 0

Solution : Given equation in symbolic form is (D4 + 8D2 + 16) y = 0

Auxiliary equation is m4 + 8m2 + 16 = 0
We can’t use inspection method as all m terms are with even power.
Let us denote m2 = p then the auxiliary equation can be written as

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 9

p2 + 8p + 16 = 0
SOlving this we get (p + 4)(p + 4) = 0 ⇒ p = −4, −4
Re-substituting for p we get
m2 = −4; −4 ⇒ m = ±2i, ± 2i = 0 + 2i, 0 + 2i, 0 − 2i, 0 − 2i
∴ The general solution is
y = (c1 + c2 x) cos 2x + (c3 + c4 x) sin 2x

4.6 Practice Problems :

d4 y 2
d y
1. Solve: dx4
− 5 dx2 + 4y = 0 Ans: y = c1 ex + c2 e−x + c3 e2x + c4 e−2x

2. Solve: (D 3 − D 2 −D − 2) y = 0. Ans:

1
√ √ 
2x −2 x 3 3
y = c1 e + e c2 cos 2 x + c3 sin 2 x

d4 y 3
d y d y 2 dy
3. Solve: dx4
+ 5 dx3 + 6 dx2 − 4 dx − 8y = 0 Ans: y = c1 e
x
+ (c2 + c3 x + c4 x2 ) e−2x

4. Solve (D 2 − 6D + 13)y = 0

5. Solve (D2 + 4) y = 0
IET Ans: C.F. = e3x (c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x)

Ans:y = cos 2x + i sin 2x

−x
h √ √ i
6. Solve : (D 2 + D + 1) y = 0 Ans: C.F = e 2 c1 cos 23 x + c2 sin 23 x

7. Solve : (D 2 + 2D + 2) y = 0 Ans: y = e−x [c1 cos x + c2 sin x]

4.7 Particular Integral -Type 1 : R(x) = eax :

AJ

If R(x) = eax then  

1
yp = eax , provided f (a) ̸= 0
f (a)
 
1
=x ′ eax , providedf ′ (a) ̸= 0
f (a)
 
1
=x 2
eax providedf ′′ (a) ̸= 0
f ′′ (a)
..
.
and so on
General Solution is y = yc + yp
d2 y dy
Problem 13. Solve : dx2
+ 4 dx − 12y = e3x (VTU July 2007)

Solution : In symbolic form the above equation can be written as (D 2 + 4D − 12)y = e3x
A.E. is m2 + 4m − 12 = 0
Solving this we get, (m + 6)(m − 2) = 0 =⇒ m = −6, 2 (real and different roots)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 10

Hence the Complementary function is yc = c1 e2x + c2 e−6x

The particular integral is
1
yp = 2 e3x
D + 4D − 12
 
1
= 2
e3x
D + 4D − 12D=3
1 3x
= e
9
Hence the general Solution is
1
y = yc + yp = c1 e2x + c2 e−6x + e3x
9
Problem 14. Solve : (D 3 − 6D 2 + 11D − 6)y = e2x (VTU Jan 2017)

Solution: The given equation can be written as (D 3 − 6D 2 + 11D − 6) y = 0

The A.E is m3 − 6m2 + 11m − 6 = 0
Here, m = 1 is one of the roots.
IET
Remaining equation is, m2 − 5m + 6 = 0
⇒ m2 − 2m − 3m + 6 = 0
⇒ m(m − 2) − 3(m − 2) = 0
AJ

⇒ (m − 3)(m − 2) = 0

⇒ m = 3, 2
⇒ m = 1, 2, 3 are the roots of AE
Hence, C.F. yc = c1 ex + c2 e2x + c3 e3x

1
yp = e2x
(D 3 − 6D 2 + 11D − 6) |D=2
1
=x 2
e2x (Since the Denominator =0)
(3D − 12D + 11) |D=2
1 2x
=x e = −e2x
−1
G.S., y = yc + yp
= c1 ex + c2 e2x + c3 e3x − e2x

Problem 15. Solve : (D + 2)(D − 1)2 y = e−2x + 2 sinh x

Solution : A.E. is (m + 2)(m − 1)2 = 0

Roots of AE are m = −2, 1, 1 (Two equal and one distinct roots)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 11

Hence C.F. is yc = c1 e−2x + (c2 + c3 x)ex

Particular integral is
1  −2x 
yp = e + 2 sinh x
(D + 2)(D − 1)2
1  −2x x −x

= e + e − e
(D + 2)(D − 1)2
1 1 1
= 2
e−2x + 2
ex − e−x
(D + 2)(D − 1) (D + 2)(D − 1) (D + 2)(D − 1)2

Let us evaluate each of these terms separately.

1
yp1 = e−2x
(D + 2)(D − 1)2 |D=−2
 
1 1 −2x
= · e
D+2 (D − 1)2 |D=−2
1 1
= IET · 2
e−2x
D + 2 (−2 − 1)
1 1
= · e−2x
9 (D + 2) |D=−2
1 1
= · x · e−2x
9 1
x −2x
= e
9
1
yp2 = ex
(D + 2)(D − |D=1 1)2
AJ
1 1
= · 2
ex
1 + 2 (D − 1) |D=1
1 1
= · x2 · ex
3 2
x2 x
= e
6
1
yp3 = e−x
(D + 2)(D − 1)2 |D=−1
1 −x
e−x
= e =
(−1 + 2)(−1 − 1)2 4
x2 x
Hence, G.S. C.F.+ P.I. =c1 e−2x + (c2 + c3 x)ex + x9 e−2x + 6
e + 14 e−x
d2 y dy
Problem 16. Solve : dx2
− 6 dx + 9y = 6e3x + 7e−2x − log2 (VTU July/August 2005)

Solution : We have (D 2 − 6D + 9) y = 6e3x +7e−2x −log 2 AE is given by m2 −6m+9 = 0

or (m − 3)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 3, 3 ∴ yc = (c1 + c2 x) e3x

1 1 log 2
yp = 6e3x + 7e−2x − e0x
D2 − 6D + 9 D2 − 6D + 9 D2 − 6D + 9
= p1 + p2 + p3 (say)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 12

 
1
p1 = 6e3x
(D 2 − 6D + 9) |D=3
1
= 2
6e3x (since denominator = 0)
3 −6×3+9
 
1
= 6x e3x
(2D − 6) |D=3
1
= 6x e3x (since denominator = 0)
2.3 − 6
e3x
p1 = 6x2
2
= 3x2 e3x
1
p2 = 7e−2x
(D 2 − 6D + 9) |D=−2
1
= 2
7e−2x
(−2) − 6(−2) + 9
7e−2x
 
IET 1
= p3 = − log 2 e0x
25 (D 2 − 6D + 9) |D=0
log 2
= −
0−0+9
log 2
= −
9
General solution : y = yc + p1 + p2 + p3
7e−2x log 2
= (c1 + c2 x) e3x + 3x2 e3x + −
25 9
AJ

d3 y d2 y dy
Problem 17. Solve : dx3
+ 6 dx2 + 11 dx + 6y = ex + 1 (VTU June 2012, July 2014, June 2015,
2015 Model)

Solution :In symbolic form we can write the given equation as

(D 3 + 6D 2 + 11D + 6)y = 0
A.E. is m3 + 6m2 + 11m + 6 = 0
By inspection we can see that m = −1 is a root.
By synthetic division, we get the remaining equation as m2 + 5m + 6 = 0
Solving this, we get m = −2, −3
Hence the roots of the auxiliary equation are m = −1, −2, −3
C.F. = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + c3 e−3x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 13

 
1
yp = (ex + 1)
D 3 + 6D 2 + 11D + 6
   
1 x
1
= e + e0x
(D 3 + 6D 2 + 11D + 6) |D=1 (D 3 + 6D 2 + 11D + 6) |D=0
   
1 x
1
= 3
e + e0x
1 + 6 + 11 + 6 0+0+0+6
1 x 1
= e +
24 6
ex 1
HenceY = C.F. + yp == c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + c3 e−3x + +
24 6
Problem 18. (D 2 + 7D + 12)y = coshx (VTU Jan 2016, Dec 2015)

Solution :The AE is m2 + 7m + 12 = 0

m2 + 3m + 4m + 12 = 0
IET
m(m + 3) + 4(m + 3) = 0
(m + 4)(m + 3) = 0

Therefore, m = −4, −3 are the roots of AE

C.F. = c1 e−4x + c2 e−3x

 
cosh x 1 1 x −x


P.I. = 2 = 2 e +e
D + 7D + 12 D + 7D + 12 2
ex e−x 1 ex e−x
   
1
= + 2 = +
AJ
2 D 2 + 7D + 12 D + 7D + 12 2 20 6
1 x 1 −x
P.I. = e + e
40 12
General solution is
1 1
y = yc + yp = c1 e−4x + c2 e−3x + ex + e−x
40 12

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 14

4.8 Particular Integral -Type 1 : R(x) = eax :

h i
1
If R(x) = eax then yp = f (D)
eax is given by
 
1
yp = eax , provided f (a) ̸= 0
f (a)
 
1
=x ′ eax , providedf ′ (a) ̸= 0
f (a)
 
1
=x 2
eax providedf ′′ (a) ̸= 0
f ′′ (a)
..
.
and so on

General Solution is y = yc + yp
d3 y d2 y dy
Problem 19. Solve : dx3
− dx2
+ 4 dx − 4y = sinh(2x + 3)
IET (VTU Jan 2018)

Solution : AE is m3 − m2 + 4m − 4 = 0
i.e. m2 (m − 1) + 4(m − 1) = 0
(m − 1) (m2 + 4) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, ±2i
Hence yc = c1 ex + c2 cos 2x + c3 sin 2x
1
yp = sin h(2x + 3)
(D 3 − D 2 + 4D − 4)

1 1
= e2x+3
AJ
2 (D 3 − D 2 + 4D − 4) |D=2

1 −(2x+3)
− e
(D 3 − D 2 + 4D − 4) |D=−2
" #
1 e2x+3 e−(2x+3)
= −
2 8−4+8−4 −8 − 4 − 8 − 4
" #
1 e2x+3 e−(2x+3)
= −
2 8 −24
1  2x+3
+ e−(2x+3)

yp = 3e
48

General solution : y = yc + yp
1  2x+3
Thus y = c1 ex + c2 cos 2x + c3 sin 2x + + e−(2x+3)

3e
48
d2 y
Problem 20. Solve : dx2
+ 4y = 2−x (VTU June 2015)

Solution : AE is given by m2 + 4 = 0 and hence m = ±2i

yc = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 15

1
yp = 2−x
D2
+4
1 
log 2−x

= 2 e (∵ elog f (x) = f (x))
D +4
1
= 2
e(−x log 2) (∵ log(an ) = n log a)
(D + 4) |D=−log2
1 (− log 2)x
2−x
= e =
(− log 2)2 + 4 (log 2)2 + 4
2−x
General solution: y = yc + yp = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x + (log 2)2 +4

d2 y
Problem 21. Solve : dx2
− 4y = cosh(2x − 1) + 3x (VTU July 2017, July 2016, July 2014, Jan
2009, VTU 2015 Model, 2000)

Solution : We have (D 2 − 4) y = cos h(2x − 1) + 3x

AE is m2 − 4 = 0or(m − 2)(m + 2) = 0 ⇒ m = 2, −2 IET
∴ yc = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x (1)
 
1
yp = 2
(cosh(2x − 1) + 3x )
D −4
     
1 1 (2x−1)
1 1 −(2x−1)
1
= 2
e + 2
e + 2
3x
2 D −4 2 D −4 D −4
= p1 + p2 + p3 (say)

1 1
p1 = e2x−1
2 (D 2 − 4) |D=2
AJ

1 1
= e2x−1 (But, Denominator = 0)
2 22 −4
1 1
= x e2x−1
2 2D |D=2
1 e2x−1
= x
2 4
x 2x−1
= e
8

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 16

1 1
p2 = e−(2x−1)
2 (D 2 − 4) |D=−2
1 1
= x e−(2x−1) (Since Denominator = 0)
2 2D |D=−2
1 e−(2x−1) −x −(2x−1)
= x = e
2 −4 8
1
p3 = 2
3x
D −4
1 log 3x


= e
D2 − 4
1
= 2
e(log 3) x
(D − 4) |D=log3
e(log 3)x 3x
= =
(log 3)2 − 4 (log 3)2 − 4
yp = p1 + p2 + p3
x −x −(2x−1)
IET 3x
= e2x−1 + e + (2)
8 8 (log 3)2 − 4
General solution : y = yc + yp
where yc and yp are given by (1) and (2) respectively.
d2 y dy
Problem 22. dx2
+ dx
+ y = (1 − ex )2

Solution : (i) To find C.F. √

Its A.E. is D 2 + D+ 1 = 0, ⇒ D = 12 (−1 ± 3i)
√ √
AJ
−x
3 3
Thus C.F. = e 2 c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x

1
1 − 2ex + e2x


P.I. =
D2 + D + 1
1
e0x − 2ex + e2x


=
D2 + D + 1
1 1
= 2 e0x − 2 × 2 ex
0 +0+1 1 +1+1
1
+ 2 e2x
2 +2+1
2 e2x
= 1 − ex +
3 7
General Solution is
√ √ !
−x 3 3 2 x
e2x
y=e 2 c1 cos x + c2 sin x +1− e +
2 2 3 7

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 17

4.9 Practice Problems:

d3 y 2
d y dy 2x
1. dx3
+ 6 dx2 + 11 dx + 6y = e (VTU July 2006)
1 2x
Ans : y = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + c3 e−3x + 60
e

2. (D 3 + D 2 − 4D − 4)y = 3e−x − 4x − 6 (VTU July 2016)

3. (D 3 − 6D 2 + 11D − 6)y = e2x (VTU Jan 2017)

d3 y 2
d y dy −x
4. dx3
+ 3 dx2 + 3 dx + y = e (VTU Jan 2007)
x3 −x
Ans : y = (c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 )e−x + 6
e
d2 y dy
5. dx2
− 6 dx + 9y = 6e3x + 7e−2x − log2 (VTU July/August 2005)
7 −2x log2
Ans : (c1 + c2 x)e3x + 3x2 e3x + 25 e − 9

d3 y 2
d y dy x
6. dx3
+ 6 dx2 + 11 dx + 6y = e + 1 (VTU June 2012, July 2014, June 2015, 2015 Model)
x
Ans : y = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + c3 e−3x + e24 + 16

7. d3 y
dx3
+ y = ex
IET
Ans : y = c1 e−x
(VTU 2006)
+e
1
2

x
c2 Cos
√

2
3
x + c3 Sin
√

2
3
x

+ 12 ex

dx
8. dt2
− 6 dx
dt
+ 9x = 5e−2t (VTU July 2013)
Ans : x = (c1 + c2 t)e3t + 15 e−2t

9. (D 4 − 18D 2 + 81)y = 36e3x

x2 e3x
Ans : (c1 + c2 x)e3x + (c3 + c4 x)e−3x + 2

10. (D 2 + 7D + 12)y = coshx (VTU Jan 2016, Dec 2015)

AJ
 
1 ex e−x
Ans : y = c1 e−3x + c2 e−4x + 2 20
+ 6

d y2 dy −x
11. 6 dx2 + 17 dx + 12y = e (VTU Dec 2010)
−4 −3
Ans : c1 e 3 x + c2 e 2 x + e−x
d2 y
12. dx2
+ 4y = 2−x (VTU June 2015)
1
Ans : y = c1 cos2x + c2 sin2x + (log2)2 +4
2−x

d2 x 2
13. dt3
− 3 ddt2x + 4x = 2cosh2t (VTU Jan 2006)
t2 e2t e−2t
Ans : x = c1 e−t + (c2 + c3 t)e2t + 6
− 16

d2 y
14. dx2
− 4y = cosh(2x − 1) + 3x (VTU July 2017, July 2016, July 2014, Jan 2009, VTU
2015 Model, 2000)
3x
Ans : y = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x + x4 sinh(2x − 1) + (log3) 2 −4

15. y ′′ + 4y ′ + 3y = e−x with y(0) = y ′ (0) = 1, (VTU July 2013)

Ans : y = 74 e−x − 34 e−3x + x2 e−x

16. y ′′ + 4y ′ + 5y + 2coshx = 0 with y = 0, y ′ = 0 at x = 0, (VTU July 2017, June 2012)

Ans : y = e2x ( 35 cosx − 85 sinx) − 10
1 x
e − 12 e−x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 18

17. (D + 2)(D − 1)2 y = e−2x + 2sinhx

x2 x
Ans : y = (c1 + c2 x)ex + c3 e−2x + x9 e−2x + 6
e − 14 e−x

18. (D 3 − 6D 2 + 11D − 6)y = e−2x + e−3x

1
Ans : y = c1 ex + c2 e2x + c3 e3x − 120
(2e−2x + e−3x )
d2 y dy
19. dx2
+ dx
+ y = (1 − ex )2
−x
 √ √ 
3 3 e2x
Ans : y = e 2 c1 cos 2
x + c2 sin 2
x + 1 − 23 ex + 7

20. y ′′ − 4y = sinh2 x
1
Ans : y = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x + 16
(xe2x − xe−2x + 2)
d3 y d2 y dy
21. dx3
− dx2
+ 4 dx − 4y = sinh(2x + 3) (VTU Jan 2018)

22. (D 3 − 6D 2 + 11D − 6)y = e2x (VTU Jan 2017)

23. (D 2 + 4D + 5)y = −2coshx (VTU July 2017)

3 −2x ex e−x
IET Ans : y = + 3sinx) −
5
e (cosx 10
− 2

24. Solve : (D 3 − 6D 2 + 11D − 6)y = e−2x + e−3x

1
Ans : y = c1 ex + c2 e2x + c3 e3x − 120
(2e−2x + e−3x )

4.10 Particular Integral : Type 2 - R(x) = sin(ax+b) or cos(ax+

b)
AJ

If R(x) = sin(ax + b)

1
yp = sin(ax + b) providedf (−a2 ) ̸= 0
f (D) D2 =− (a2 )
1
yp = x ′ sin(ax + b), providedf ′ (−a2 ) ̸= 0
f (D) D2 =−a2
1
yp = x2 ′′ sin(ax + b) f ′′ (−a2 ) ̸= 0
f (D) D2 =−a2
..
. and so on.

We use the above rule for R(x) = cos(ax + b) or R(x) = k1 sin(ax + b) + k2 cos(ax + b)

Problem 23. Solve (D 2 − 4D + 4)y = sin2x (VTU July 2011)

Solution: The A.E. is m2 − 4m + 4 = 0

Solving this we get (m − 2)(m − 2) = 0
=⇒ m = 2, 2 (two real and equal roots)
Hence the Complementary function is
yc = (c1 + c2 x)e2x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 19

The Particular integral is given by

1
yp = sin2x
D2 − 4D + 4
 
1
= sin2x
D 2 − 4D + 4 D 2 =−(22 )=−4

Here we replace only D 2 term by −(a2 ) and keep D term as it is.

1
= sin2x
−4 − 4D + 4
1
= sin2x
−4D
1 1
= sin2x
−4 D
1 1
Z
yp = sin2xdx (∵ stands for integration)
−4 D
−cos2x
 
1
= IET
−4 2
1
= cos2x
8
Hence the General Solution is
1
y = yc + yp = (c1 + c2 x)e2x + cos2x
8
Problem 24. Solve (D 2 + D + 1) y = sin 2x
 √ 
AJ
2
Solution: Here the auxiliary equation is m + m + 1 = 0 which gives m = − 12 ± i 12 3
x
n √   √ o
∴ C.F. = e− 2 C1 cos 23 × + C2 sin 23 x
where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants. and
1
P.I. = sin 2x
D2 + D + 1
1
= sin 2x replacing D2 by − 22
−22 +D+1
1
= sin 2x
D−3
1
= (D + 3) sin 2x
(D − 3)(D + 3)
1
= 2 (D + 3) sin 2x
D −9
1
= 2
(D + 3) sin 2x
−2 − 9
1
= − (D + 3) sin 2x
13

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 20

−1
yp = [D(sin 2x) + 3 sin 2x]
13
1
= − [2 cos 2x + 3 sin 2x]
13
(Since D means differentiation with respect to x)
∴ The complete solution is

y = yc + yp
" √ ! √ !#
−x
3 3 1
=e 2 C1 cos x + C2 sin x − (2 cos 2x + 3 sin 2x)
2 2 13

Problem 25. Solve (D2 − 5D + 6) y = sin 3x

Solution: Its auxiliary equation is m2 − 5m + 6 = 0 which gives m = 2, 3

∴ C.F. = C1 e2x + C2 e3x , where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants and
1 IET
P.I. = sin 3x
D 2 − 5D + 6
1
= sin 3x, replacing D 2 by − (32 )
−32
− 5D + 6
1
= sin 3x
−(5D + 3)
−1
= (5D − 3) sin 3x
(5D + 3)(5D − 3)
−1
= (5D − 3) sin 3x
(25D 2 − 9)
AJ

−1
= (5D − 3) sin 3x
{25 (−32 ) − 9}
1
= [5D(sin 3x) − 3 sin 3x]
234
1
= [5 × 3 cos 3x − 3 sin 3x]
234
1
= (5 cos 3x − sin 3x)
78
Hence the required solution is
1
y = yc + yp = C1 e2x + C2 e3x + (5 cos 3x − sin 3x)
78
Problem 26. Solve (D 3 + D 2 − D − 1) y = cos 2x

Solution: Its auxiliary equation is

m3 + m2 − m − 1 = 0 or (m2 − 1) (m + 1) = 0
⇒ m = 1, −1, −1
∴ C.F. = C1 ex + (C2 x + C3 ) e−x , where C1 , C2 and C3 are arbitrary constants

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 21

and
1
P.I. = cos 2x
D3 + D2 −D−1
1
= cos 2x
D (D 2 ) + D 2 − D − 1
1
= cos 2x
D (−22 ) + (−22 ) − D − 1
1 1
= − cos 2x
5D +1
1 D−1
= − cos 2x
5 (D − 1)(D + 1)
1 1
= − 2
(D − 1) cos 2x
5D −1
1 1
= − 2
[D(cos 2x) − cos 2x]
5 (−2 − 1)
1
P.I. = IET (−2 sin 2x − cos 2x)
25
Therefore the general solution is
1
y = C.F. + P.I = C1 ex + (C2 x + C3 ) e−x − (2 sin 2x + cos 2x)
25
d3 y d y2 dy x
Problem 27. Solve dx3
− 3 dx2 + 4 dx − 2y = e + cos x

d
Solution: Using D ≡ dx , the given equation can be rewritten as
(D − 3D + 4D − 2) y = ex + cos x, Here the auxiliary equation is
3 2
AJ

m3 − 3 m2 + 4 m − 2 = 0
( m − 1) (m2 − 2 m+ | 2) = 0
⇒ m = 1, 1 ± i

∴ C.F. = C1 ex + ex (C2 cos x + C3 sin x), where C1 , C2 and C3 are arbitrary constants.
1
P.I. = (ex + cos x)
D3 − 3D 2 + 4D − 2
1
= ex
(D 3 − 3D 2 + 4D − 2) |D=1
1
+ 3 2
cos x
(D − 3D + 4D − 2) |D2 =−(12 )
1 x
1
=x e + cos x
(3D 2 − 6D + 4) |D=1 (− (12 )D − 3 (− 12 ) + 4D − 2
1 1
= x ex + cos x
1 3D + 1
(3D − 1)
= xex + cos x
9D 2 − 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 22

3D − 1
= xex + cos x
9 (−12 ) − 1
1
= xex − (3D − 1) cos x
10
1
= xex − (3D cos x − cos x)
10
1
= xex − (−3 sin x − cos x)
10
1
= xex + (3 sin x + cos x)
10
Hence, the required solution is
1
y = C.F + P.I = C1 ex + ex (C2 cos x + C3 sin x) + xex + (3 sin x + cos x)
10
Problem 28. Solve (D 2 + 5D + 6) y = cos x + e−2x .

Solution: The A.E. is m2 + 5m + 6 = 0 IET

i,e, (m + 2)(m + 3) = 0 ⇒ m = −2, −3
C.F. = C1 e−2x + C2 e−3x

1
cos x + e−2x
 
P.I. =
D 2 + 5D + 6
1 1
= cos x + e−2x
D2
+ 5D + 6 D2 + 5D + 6
= P1 + P2 (say)
1
AJ
P1 = cos x
(D 2
+ 5D + 6) |D2 =−(12 )
1
= cos x
−1 + 5D + 6
1
= cos x
5D + 5
1 (D − 1)
= cos x
5 (D + 1)(D − 1)
1 (D − 1) cos x
=
5 D2 − 1
1 − sin x − cos x
=
5 −12 − 1
−1 sin x + cos x 1
= = (sin x + cos x)
5 −2 10

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 23

1
P2 = e−2x
(D 2 + 5D + 6) |D=−2
1
= 2
e−2x (Denominator = 0)
(−2) + 5 × −2 + 6
1
= x e−2x
(2D + 5) |D=−2
1
= x e−2x
2(−2) + 5
1 −2x
= xe
1
= xe−2x
1
P.I. = p1 + p2 = (sin x + cos x) + xe−2x
10
∴ The general solution is
1
y = C.F. + P.I = C1 e−2x + C2 e−3x + (sin x + cos x) + xe−2x
10
IET
Problem 29. Solve: y ′′ − 4y ′ + 13y = cos 2x

Solution : We have (D 2 − 4D + 13) y = cos 2x

AE is m2 − 4m + 13 = 0 and by solving,
p
−(−4) ± (−4)2 − 4 · 1 · 13
m=
√ 2·1
4 ± −36
=
2
AJ
√
4 ± 36i2
=
2
4 ± 6i
= = 2 ± 3i
2
∴ yc = e2x (c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x)

Here a = 2 and hence replace D 2 by −a2 = −4

1 cos 2x
yp = cos 2x =
(−4 − 4D + 13) 9 − 4D

Now multiply and divide by (9 + 4D)

(9 + 4D)
= cos 2x
(9 + 4D)(9 − 4D)
9 cos 2x + 4D(cos 2x)
=
81 − 16D 2
9 cos 2x − 8 sin 2x
=
81 − 16(−4)
9 cos 2x − 8 sin 2x
=
145

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 24

General solution: y = yc + yp
9 cos 2x−8 sin 2x
Thus y = e2x (c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x) + 145

Problem 30. (D 3 − 1)y = 3cos2x (VTU Jan 2020, June 2012,2010)

AE is m3 − 1 = 0 or (m − 1) m2 + m + 1 = 0



Solution :
m = 1; m2 + m + 1 = 0 and by solving this equation,
√
−1 ± −3
m=
2√
−1 ± i 3
=
2 √
1 i 3
=− ±
2 2 n √ √ o
yc = c1 ex + e−x/2 c2 cos( 3x/2) + c3 sin( 3x/2)

1 IET
yp = 3 cos 2x
D3 − 1
1
= 3 cos 2x Now D 2 → −22 = −4
(D 2 D) − 1
1
= 3 cos 2x
−4D − 1
3(4D − 1) cos 2x
=
−(4D + 1)(4D − 1)
3(−8 sin 2x − cos 2x)
=
AJ
− (16D 2 − 1)
−3(8 sin 2x + cos 2x)
=
65
General solution is

y = yc + yp
n √ √ o
= c1 ex + e−x/2 c2 cos( 3x/2) + c3 sin( 3x/2)
−3(8 sin 2x + cos 2x)
+
65
Problem 31. (D − 2)2 y = 8(e2x + sin2x) (VTU Jan 2017, Jun 2012, Dec 2011, Dec 2014, Jun
2014)

Solution: AE is (m − 2)2 = 0 m = 2, 2
Therefore, yc = (c1 + c2 x) e2x
1 2x
1
P.I. = 8e + 8 sin 2x = p1 + P2 (say)
(D − 2)2 (D − 2)2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 25

1
p1 = 8e2x
(D − 2)2
1
=x 8e2x
2(D − 2)
2
8e2x
=x
2
= 4x2 e2x
1
p2 = 8 sin 2x
(D − 2)2
1
= 8 sin 2x
D 2 − 4D + 4
1
= 8 sin 2x
−22 − 4D + 4
1
= 8 sin 2x
−4D Z
= −2 sin 2xdx

=
IET
−2

− cos 2x
2


= cos 2x
P.I. = p1 + p2 = 4x2 e2x + cos 2x
Hence, the general solution is

y = (c1 + c2 x) e2x + 4x2 e2x + cos 2x

AJ

Problem 32. y ′′ + 4y ′ − 12y = e2x − 3sin2x (VTU Jan 2016, Dec.2015)

Solution: We have (D 2 + 4D − 12) y = e2x − 3 sin 2x

AE is m2 + 4m − 12 = 0 or (m + 6)(m − 2) = 0 ⇒ m = 2, − 6
∴ yc = c1 e2x + c2 e−6x
1 1
yp = e2x − 3 sin 2x
D 2 + 4D − 12 D 2 + 4D − 12
= p1 − p2 (say)
1
p1 = 2 e2x
D + 4D − 12
1
= e2x ( Denominator = 0)
4 + 8 − 12
1
=x e2x
2D + 4
e2x
=x
8
2x
xe
=
8

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 26

1
p2 = 3 sin 2x;
D2 + 4D − 12 D 2 →−4
3 sin 2x
=
−4 + 4D − 12
1
= 3 sin 2x
4(D − 4)
3(D + 4) sin 2x
=
4 (D 2 − 16)
3(2 cos 2x + 4 sin 2x)
=
−80
General solution: y = yc + yp where yp = p1 − p2

xe2x 3
y = c1 e2x + c2 e−6x + + (cos 2x + 2 sin 2x)
8 40
d2 y dy
Problem 33. Solve : dx2
+ 3 dx + 2y = 4 cos2 x
IET
Solution : We have (D 2 + 3D + 2) y = 4 cos2 x
AE is m2 + 3m + 2 = 0
or (m + 1)(m + 2) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −2
∴ yc = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x
We have 4 cos2 x = 2(1 + cos 2x)

2 1
yp = + 2 cos 2x
D 2 + 3D + 2 D 2 + 3D + 2
= p1 + p2 ( say )
AJ

1
p1 = 2 2e0x
D + 3D + 2
2e0x
= 2
0 +3·0+2
=1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 27

1
p2 = 2 cos 2x
D2 + 3D + 2 
1
=2 cos 2x
−4 + 3D + 2
 
1
=2 cos 2x
3D − 2
2(3D + 2)(cos 2x)
=
(3D + 2)(3D − 2)
2(−6 sin 2x + 2 cos 2x)
=
9D 2 − 4
4(−3 sin 2x + cos 2x)
=
9(−4) − 4
4(−3 sin 2x + cos 2x)
=
−40
∴
3 sin 2x − cos 2x
IET
p2 =
10
Complete solution: y = yc + yp where yp = p1 + p2
3 sin 2x − cos 2x
Thus y = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + 1 +
10
Problem 34. y ′′ − 4y ′ + 4y = e2x + cos2x + 4 (VTU July 2008, Feb 2005, Jan 2015)

Solution :

D 2 − 4D + 4 y = e2x + cos 2x + 4


We have
AJ

AE is given by m2 − 4m + 4 = 0 or (m − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2
∴ yc = (c1 + c2 x) e2x

e2x cos 2x 4
yp = + +
D 2 − 4D + 4 D 2 − 4D + 4 D 2 − 4D + 4
= p1 + p2 + p3 (say)
Now,
e2x e2x
p1 = = (Dr. = 0)
D 2 − 4D + 4 22 − 4(2) + 4
e2x e2x
=x· =x· (Dr. = 0)
2D − 4 2(2) − 4
e2x
p1 = x 2
2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 28

cos 2x
p2 = Replace D 2 by − 4
D2 − 4D + 4
cos 2x
p2 =
−4 − 4D + 4
cos 2x
=
−4D
1
Z
=− cos 2xdx
4
− sin 2x
=
8
4e0x
p3 = 2
D − 4D + 4
4e0x
=
0−0+4
4
= =1
4
IET
Complete solution : y = yc + yp where yp = p1 + p2 + p3 Thus

y = (c1 + c2 x) e 2x
+
x2 e2x
2
−
sin 2x
8
+1

Problem 35. (D 3 − D)y = 2ex + 4cosx (VTU June 2014, July 2011)

Solution : The AE is m3 − m = 0

m m2 − 1 = 0

m(m + 1)(m − 1) = 0
AJ

m = 0, −1, 1

Therefore, C.F. = c1 e0x + c2 e−x + c3 ex = c1 + c2 e−x + c3 ex

yp = xex − 2 sin x (prove this !)

Hence, the general solution is

y = c1 + c2 e−x + c3 ex + xex − 2 sin x

d2 y dy
Problem 36. dx2
+ 2 dx + y = e2x − cos2 x

Solution : The given equation can be written as (D 2 + 2D + 1) y = e2x − cos2 x

The AE is m2 + 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −1
Therefore. CF = (c1 + c2 x) e−x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 29

1 2x 2


PI. = e − cos x
D 2 + 2D + 1  
1 2x
1
= 2 e − (1 + cos 2x)
D + 2D + 1 2
1 1 1 1 1
= 2 − 2
e2x − 2
cos 2x
D + 2D + 1 2 (D + 2D + 1) 2 (D + 2D + 1)

1 1 1 1 cos 2x
= e2x − −
9 2 [0 + 2(0) + 1] 2 [−22 + 2D + 1]
1 1 1 (2D + 3)
= e2x − − cos 2x
9 2 2 (2D − 3)(2D + 3)
1 1 1 (2D + 3)
= e2x − − cos 2x
9 2 2 (4D 2 − 9)
1 1 1 (2D + 3)
= e2x − − cos 2x
9 2 2 [4 (−22 ) − 9]
1 1 1
IET
e2x −
= + (−4 sin 2x + 3 cos 2x)
9 2 50
Hence, the general solution is
1 1 1
y = (c1 + c2 x) e−x + e2x − + (3 cos 2x − 4 sin 2x)
9 2 50

4.11 Practice Problems

AJ
Solve the following Differential Equations.

d3 y 2
d y dy
1. dx3
+ 2 dx2 + dx
= e−x + sin2x (VTU Jan 2017, July 2016, Dec 2011, 2004)

2. y ′′ − 4y ′ + 4y = e2x + sinx (VTU July 2019, Jan 2013)

d3 y dy
3. dx3
+ 4 dx = sin2x (VTU Jan 2010)
Ans : y = c1 e 0x
+ (c2 cos2x + c3 sin2x) − xsin2x
8

d2 x
4. + 2 dx + 3x = sint
dt2 dt √ √
Ans : x = e−t (c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2) + 14 (sint − cost)

5. (D 3 − 1)y = 3cos2x √ √
(VTU Dec June 2012,2010)
−1
x x 3 3 3
Ans : y = c1 e + e 2 (c2 Cos 2 x + c3 Sin 2 x) − 65 (8sin2x + cos2x)

6. y ′′ − 3y ′ + 2y = 2sinxcosx (VTU Jan 2014)

x 2x 1
Ans : y = (c1 e + c2 e + 40
(6cos2x− 2sin2x)

7. (D 3 + 1)y = cos(2x − 1) (VTU Jan 2013)

 √  √   Ans : y =
x 3 3 1
c1 e−x + e− 2 c2 cos 2 x + c3 sin 2 x + 65 [cos(2x − 1) − 8sin(2x − 1)]

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 30

8. (D 3 − 1)y = 3cos2x (VTU Dec 2010, June 2012)

d2 y dy
9. dx2
− dx
+ 2y = sin2x (VTU 2013, Jan 2007)
−x 2x 1
Ans : y = (c1 e + c2 e + 40
(2cos2x− 6sin2x)

10. (D 2 + 9)y = cos2xcosx (VTU Dec 2010, July 2007)

1 1
Ans : y = c1 cos3x + c2 sin3x + 16 cosx + x 12 sinx

11. (D 2 + D + 1)y = sin2x  √ √ 

1
Ans : y = e− 2 x c1 cos 23 x + c2 sin 23 x − 1
13
(2cos2x + 3sin2x)
′′ ′ ′
12. y + 4y + 4y = 3sinx + 4cosx, y(0) = 1, y (0) = 0
Ans : y = (1 + x)e−2x + sinx

13. y ′′ − 4y ′ + 4y = e2x + sinx (VTU July 2019, Jan 2013)

Ans : y = (c1 + c2 x)e + 21 x2 e2x − sin
2x
19
− cosx
19

d2 y dy
14. dx2
+ 3 dx + 2y = 4cos2 x
1
Ans : y = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + 1 +

15. (D 2 − 1)y = cos3x + sinx

IET
Ans : y = c1 ex + c2 e−x − 1
10
cos3x − 12 sinx + 13
232
10
(3sin2x − cos2x)

(15cos3x − 3sin3x)

16. y ′′ − 5y ′ + 6y = 13sin3x
Ans : y = c1 e2x + c2 e3x − 195/234cos3x − 39/234sin3x

17. (D 3 + 1)y = 65cos(2x + 1) √ √

Ans : y = c1 e−x + ex/2 (c2 Cos 23 x + c3 Sin x3 ) + cos(2x + 1) − 8Sin(2x + 1)
AJ

18. (D 2 + 9)y = cos2xcosx

1 1
Ans : y = c1 cos3x + c2 sin3x + 16
cosx + x 12 sin3x

19. y ′′ + y = sinxsin2x
1
Ans : y = c1 cosx + c2 sinx + 16 (4xsinx + cos3x)

20. D 2 (D 2 + 4)(D 2 + 9)y = 2sin x2 cos x2

1
Ans : y = c1 + c2 x + c3 cos2x + c4 sin2x + c5 cos3x + c6 sin3x + 24 sinx

4.12 Type 3 : If R(x) is a polynomial

If R(x) is a polynomial of degree n,
(say, R(x) = k0 + k1 x + k2 x2 + kx3 + · · · + kn xn ) then
1
yp = f (D) R(x) Take out the lowest degree term(or constant term) from the Denominator and
express the Denominator in the form (1 + ψ(D)).
Then yp reduces to any one of the following forms.

• [1 + ψ(D)]−1 R(x)

• [1 − ψ(D)]−1 R(x)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 31

• [1 + ψ(D)]−2 R(x)

• [1 − ψ(D)]−2 R(x)

These are expanded as far as the term containing D n by using following binomial expansions, and
then operated on R(x) term by term.

• (1 + z)−1 = 1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + · · ·

• (1 − z)−1 = 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + · · ·

• (1 + z)−2 = 1 − 2z + 3z 2 − 4z 3 + · · ·

• (1 − z)−2 = 1 + 2z + 3z 2 + 4z 3 + · · ·
Example 4.12.1. Solve y ′′ + 3y ′ + 2y = 12x2 (VTU Dec 2010)

Solution : In symbolic form the given Differential Equation can be written as (D 2 + 3D + 2)y =
12x2
A.E. is m2 + 3m + 2 = 0
IET
Solving this we get (m + 1)(m + 2) = 0 =⇒ m = −1, −2
Hence the Complementary Function is
yc = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x
The Particular Integral is
1
yp = 2 12x2
D + 3D + 2
1 1
=  2  12x2
2 D + 3D + 1
AJ

2 2
 2 −1
1 D 3D
= + +1 12x2
2 2 2
  2 −1
1 D 3D
= 1+ + 12x2
2 2 2
"  2   2 2 #
1 D 3D D 3D
yp = 1− + + + − · · · 12x2
2 2 2 2 2
" 2
#
D2 D2 3D 2
     2  
1 3D D 3D
= 1− − + + +2 − · · · 12x2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
" #
D2 3D 2
 
1 3D
= 1− − + 12x2
2 2 2 2
(∵ R(x) = 12x2 is a polynomial of degree 2, we can neglet terms with degree more than 2)
D 2 (12x2 ) 3D(12x2 ) 9D 2 (12x2 )
 
1 2
yp = 1(12x ) − − +
2 2 2 4
 
1 24 3(24x)) 9(24)
= (12x2 ) − − +
2 2 2 4
2
= 6x − 18x + 21

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 32

Hence the General Solution is

y = yc + yp = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + 6x2 − 18x + 21

Problem 37. y ′′ + 3y ′ + 2y = 1 + 3x + x2 (VTU July 2017, July 2016, Dec 2011, Jan 2008)

Solution: The given equation is : (D 2 + 3D + 2) y = 1 + 3x + x2

The AE is m2 + 3m + 2 = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −2
Therefore, C.F. = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x
x2 + 3x + 1
P.I. = 2
D + 3D + 2
1 2


=  2
 x + 3x + 1
2 1 + D +3D2
!−1
1 D 2 + 3D
x2 + 3x + 1


= 1+
2 | {z 2 }
 
2  2IET 2
1 D + 3D D + 3D
− + · · ·  x2 + 3x + 1


yp = 1 − +
2 | {z 2 } | 2
{z }
 2 
1 D 3D 1 4 2 3
x2 + 3x + 1



= 1− − + D + 9D + 6D − + · · ·
2 2 2 4
 
1 2
1 3 1
= x + 3x + 1 − (2) − (2x + 3) + (0 + 9(2) + 0)
2 2 2 4
 
1 9 9
= x2 + 3x + 1 − 1 − 3x − +
2 2 2
1 2
AJ

PI = x
2
Hence, the general solution is
1
y = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + x2
2
d2 y dy
Problem 38. Solve dx2
+ dx
= x2 + 2x + 4 (VTU July 2013, Jan 2013)

Solution : Given equation in symbolic form is (D 2 + D) y = x2 + 2x + 4

AE is m2 + m = 0
⇒ m = 0, −1
Hence yc = c1 e0x + c2 e−x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 33

1
x2 + 2x + 4


P.I. =
D(D + 1)
1
(1 + D)−1 x2 + 2x + 4


=
D
1
1 − D + D 2 − · · · x3 + 2x + 4



=
D
1  2 
= x + 2x + 4 − (2x + 2) + 2
ZD
x2 + 4 dx


=
x3
= + 4x
3
x3
General Solution is y = yc + yp = c1 e0x + c2 e−x + 3
+ 4x
Problem 39. Solve (D 3 + 8)y = x4 + 2x + 1

Solution: The A.E. is m3 + 8 = 0 IET

m3 + 23 = 0
(m + 2) m2 − 2m + 22 = 0

m = −2 or m2 − 2m + 4 = 0
p √ √
2 ± 22 − 4(1)(4) 2 ± −12 2 ± 2 3i
m= = =−
2(1) 2 2
√
m = 1 ± 3i
√
AJ
Therefore, m = −2, 1 ± 3i are the roots of AE

 √ √ 
Hence, C.F = c1 e−2r + ex c2 cos 3x + c3 sin 3x
1
P.I. = (x4 + 2x + 1)
D3 +8
1
=   (x4 + 2x + 1)
D3
8 1+ 8
!−1
1 D3
x4 + 2x + 1


= 1+
8 8
|{z}
" 2 #
D3 D3

1
x4 + 2x + 1


= 1− + ···
8 8 8
Thus, the general solution is
 
1 4 1 1 4 
yp = x + 2x + 1 − (24x) = x + 2x + 1 − 3x
8 8 8
1 4

PI. = x −x+1
8

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 34

−2x x
 √ √  1
x4 − x + 1


y = yc + yp = c1 e +e c2 cos 3x + c3 sin 3x +
8
Problem 40. Find the P.I. of (D 2 + 5D + 4) y = x2 + 7x + 9

Solution :
1
x2 + 7x + 9


Sol. P.I. =
D 2 + 5D + 4
1
! x2 + 7x + 9


=
5D D2
4 1+ +
| 4 {z 4 }
 −1
 2
1 5D D
x2 + 7x + 9


= 1 + + 
4 4 4
| {z }
 
 2  2 2
1 5D D 5D D
− · · ·  x2 + 7x + 9


yp = 1 − + + +
4 4 4 IET 4 4
| {z } | {z }
 2 2 
1 5D D 25D
x2 + 7x + 9


= 1− − + ···
4 4 4 16
 2 
1 5D 21D
x2 + 7x + 9


= 1− + ···
4 4 16
 
1 2

5 2

21 2 2

= x + 7x + 9 − D x + 7x + 9 + D x + 7x + 9
4 4 16
 
1 2

5 21
= x + 7x + 9 − (2x + 7) + (2)
4 4 16
AJ
 
1 2
9 23
= x + x+
4 2 8
d2 y dy
Problem 41. dx2
− 6 dx + 25y = e2x + sinx + x (VTU Jan 2006)

Solution : We have (D 2 − 6D + 25) y = c2x + sin x + x

AE is given by m2 −√ 6m + 25 = 0
On solving, m = 6± 36−100
2
= 6±8i
2
= 3 ± 4i
3x
∴ yc = c (c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x)
1 1 1
yp = D2 −6D+25 e2x + D2 −6D+25 sin x + D2 −6D+25 x
= p1 + p2 + p3 (say)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 35

1
p1 = e2x
D2 − 6D + 25
1
= e2x
22 − 6(2) + 25
2x
e
=
17
1
p2 = sin x Replace D 2 by − 12 = −1
D2− 6D + 25
1
= sin x
24 − 6D
1
= sin x
6(4 − D)
(4 + D) sin x
=
6 (16 − D 2 )
4 sin x + cos x 4 sin x + cos x
= =
IET
6(17) 102
1
p3 = x
D2 − 6D + 25
1
= 2 x
25( D
25
− 6D
25
+1
  2 −1
1 D 6D
= 1+ − x
25 25 25
  2 
1 D 6D
= 1− − x
25 25 25
AJ

x 6
= +
25 625
1
= (25x + 6)
625
Complete solution : y = yc + yp where yp = p1 + p2 + p3
Thus
e2x 4 sin x + cos x 1
y = e3x (c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x) + + + (25x + 6)
17 102 625
Problem 42. (D − 2)2 y = 8(e2x + sin2x + x2 ) ( VTU 2012, Dec 2011)

Solution: (i) To find CF .

8
Its A.E. is (D − 2) = 0,
∴ D = 2, 2.
Thus CF, = (c1 + cz x) e2x
To find P.I.

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 36

 
1 2x
1 1 2
P.I. = 8 e + sin 2x + x
(D − 2)2 (D − 2)2 (D − 2)2
= p1 + p2 + p3 (say)
1
p1 = e2x
(D − 2)2
1
=x e2x
2(D − 2)
1 2x
= −x2 e
2(1)
x2 2x
= e
2
1
p2 = sin 2x
(D − 2)2
1
= sin 2x
D 2 − 4D + 4
IET 1
= sin 2x
(−22 ) − 4D + 4
1
Z
= − sin 2xdx
4
1 − cos 2x

= −
4 2
1
= cos 2x
8
1
AJ

p3 = x2
(D − 2)2
D −2 2
 
1
= 1− x
4 2
" #
D 2
   
1 D (−2)(−3)
= 1 + (−2) + − + . . . x2
4 2 2! 2
 2 
1 3D
= 1+D+ + . . . x2
4 4
 
1 2
3
= x + 2x +
4 2
Thus P.I. = 4x2 e2x + cos 2x + 18 (2x2 + 4x + 3) Hence the G.S, is

y = yc + yp = (c1 + c2 x) e2x + 4x2 e2x + cos 2x + 2x2 + 4x + 3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 37

Pratice Problems
1. y ′′ + 4y ′ − 12y = e2x − 3sin2x (VTU Jan 2016, Dec.2015)
2x
Ans : y = c1 e + c2 e−6x + xe8 + 40
2x 3
(cos2x + 2sin2x)

2. (D 3 − 6D 2 + 11D − 6)y = 2x + cos2x (VTU July 2013)

Ans :
x 2x 3x 2x 1
y = c1 e + c2 e + c3 e + (log2)3 −6(log2)2 +11(log2)−6
+ 520
(14sin2x + 18cos2x)

d3 y 2
d y dy
3. dx3
+ 2 dx2 + dx
= e−x + sin2x (VTU Dec 2011, Jan 2009)
Ans : y = c1 + (c2 + c3 x)e − 12 x2 e−x + 50
−x 1
(3cos2x − 4sin2x)
d2 y dy
4. dx2
− 6 dx + 25y = e2x + sinx + x (VTU Jan 2006) Ans :
3x
e (c1 cos4x + c2 sin4x) + yp

5. (D − 2)2 y = 8(e2x + sin2x) (VTU Jan 2017, Jun 2012, Dec 2011, Dec 2014, Jun 2014)
Ans : y = (c1 + c2 x)e2x + 4x2 e2x + cos2x

6. (D − 2)2 y = 8(e2x + x + x2 )

7. y ′′ − 4y ′ + 4y = e2x + cosx + 4
IET (VTU Jan 2013)
(VTU Jan 2017)

Ans :
y = (c1 + c2 x)e2x + 12 x2 e2x − cosx
19
+ sinx
19
+1

8. y ′′ − 4y ′ + 4y = e2x + cos2x + 4 (VTU July 2008, Feb 2005, Jan 2015)

Ans : y = (c1 + c2 x)e2x + 12 x2 e2x − sin2x
8
+1

9. (D 3 − D)y = 2ex + 4cosx (VTU June 2014, July 2011) Ans :

AJ
x −x x
y = c1 + c2 e + c3 e + xe − 2sinx

d3 y 2
d y dy
10. dx3
+ 2 dx2 + dx
= e−x + sin2x (VTU Jan 2017, July 2016, Dec 2011, 2004)
2
Ans : y = c1 + (c2 + c3 x)e−x − x2 e−x + 50 3
cos2x − 252
sin2x
d2 y dy 1
11. dx2
+ 2 dx + y = e2x − cos2 x Ans : y = (c1 + c2 x)e−x + 2
+ 15 (2sin2x + cos2x)

12. (D 2 + 5D + 6)y = cosx + e−2x Ans :

1
y = c1 e−2x + c2 e−3x + 10 (sinx + cosx) + xe−2x

13. y ′′ + 2y ′ + y = e2x − cos2x y = (c1 + c2 x)e−x + 19 e2x − 21 − 50

1
(4sin2x − 3cos2x)
d2 y
14. dx2
+ 4y = x2 + e−x (VTU June 2012, June 2015) Ans :
x2 1
y = c1 cos2x + c2 sin2x + 4
− 8
+ 15 e−x

15. (D 3 − D)y = 2x + 1 + 4cosx + 2ex Ans :

y = c1 + c2 ex + c3 e−x + xex − (x2 + x) − 2sinx
d2 y
16. dx2
+ 4y = x2 + 2−x + log2 (VTU Jan 2018)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 38

17. (D − 2)2 y = 8(e2x + x + x2 ) (VTU Jan 2017)

18. y ′′′ − 6y ′′ + 11y ′ − 6y = 1 + x + sinx (VTU July 2017)

d2 y dy
19. dx2
− 5 dx + 6y = e2x + sinx (VTU Jan 2006) Ans :
2x 3x 2x 1
y = c1 e + c2 e − xe + 10 (sinx + cosx)

20. y ′′ − y ′ − 2y = x + sinx (VTU 2015 Model) Ans :

y = c1 e−x + c2 e2x + 41 − 12 x + 1
10
(cosx − 3sinx)
d2 y
21. dx2
+ y = 2cosx (VTU July 2016, Dec 2015, June 2012) Ans :
y = c1 cosx + c2 sinx + xsinx

22. y ′′ + 4y = e−x + x2 (VTU July 2017, JUly 2013, June 2012) Ans :
e−x
y = c1 cos2x + c2 sin2x + 5
+ 14 x2 − 81
d2 y dy
23. + 2 dx + 4y = 2x2 + 3e−x (VTU Jan 2018, Jan 2017, Jan 2013, Jan 2008)
dx2 √ √
Ans : y = e (c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x) + 21 x2 − 12 x + e−x
−x

24. y ′′ − 4y ′ + 3y = 20cosx,
1
c1 ex + c2 e3x + 20 (40cosx − 80sinx)
IET (VTU July 2011) Ans :

x 5
25. y ′′ − 5y ′ + 6y = e3x + x (VTU Jan 2013) Ans : y = c1 e2x + c2 e3x + xe3x + 6
+ 36

26. y ′′ − 5y ′ + 6y = 2ex + 4cos2x (VTU July 2016)

27. y ′′ − 5y ′ + 6y = e3x (VTU July 2008) Ans : y = c1 e2x + c2 e3x + xe3x

x 5
28. y ′′ − 5y ′ + 6y = x (VTU July 2007) Ans : y = c1 e2x + c2 e3x + 6
+ 36
AJ

d2 y dy
29. + 2 dx + 4y = 3e−x (VTU Jan 2013) Ans :
dx2 √ √
y = e−x (c1 cos x + c2 sin 3x) + e−x
d2 y dy x2 3x 7
30. dx2
− 3 dx + 2y = x2 (VTU JUly 2008) Ans : y = c1 ex + c2 e2x + 2
+ 2
+ 4

d2 y dy
31. dx2
− 3 dx + 2y = x2 + ex (VTU July 2017, July 2016, Dec 2010) Ans :
2
y = c1 ex + c2 e2x + x2 + 3x
2
+ 7
4
− xex

32. y ′′ + 2y ′ + 3y = x2 − cosx (VTU July 2009)

√ √ 2
Ans : y = e (c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x) + x3 − 49 x + 27
−x 2
+ 14 sinx + 14 cosx

33. y ′′ + 2y ′ + 3y = x2 + cosx (VTU Feb 2005)

√ √ 2
Ans : y = e (c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x) + x3 − 94 x + 27
−x 2
− 41 sinx − 14 cosx

34. (D 2 − D − 2)y = 1 − 2x − 9e−x (VTU June 2010)

d2 y dy
35. dx2
− dx
− 2y = 1 − 2x (VTU Jan 2007) Ans : c1 e−x + c2 e2x + x − 1
d2 y dy
36. dx2
− 3 dx + 2y = 4x2 (VTU JUly 2017)
d2 y dy
37. dx2
+ 2 dx + y = 2x + x2 (VTU July 2011) Ans : y = (c1 + c2 x)e−x + x2 − 2x + 2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 39

38. (D 2 − 5D

+
√
1)y

= 1 + x2√ 
(VTU July 2009) Ans :
5 21 5 21
+ x − x
y = c1 e 2 2
+ c2 e 2 2
+ x2 + 10x + 49

39. y ′′ + 3y ′ + 2y = 1 + 3x + x2 (VTU July 2017, July 2016, Dec 2011, Jan 2008) Ans :
2
y = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + x2

d3 y d y2 dy 2
40. dx3
+ dx 2 + 4 dx + 4y = x + 2x + 6 (VTU Feb 2005) Ans :
2
y = c1 e−x + c2 Cos2x + c3 Sin2x + x4 + 11
8

41. y ′′ + 4y ′ + 4y = 8x2 Given y(0) = 1, y ′ (0) = 2 (VTU July 2016)

x2
42. (D 2 + D − 2)y = 1 − x + x2 Ans : y = c1 ex + c2 e−2x − 2
−1

43. (D 2 + 3D + 2)y = 2x2 + 4x + 1 Ans : y = c1 e−x + c − 2e−2x + x2 − x + 1

44. (D − 2)2 y = 8x2 IET Ans : y = (c1 + c2 x)e2x + 2x2 + 4x + 3

4.13 Method of Variation of Parameters

To solve a second order Linear differential equation, under the method of variation of parameters, we
first find Complementary Function, which takes the form yc = c1 y1 + c2 y2 .
Then we find a term called Wronskian(W), which is given by

y1 y2
W =
y1′ y2′
AJ

Then the P.I. is

yp = A(x)y1 + B(x)y2
where A(x) and B(x) are given by,

R(x) y2
Z
A(x) = − dx
W

R(x) y1
Z
B(x) = dx
W
General Solution is y = yc + yp .
d y 2
Example 4.13.1. Solve dx 2 + y = tanx by the method of Variation of Parameters (VTU July
2013, July 2009, Jan 2009, Dec 2010, 2015 Model)

Solution : The symbolic form of the given equation is (D 2 + 1)y = tanx

A. E. is m2 + 1 = 0 =⇒ m = ±i (one pair of imaginary roots)
Hence the Complementary Function is yc = c1 cosx + c2 sinx
This is in the form c1 y1 + c2 y2 .

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 40

∴ y1 = cosx, y2 = sinx
The Wronskian is given by

y1 y2
W =
y1′ y2′
cosx sinx
=
−sinx cosx
= cos2 x + sin2 x = 1

The Particular integral is yp = A(x)y1 + B(x)y2 , where

R(x) y2
Z
A(x) = − dx
Z W
= − tanx sinxdx
sinx
Z
=− sinxdx
IET cosx
sin2 x
Z
=− dx
cosx
1 − cos2 x
Z
=− dx
cosx
cos2 x
Z  
1
=− − dx
cosx cosx
Z
A(x) = − (secx − cosx)dx
AJ

= − [log(secx + tanx) − sinx]

= sinx − log(secx + tanx)
R(x) y1
Z
B(x) = dx
Z W
= tanx cosxdx
sinx
Z
= cosxdx
Z cosx
= sinxdx = −cosx

Hence

yp = A(x)y1 + B(x)y2
= (sinx − log(secx + tanx)) cosx + (−cosx) sinx
= sinx cosx − cosx log(secx + tanx) − sinx cosx
= −cosx log(secx + tanx)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 41

The general Solution is

y = yc + yp = c1 cosx + c2 sinx − cosx log(secx + tanx)

′′ ′ e3x
Problem 43. y − 6y + 9y = x2
(VTU Jan 2017, July 2017, Dec 2014, June 2011, Dec 2011)

Solution: A.E. is D2 − 6D + 9 = 0
i.e., (D − 3)2 = 0
i.e., D = 3, 3
C.F. = (c1 + c2 x) e3x = c1 e3x + c2 xe3x = c1 y1 + c2 y2 , where y1 = e3x , y2 = xe3x and

y1 y2
W=
y1′ y2′
e3x xe3x
=
3e3x (1 + 3x)e3x
= e6x
IET
R(x) =
x2
e3x

P.I. = A(x)y1 + B(x)y2 ,

y2 R(x)
Z
where A(x) = − dx
W
y1 R(x)
Z
and B(x) = dx
W
3x
xe3x ex2
Z
A(x) = − dx
AJ
e6x
xe3x · e3x
Z
=− dx
e6x x2
xe3x · e3x
Z
=− dx
e6x · x2
−1
Z
= dx = − log x
x
Z 3x 3x
e ·e
B(x) = 6x 2
dx
Z e ·x
1 1
= dx = −
x2 x
P.I. = A(x)y1 + B(x)y2 ,
 
3x 3x
1
= −e log x + xe −
x
3x
= −e (1 + log x)
C.S. is :
y = (c1 + c2 x) e3x − e3x (1 + log x)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 42

Problem 44. Solve by the method of variation of parameters

y ′′ + a2 y = sec ax

Solution : The AE is m2 + a2 = 0 ⇒ m = ±ai Therefore,

C.F. = c1 cos ax + c2 sin ax

This is in the form c1 y1 + c2 y2

where y1 = cos ax, y2 = sin ax
Here
y1 y2
W =
y1′ y2′
cos ax sin ax
=
−a sin ax a cos ax
= a(cos2 ax + sin2 ax)
IET
=a
P.I. = A(x) cos ax + B(x) sin ax where
Z
y2 R(x)
A(x) = − dx
w
sin ax sec ax
Z
=− dx
a
1
Z
=− tan axdx
a
1 log(sec ax)
AJ

=−
a a
1
= − 2 log(sec ax)
a
y1 R(x)
Z
B(x) = dx
w
cos ax sec ax
Z
= dx
a
1
Z
= dx
a
1
= x
a
Therefore,
1 x
P.I. = − 2 log(sec ax) cos ax + sin ax
a a
1 x
G.S.y = yc + yp = c1 cos ax + c2 sin ax − 2 cos ax log(sec ax) + sin ax
a a
Problem 45. Solve by the method of variation of parameters

y ′′ + y = cosec x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 43

Solution : The A.E is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ±i

Therefore,
C.F. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x
Here y1 = cos x y2 = sin x

y1 y2
w=
y1′ y2′
cos x sin x
=
− sin x cos x
= cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
P.I. = A cos x + B sin x
y2 R(x)
Z
A=− dx
w
sin xcscx
Z
=− dx
IET Z 1
= − 1dx = −x
y1 R(x)
Z
B= dx
w
cos xcscx
Z
= dx
1
1
Z
= cos x · dx
Z sin x
= cot xdx = log(sin x)
AJ

yp = −x cos x + sin x log(sin x)

G.S. , y = yc + yp = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − x cos x + sin x log(sin x)
d2 y
Problem 46. Solve : dx2
+ y = sec x tan x

Solution : The A.E is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ±i

Therefore,
C.F. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x
Here y1 = cos x y2 = sin x

y1 y2
w=
y1′ y2′
cos x sin x
=
− sin x cos x
= cos2 x + sin2 x = 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 44

y2 R(x)
Z
A=− dx
w
sin x sec x tan x
Z
=− dx
Z 1
=− tan2 xdx
Z
sec2 x − 1 dx


=−

= −[tan x − x]
= x − tan x
y1 R(x)
Z
B= dx
w
cos x sec x tan x
Z
= dx
Z 1
= tan xdx

Therefore,
IET
= log(sec x)

P.I. = (x − tan x) cos x + log(sec x) · sin x

Hence, the general solution is

y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x + (x − tan x) cos x + sin x log(sec x)

d y2
Problem 47. Solve: dx2 + 4y = tan2x (VTU Jan 2020, Jan 2018, July 2017, Jan 2016, June
2012, Dec 2011, Dec 2014, July 2008)
AJ

Solution : A.E. is D 2 + 4 = 0, ∴ D = ±2i

Thus C.F. is y = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x.
Here y1 = cos 2x, y2 = sin 2x and R(x) = tan 2x
∴
y1 y2
W =
y1′ y2′
cos 2x sin 2x
=
−2 sin 2x 2 cos 2x
=2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 45

P.I. = A(X)y1 + B(x)y2

y2 R(x)
Z
A(x) = − dx
W
sin 2x tan 2x
Z
=− dx
2
1 sin2x sin 2x
Z
=− dx
2 cos 2x
1 sin2 2x
Z
=− dx
2 Z cos 2x
1
=− (sec 2x − cos 2x)dx
2
1 log(sec 2x + tan 2x) sin 2x
=− +
2 2 2
y1 R(x)
Z
B(x) = dx
W
cos 2x tan 2x
Z
B(x) = dx

=
1
2
Z 2
sin 2xdx
IET
1
= − cos 2x
4
yp = A(x)y1 + B(x)y2
1
= − cos 2x log(sec 2x + tan 2x)
4
1
y = yc + yp = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x − cos 2x log(sec 2x + tan 2x)
AJ

4
ex
Problem 48. Solve by the method of variation of parameters : y ′′ − 2y ′ + y = x
(VTU July
2016, Jan 2013, July 2007)

Solution :
A.E. is m2 − 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1)2 = 0
m = 1, 1 are the roots of A . E
C.F. = (C1 + C2 x) ex = c1 ex + c2 xex
Here, y1 = ex , y2 = xex
∴ y1′ = ex , y2′ = (x + 1)ex
W = y1 y2′ − y2 y1′ = e2x
x
Also R(x) = ex
Further, we have A(x) = −y2WR(x) dx and B(x) = y1 R(x)
R R
W
dx

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 46

ex
−xex x
A= 2x
dx
Z e
= −dx = −x
Z x ex
e x
B(x) = 2x
dx
e
1
Z
= dx
x
= log x
yp = (−x) ex + (log x) xex
GS y = yc + yp = (C1 + C2 x) ex + (−x) ex + (log x) xex

Problem 49. Solve: y ′′ − 2y ′ + y = ex logx (VTU July 2006)

Solution : To find C.F. Its A.E. is (D − 1)2 = 0, ∴ D = 1, 1

IET
Thus C.F. is y = (c1 + c2 x) ex
To find P.I. Here y1 = ex , y2 = xex and X = ex log x
y1 y2 ex xex
∴ W = = = e2x
y1′ y2′ ex (1 + x)ex

R(x) y2
Z
A(x) = − dx
W
xex · ex log x
Z
=− dx
e2x
AJ
Z
=− x log xdx

Integrate by parts by taking log x as first function,

 2
1 x2

x
Z
A(x) = − log x − · dx
2 x 2
 2
x2

x
=− log x −
2 4

R(x) y1
Z
B(x) = dx
W
Z x x
e · e log x
= dx
Z e2x
= log xdx

= (x log x − x)
yp = A(x)y1 + B(x)y2
1
= x2 ex (2 log x − 3)
4

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 47

Hence G.S. is
1
y = yc + yp = (c1 + c2 x) ex + x2 ex (2 log x − 3)
4
d2 y 2
Problem 50. Solve: dx2
−y = 1+ex
(VTU July 2016, July 2005)

Solution : The A.E is m2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ±1

Therefore,
C.F. = c1 ex + c2 e−x
Here y1 = ex and y2 = e−x

y1 y2
w=
y1′ y2′
ex e−x
= = −ex · e−x − ex e−x = −2
ex −e−x
P.I. = Aex + Be−x
y2 R(x)
Z IET
A=− dx
w 
Z e−x 2
1+ex
=− dx
−2
e−x
Z
= dx
1 + ex
e−x
Z
= dx
ex (e−x + 1)
Z −x −x
e ·e
AJ

= −x
dx Put e−x + 1 = t ⇒ e−x dx = −dt
e +1
(t − 1)(−dt)
Z
A=
t 
Z 
1
=− 1− dt
t
Z  
1
= − 1 dt
t
= log t − t
= log e−x + 1 − e−x + 1

y1 R(x)
Z
B= dx
w
 
Z ex 2
ex +1
= dx
−2
ex
Z
=− dx
ex + 1
= − log (ex + 1)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 48

Therefore,

P.I. = log e−x + 1 − e−x + 1 ex − log (ex + 1) e−x





y = yc + yp
= c1 ex + c2 e−x + ex log e−x + 1 − 1 − ex − e−x log (ex + 1)

′′ ′
Problem 51. Solve: y − 2y + 2y = ex tanx (VTU Jan 2010, June 2015)

: The A.E is m2 − 2m + 2 = 0
Solution √
m = 2± 24−8 = 1 ± i
Therefore,
C.F. = ex (c1 cos x + c2 sin x)
Hence y1 = ex cos x, y2 = ex sin x

y1 y2
w=
y1′ y2′

=
ex cos x
IETex sin x
ex (− sin x + cos x) ex (sin x + cos x)
= e2x cos x sin x + cos2 x − e2x − sin2 x + sin x cos x

= e2x cos x sin x + cos2 x + sin2 x − sin x cos x

= e2x
P.I. = Aex cos x + Bex sin x where

R(x)y2
Z
A=− dx
w
AJ

Z x
e tanx × ex sin x
=− dx
e2x
sin x
Z
=− sin x · dx
cos x
sin2 x
Z
=− dx
cos x
1 − cos2 x
Z
=− dx
Z cos x
=− (sec x − cos x)dx

= −[log(sec x + tan x) − sin x] = sin x − log(sec x + tan x)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 49

y1 R(x)
Z
B= dx
Z x w
e cos x × ex tan x
= dx
Z e2x
= sin xdx = − cos x

Therefore,
P.I = [sin x − log(sec x + tan x)]ex cos x + (− cos x)ex sin x
= ex [sin x cos x − cos x log(sec x + tan x) − sin x cos x]
P.I. = −ex cos x log(sec x + tan x)
Hence G.S. is

y = yc + yp = ex (c1 cos x + c2 sin x) − ex cos x log(sec x + tan x)

d2 y 1
Problem 52. Solve: dx2
+y = 1+sinx
(VTU Model 2018, June 2015)

Solution: The AE is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ±i
Therefore,
IET
C.F. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x
Here, y1 = cos x, y2 = sin x

y1 y2 cos x sin x
w= = = cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
y1′ y2′ − sin x cos x
AJ

P.I. = A cos x + B sin x where

y2 R(x)
Z
A=− dx
w 
Z sin x 1
1+sin x
=− dx
1
sin x
Z
=− dx
1 + sin x
(1 − sin x)
Z
=− sin x dx
1 − sin2 x
sin x − sin2 x
Z
=− dx
cos2 x !
sin x sin2 x
Z
=− − dx
cos2 x cos2 x
Z
tan x sec x − tan2 x dx


=−

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 50

Z
sec x tan x − sec2 x − 1 dx


A=−

= −[sec x − (tan x − x)] = tan x − sec x − x

y1 R(x)
Z
B= dx
w  
Z cos x 1
1+sin x
= dx
1
cos x
Z
= dx
1 + sin x
Put 1 + sin x = t ⇒ cos xdx = dt
dt
Z
B= = log t = log(1 + sin x)
t
Therefore,
P.I. = (tan x − sec x − x) cos x + log(1 + sin x) sin x
Hence, the general solution
IET
y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x + cos x(tan x − sec x − x) + sin x log(1 + cos x)

Problem 53. Solve: y ′′ + y = xsinx (VTU Jan 2016)

Solution : The A.E is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ±i

Therefore,
C.F. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x
P.I. = A cos x + B sin x
AJ

Herey1 = cos x, y2 = sin x

y1 y2
w=
y1′ y2′
cos x sin x
=
− sin x cos x
= cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
y2 R(x)
Z
A=− dx
w
sin x · x sin x
Z
=− dx
Z 1
=− x sin2 xdx
(1 − cos 2x)
Z
=− x dx
2
1
Z
=− (x − x cos 2x)dx
2
1 x2 − cos 2x
     
sin 2x
=− − x − (1)
2 2 2 22

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 51

x2
 
1 x 1
A=− + sin 2x + cos 2x
4 2 2 4
x2 x 1
=− + sin 2x + cos 2x
4 4 8
R(x)y1
Z
B= dx
W
x sin x cos x
Z
= dx
1
x sin 2x
Z
= dx
2
− cos 2x − sin 2x
 
1
= x −
2 2 4
 
x 1
= − cos 2x + sin 2x
4 8
Hence, the general solution is

x2
 
x 1
IET
P.I. = − + sin 2x + cos 2x cos x
4 4 8
 
x 1
+ − cos 2x + sin 2x sin x
4 8
x2
 
x 1
y =c1 cos x + c2 sin x + − + sin 2x + cos 2x cos x
4 4 8
 
x 1
+ − cos 2x + sin 2x sin x
4 8
AJ

4.14 Practice problems :

Solve the following differential equations by the method of Variation of Parameters.

d2 y
1. Solve dx2
+ y = tanx (VTU July 2013, July 2009, Jan 2009, Dec 2010, 2015 Model)
d2 y
2. Solve: dx2
+ y = secx (VTU June 2019, July 2008)
d y2
2
3. Solve: dx2 + a y = secax (VTU Jan 2017, July 2016, Jan 2015, Jan 2014, July 2011, Dec
2010 , Jan 2015)
d2 y
4. Solve dx2
+ y = cosecx (VTU July 2016)
d y 2
5. Solve: dx2 + 4y = tan2x (VTU Jan 2020, Jan 2018, July 2017, Jan 2016, June 2012, Dec
2011, Dec 2014, July 2008)
d2 y
6. Solve: dx2
+ a2 y = tanax (VTU July 2005)

7. Solve:(D 2 + 1)y = secxtanx (VTU Model 2018, July 2013)

′′ ′ e3x
8. Solve:y − 6y + 9y = x2
(VTU July 2017, Jan 2017, Dec 2014, June 2011, Dec 2011)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 52

ex
9. Solve: y ′′ − 2y ′ + y = x
(VTU July 2016, Jan 2013, July 2007)

10. Solve:y ′′ + 2y ′ + y = e−x logx (VTU July 2017, July 2014, Jan 2007)

11. Solve: y ′′ − 2y ′ + y = ex logx (VTU July 2006)

′′ ′
12. Solve: y − 2y + 2y = ex tanx (VTU Jan 2010, June 2015)
d2 y 1
13. Solve: dx2
+y = 1+sinx
(VTU Model 2018, June 2015)
1
14. Solve: (D 2 − 3D + 2)y = 1+e−x
(VTU July 2017, June 2010)
d2 y 2
15. Solve: dx2
−y = 1+ex
(VTU July 2016, July 2005)

16. Solve: (D 2 + 4)y = 4sec2 2x (VTU Dec 2015)

4.15 Linear Differential Equation with variable coefficients

IET
In this section, we shall study two special forms of linear equations with variable coefficients, namely
Cauchy’s homogeneous linear differential equations and Legendre’s homogeneous linear differential
equations, which can be reduced to linear differential equations with constant coefficients by a suitable
substitution.

4.16 Cauchys Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations

AJ
A linear differential equation of the form,

dn y dn−1 y dn−2 y
a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + a2 xn−2 + · · · + an y = R(x) (1)
dxn dxn−1 dxn−2

where a1 , a2 , · · · an are constants and R(x) is either a constant or a function of x only, is called
Cauchy’s homogeneous linear differential equation. Note that the index of x and order of derivative
is same in each term of such equations.
The above equation can be reduced to linear differential equation with constant coefficients, by sub-
stituting
x = ez (or) logx = z
so that
dz 1
=
dx x
Using chain rule for differentiation we obtain
dy dy dz dy 1
= =
dx dz dx dz x

dy dy
=⇒ x = = Dy
dx dz

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 53

where
d
D=
dz
Similarly, for the second order derivative

d2 y
   
d dy d 1 dy
= =
dx2 dx dx dx x dz
−1 dy
 
1 d dy
= 2 +
x dt x dx dz
−1 dy
 
1 d dy dz
= 2 +
x dt x dt dz dx
2
−1 dy 1d y 1
= 2 +
x dz x dz 2x
2
1 d y dy
= 2 2
−
x dz dz
1
= 2 (D 2 − D)y IET
x

d2 y d
=⇒ x2 = D(D − 1)y where D = dz
dx2
d3 y
Similarly, x3 = D(D − 1)(D − 2)y
dx3
and so on.
In general, we have the relationship
dn y
AJ
n
x = D(D − 1)(D − 2) · · · (D − n + 1)y
dxn
dy d y2 n
nd y
Substituting the above values of x, x dx , x2 dx2 , · · · , x dxn in the Equation (1), we get a linear

differential equation with constant coefficients which can be solved with the methods discussed in
previous lessons. Finally, by replacing z by logx we obtain the desired solution.
d y 2dy
Example 4.16.1. Solve : x2 dx2 − 4x dx + 6y = x
2

Solution: The given D.E. is a cauchy’s linear D.E.

To solve this we use the substitution,

x = et (or) logx = t

dy 2
d2 y d
Then, x = Dy , x = D(D − 1)y · · · where D = dt
dx dx2

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 54

dy d y 2
Substituting the above values of x, x dx , x2 dx2 in the given Differential Equation, we get

2
D(D − 1)y − 4Dy + 6y = et
(D 2 − D − 4D + 6)y = e2t
A.E. is m2 − 5m + 6 = 0
Roots are m = 2, 3
∴ yc = c1 e2t + c2 e3t
 
1
yp = e2t (Type I)
D2 − 5D + 6 D=2
 
1
=t e2t
2D − 5 D=2
1
=t e2t
4−5
= −te2t
∴ G.S. is y = yc + yp
IET
= c1 e2t + c2 e3t − te2t
Resubstituting t = logx and et = x,
y = c1 x2 + c2 x3 − (logx)x2
d y2
2
Problem 54. Solve : x dx2 − 2y/x = x + 1/x

Solution :The given equation can be written as

1
AJ
x2 y ′′ − 2y = x2 +
x
Put log x = z or x = ez , then
xy ′ = Dy and
x2 y ′′ = D (D − 1) y
d
where D = dz Now the given DE can be written as

|D (D − 1) − 2| y = (ez )2 + (ez )−1

D 2 − D − 2 y = e2z + e−z

This is a linear differential equation with constant coefficients.

The AE is m2 − m − 2 = 0
⇒ (m − 2)(m + 1) = 0 ⇒ m = 2, −1

C.F. = c1 e2z + c2 e−z = c1 x2 + c2 x−1

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 55

1 1
P.I. = e2z + e−z
D2 −D−2 D2 −D−2
1 1
= z· e2z + z · e−z
2D − 1 2D − 1
ze2z ze−z
= +
3 −3
1
z e2z − e−z


=
3
1
log x x2 − x−1


=
3
general solution is
1
y = c1 x2 + c2 x−1 + log x x2 − x−1


3
Problem 55. Solve : x2 y ′′ − xy ′ + y = 2logx

Solution: This is a cauchy’s linear differential equation.

d
Put log x = z or x = ez , then xy ′ = Dy, x2 y ′′ = D (D − 1) where D =
The equation becomes,
IET
[D (D − 1) − D + 1] y = 2z
dz

D 2 − 2D + 1 y = 2z

The AE is m2 − 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1
Therefore, C.F. = (c1 + c2 z) ez = (c1 + c2 log x) x
2z 2z
P.I. = =
D 2 − 2D + 1 1 + (D 2 − 2D)
−1
AJ

= 1 + D 2 − 2D


2z
= 1 − D 2 − 2D + · · · 2z



= [2z − (0 − 2(2))] = 2z + 4
P.I. = 2 log x + 4

Hence, the general solution is

y = (c1 + c2 log x) x + 2 log x + 4

Problem 56. Solve: x2 y ′′ − xy ′ + y = 2 cos2 (log x) ( VTU June 2014)

Solution: Put log x = t or et = x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 56

d
xy ′ = Dy, x2 y ′′ = D(D − 1)y where D =
dt
2
D(D − 1)y − Dy + y = 2 cos t
(D(D − 1) − D + 1)y = 2 cos2 t
 2
D − 2D + 1 y = 2 cos2 t


m2 − 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1
yc = (c1 + c2 t) et
= (c1 + c2 logx) x
1
yp = 2 cos2 t
D2 − 2D + 1
1
= (1 + cos 2t)
D 2 − 2D + 1
1 cos 2t
= e0t +
D 2 − 2D + 1 D 2 − 2D + 1

P1 = 2
1
IET
= P1 + P2 (say)

D − 2D + 1
1
= 2 e0t
D − 2D + 1
1 1
= e0t = = 1
0 − 2(0) + 1 1
1
P2 = cos 2t
D2 − 2D + 1
AJ

1
= cos 2t
−4 − 2D + 1
1
= cos 2t
−2D − 3
(2D − 3)
= cos 2t
−(2D + 3)(2D − 3)
2D(cos 2t) − 3 cos 2t
=
− (4D 2 − 9)
−4 sin 2t − 3 cos 2t
=
25
−4 sin(2 log x) − 3 cos(2 log x)
=
25
yp = p1 + p2
−4 sin(2 log x) − 3 cos(2 log x)
=1+
25
y = yc + yp
−4 sin(2 log x) − 3 cos(2 log x)
= (c1 + c2 logx) x + 1 +
25
2 d2 y dy
Problem 57. x dx2 − x dx + y = logx (VTU July 2017)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 57

Sol: Setting z = log x, the given equation becomes

d
| D(D − 1) − D + 1]y = z, where D =
dz
2
(D − 1) y = z

For this equation,

C.F. = (c1 + c2 z) ez
and
1
P.I. = z = (1 − D)−2 z
(D − 1)2
= 1 + 2D + 3D 2 + · · · z = z + 2

Therefore, the general solution of (i) is

y = C.F + P.I = (c1 + c2 z) ez + z + 2

Since z = log x, this becomes IET

y = (c1 + c2 log x) x + log x + 2
d y 3 2
2d y 1


Problem 58. Solve x3 dx3 + 2x dx2 + 2y = 10 x + x

Solution : Putting z = log x (or x = ez ), the given equation becomes

[D(D − 1)(D − 2) + 2D(D − 1) + 2]y = 10 ez + e−z

D 3 − D 2 + 2 y = 10 ez + e−z



i.e.
AJ
d
where D = dz
. For this equation, the A.E. is

m3 − m2 + 2 ≡ (m + 1) m2 − 2m + 2 = 0,

whose roots are −1, 1 ± i. Therefore,

C.F. = c1 e−z + ez (c2 cos z + c3 sin z)

1
10ez + 10e−z


P.I. =
(D + 1) (D 2 − 2D + 2)
10 z 1
= e + 10 · e−z
2 5(D + 1)
1
= 5ez + 2ze−z · 1 = 5ez + 2ze−z
1
GS is
y = c1 e−z + ez (c2 cos z + c3 sin z) + 5ez + 2ze−z
Since z = log x, this becomes
c1 2
y= + x (c2 cos log x + c3 sin log x) + 5x + log x
x x

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 58

4.17 Legendre’s Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

A linear differential equation of the form is

dn y dn−1 y dn−2 y
a0 (ax + b)n + a1 (ax + b)n−1 + a2 (ax + b)n−2
dxn dxn−1 dxn−2 (2)
+ · · · + an y = R(x)

where a1 , a2 , · · · an are constants and R(x) is either a constant or a function of x only, is called a
Legendre’s homogeneous linear differential equation. Note that the index of (a + bx) and the order
of derivative is same in each term of such equation.
To solve the Equation (2), we introduce a new independent variable t such that ax+b = et , or log(ax+
b) = t so that
dy
(ax + b) = a Dy
dx
d2 y
(ax + b)2 2 = a2 D(D − 1)y
IET
dx
3
d3 y
(ax + b) = a3 D(D − 1)(D − 2)y
dx3
dy d y 2 n
nd y
Substituting the above values of (ax + b) dx , (ax + b)2 dx 2 , · · · , (ax + b) dxn in the Equation

(2), we get a linear differential equation with constant coefficients which can be solved easily. Finally,
by replacing t by logx we obtain the desired solution of the given differential equation.
d y 2 dy
Problem 59. Solve: (1 + x)2 dx2 + (1 + x) dx + y = 2 sin log(1 + x). (VTU June 2012, Dec
2014)
AJ

Solution: This is Legender’s Linear DE.

put t = log(1 + x) or (x + 1) = et then

dy 2
d2 y d
(1 + x) = 1.Dy, (1 + x) = 1D(D − 1)y; where D =
dx dx2 dt
Hence the given equation becomes
(D (D − 1) + D + 1)y = 2 sin t ⇒ (D 2 + 1) y = 2 sin t
A.E is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ±i

yc = c1 cos t + c2 sin t
= c1 cos log(1 + x) + c2 sin log(1 + x)
1
yp = 2
2 sin t, D 2 → −(12 )
(D + 1)
1
=t 2 sin t
2D
= −t cos t
= − log(1 + x) cos log(1 + x)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 59

complete solution: yc + yp
Thus y = c1 cos log(1 + x) + c2 sin log(1 + x)
− log(1 + x) cos log(1 + x)

Problem 60. (3x + 2)2 y ′′ + 3(3x + 2)y ′ − 36y = 3x2 + 4x + 1 (VTU July 2016)

Solution : This is a Legendre’s Linear Differential equation.

Put log(3x + 2) = z or 3x + 2 = ez
⇒ x = 31 (ez − 2)
then
d
(3x + 2)y ′ = 3Dy, (3x + 2)2 y ′′ = 32 D(D − 1)y where D = dz
Given DE can be written as
 2  
 2  1 z 1 z
3 D (D − 1) + 3 · (3D) − 36 y = 3 (e − 2) + 4 (e − 2) + 1
3 3
 
2
1 2z 4 8
z
e − 4e + 4 + ez − + 1



9D − 9D + 9D − 36 y = 3 IET 9 3 3
1 4 4 4 8
9D 2 − 36 y = e2z − ez + + ez − + 1


3 3 3 3 3
2

1 2z

9 D −4 y = e −1
3
1
D2 − 4 y = e2z − 1



27
The AE is m2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, −2 Therefore,

C.F = c1 e2z + c2 e−2z = c1 (3x + 2)2 + c2 (3x + 2)−2

AJ

1 1 1 1
P.I. = e2z −
27 (D 2 − 4) 27 (D 2 − 4)
1 1 1 1
= z· e2z −
27 (2D) 27 (0 − 4)
1 1
= ze2z +
108 108
1
ze2z + 1


=
108
1 
log(3x + 2)[3x + 2]2 + 1

=
108
1 
(3x + 2)2 log(3x + 2) + 1

=
108
G.S. is

y = yc + yp
1 
= c1 (3x + 2)2 + c2 (3x + 2)−2 + (3x + 2)2 log(3x + 2) + 1

108
d y2 dy
Problem 61. Solve: (2x − 1)2 dx 2
2 + (2x − 1) dx − 2y = 8x − 2x + 3

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 60

Put (2x − 1) = et ⇒ t = log(2x − 1)

dy d2 y
(2x − 1) = 2Dy; (2x − 1)2 = 4D(D − 1)y
dx dx2
et +1
Here 2x − 1 = et ⇒ x = 2
Given Equation is:
2
et + 1 et + 1
  
[4D(D − 1) + 2D − 2]y = 8 −2 +3
2 2
3
⇒ 2D 2 − D − 1 y = e2t + et + 2


2
1
Its AE is 2m2 − m − 1 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, − .
2
t −1
C.F. = c1 e + c2 e t
2

1
= c1 (2x − 1) + c2 (2x − 1)− 2

PI =

=
1
2D 2 − D − 1
1
 IET
2t
e + e +2

e2t +
3
3 t
2
1


et + (2)
1
e0t
2
2D − D − 1 2
2 2D − D − 1 2
2D − D − 1
1 3 1 1
= e2t + t · et + 2
8−3 2 4D − 1 −1
2t  3t 
e 3 e
= + t + (−2)
5 2 3
e2t tet
= + −2
AJ

5 2
(2x − 1)2 log(2x − 1) (2x − 1)
= + −2
5 2
G.S. is
y = yc + yp
1
= c1 (2x − 1) + c2 (2x − 1)− 2
(2x − 1)2 log(2x − 1) (2x − 1)
+ + −2
5 2
d y 2 dy
Problem 62. Solve (1 + x)2 dx 2
2 + (1 + x) dx + y = sin {log(1 + x) }

Solution : Putting z = log(1 + x), the equation becomes

or D(D − 1)y + Dy + y = sin 2z
(D 2 + 1) y = sin 2z,
d
where D = dz AE. is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ±i
This yields
C.F. = c1 cos z + c2 sin z = c1 cos log(1 + x) + c2 sin log(1 + x)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 61

and
1
P.I. = (sin 2z)
D2 +1
1
= (sin 2z)
−22 + 1
1
= − sin 2z
3
1
= − sin log(1 + x)2

3
Hence G.S. is

y = yc + yp
1
sin log(1 + x)2

= c1 cos log(1 + x) + c2 sin log(1 + x) −
3
d y 2
dy
Problem 63. Solve: (2x + 3)2 dx2 − (2x + 3) dx − 12y = 6x

Solution : Putting z = log(2x + 3), or 2x + 3 = ez , the given equation becomes

IET
22 D(D − 1)y − 2Dy − 12y = 3 (ez − 3)
√
3± 57
AE is 4m2 − 6m − 12 = 0 ⇒ m = 4
√ √
3+ 57 3− 57
z z
C.F. = c1 e 4 + c2 e 4
 √   √ 
3+ 57 3− 57
log(2x+3) log(2x+3)
= c1 (2x + 3) 4
+ c2 (2x + 3) 4

1
PI = 3 (ez − 3)
4D 2 − 6D − 12
AJ
1 1
= 3ez − 9e0z
4D 2
− 6D − 12 4D 2 − 6D − 12
3 9 0z
= ez − e
−14 −12
3 3
= − (2x + 3) +
14 4
GS is  √   √ 
3+ 57 3− 57
log(2x+3) log(2x+3)
y = c1 (2x + 3) 4
+ c2 (2x + 3) 4

3 3
− (2x + 3) +
14 4
d y 2 dy
Problem 64. Solve (2x + 1)2 dx2 − 6(2x + 1) dx + 16y = 8(2x + 1)
2

Sol:
Put z = log(2x + 1) ⇒ 2x + 1 = ez
dy d
(2x + 1) = 2Dy, D =
dx dz
2
d y
(2x + 1)2 2 = 4D(D − 1)y
dx

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 62

⇒ (4D(D − 1) − 6(2D) + 16)y = 8(2x + 1)2

4 D 2 − D − 12D + 16 y = 8 (ez )2



4D 2 − 4D − 12D + 16 y = 8e2z

4D 2 − 16D + 16 y = 8e2z

4 D 2 − 4D + 4 y = 8e2z

D 2 − 4D + 4 y = 2e2z

AE is m2 − 4m + 4 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2
C.F.=(c + c2 z)e2z = (c1 + c2 log(2x + 1))(2x + 1)2
1
P.I = 2e2z
D2 − 4D + 4
 
1
=2 e2z
D2 − 4D + 4
 
1
= 2z e2z
2D − 4
IET
= 2z 2
 

= z 2 e2z
1 2z
2
e

= [log(2x + 1)]2 (2x + 1)2

∴ The general solution is:

y = (c1 + c2 z) e2 log(2x+1) + (2x + 1)2 · log(2x + 1)2
y = (c1 + c2 log(2x + 1))(2x + 1)2 + (2x + 1)2 [log(2x + 1)]2
AJ

4.18 Practice Problems

1. Solve: x2 y” + xy ′ + y = 2cos2 (logx) . (VTU June 2014)
cos2(logx)
Ans : y = c1 cos(logx) + c2 sin(logx) + 1 − 3

d y 2 dy
2. Solve x2 dx2 − 3x dx + 4y = (1 + x)
2
(VTU July 2016)
Ans :
d2 y dy
3. dx2
− x dx + y = 2logx
Ans : y = x(c1 + c2 logx) + 2logx + 4
d y2
2
4. x dx2 − 2y/x = x + 1/x

Ans : Y = c1 x2 + cx2 + logx

3
(x2 − x1 )

d y 3 2
3d y 2 dy
5. x4 dx3 + 2x dx2 − x dx + xy = sin(logx)

Ans : y = cx1 + (c2 + c3 logx)x + (−3cos(logx)+4sin(ogx))

25x

d y 3 2
2d y dy
6. x3 dx3 + 3x dx2 + x dx + 8y = 65cos(logx)
√ √
Ans : Y = xc12 + x{c2 cos( 3logx) + c3 sin( 3logx)} + 8cos(logx) − sin(logx)

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 63

2
d y dy
7. x2 dx 2
2 + x dx + 9y = 3x + sin(3logx)
(3x2 ) (logxcos(3logx))
Ans : y = c1 cos(3logx) + c2 sin(3logx) + 13
− 6
3
d y 2
2d y dy 1
8. x3 dx3 + 9x dx2 + 18x dx + 6y = x
Ans : y = cx1 + xc22 + xc33 + logx
2x
3
d y 2
2d y 1
9. x3 dx3 + 2x dx2 + 2y = 10(x + x )

Ans : y = cx1 + x(c2 cos(logx) + c3 sin(logx)) + 5x + 2 logx

x
2
d y dy
10. x2 dx 2
2 − 2x dx − 4y = x + 2logx
3 x2 logx
Ans : y = x 2 [c1 cos 27 (logx) + c2 sin 72 (logx)] + 2
+ 2
+ 3
8
2
d y dy
11. x2 dx 2
2 − 3x dx + 4y = (1 + x )
2
Ans : y = (c1 + c2 logx)x2 + 14 + 2x + x2 (logx)
2
2
d y dy
12. x2 dx2 − 2x dx − 4y = x
4
4
Ans : Y = ax4 + xb + (logx)x
5
2
d y
13. x2 dx dy
2 − 4x dx + 6y = cos[2logx]
IET
Ans : Y = c1 x2 + c2 x3 − (cos2(logx))
2

14. x2 y ′′ − 5xy ′ + 8y = 2logx

Ans : Y = c1 x4 + c2 x2 + logx
4
+ 3
16
3
d y 2
2d y dy
15. x3 dx3 + 3x dx2 + x dx + y = x + logx (VTU Jan 2018)
3
d y 2
2d y 1
16. x3 dx3 + 2x dx2 + 2y = 10(x + x ) (VTU July 2017)
AJ
2
d y dy
17. x2 dx2 − x dx + y = logx (VTU July 2017)
2
d y dy
18. x2 dx2 + 5x dx + 13y = logx + x
2
(VTU Jan 2017, July 2016)

19. (3x + 2)2 y ′′ + 3(3x + 2)y ′ − 36y = 8x2 + 4x + 1 (VTU July 2016)
c2 1 20
+ 2) − 17
 
Ans : y = (3x + 2)2 + (3x+2) 2
2 + 81 2log(3x + 2) (3x + 2) + 3
(3x 4

2
d y dy
20. (1 + x)2 dx 2 + (1 + x) dx + y = sin 2(log(1 + x)) (VTU June 2012, Dec 2014)
2
d y dy
or (1 + x)2 dx 2
2 + (1 + x) dx + y = sin {log(1 + x) } (VTU July 2017, Jan 2017, Jan
2016, June 2012, Dec 2014)
Ans :c1 cos(log(1 + x)) + c2 sin(log(1 + x)) − sin2[log(1+x)]
3

21. (x + a)2 y ′′ − 4(x + a)y ′ + 6y = x (VTU Jan 2016) Ans :

2
d y dy
22. (1 + x)2 dx2 + (1 + x) dx + y = 4cos[log(1 + x)]

Ans : Y = c1 cos[log(1 + x)] + c2 sin[log(1 + x)] + 2log(1 + x) sinlog(1 + x)

d y 2 dy
23 . (3x + 2)2 dx 2
2 + 3(3x + 2) dx − 36y = 3x + 4x + 1

c2 (3x+2)2 log(3x+2)+ 20 (3x+2)

Ans : Y = c1 (3x + 2)2 + (3x+2)2
+ 81
3

d y 2 dy
24. (2x + 1)2 dx2 − 2(2x + 1) dx − 12y = 6x + 5
c2
Ans : Y = c1 (2x + 1)3 + (2x+1) − 3(2x+1)
16
− 16

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

Lecture Notes - BMATC101 (Mathematics-I for Civil Stream- Module 4 ) Page 64

d y 2 dy
25. (2x + 1)2 dx2 − 6(2x + 1) dx + 16y = 8(2x + 1)
2

Ans : Y = [c1 + c2 log(1 + 2x)] (2x + 1)2 + [log(1 + 2x)]2 (2x + 1)2

d y 2 dy
26. (2x + 3)2 dx2 − (2x + 3) dx − 12y = 6x
√ √
3+ 57 3− 57
3 3
Ans : Y = c1 ((2x + 3) 4 + c2 (2x + 3) 4 − 14
(2x + 3) + 4

d y 2 dy
27. (2x + 3)2 dx2 + 5(2x + 3) dx + y = 4x
√  √ 
(−1)
15 15
Ans : Y = (2x + 3) 8 [c1 cos 8 log(2x + 3) + c2 sin 8 log(2x + 3) ] +
(2x+3)
3
−6

d y 2 dy
28. (2x − 1)2 dx 2
2 + (2x − 1) dx − 2y = 8x − 2x + 3
2
Ans : Y = √ c1 + c2 (2x − 1) + (2x−1)
5
+ (2x−1)log(2x−1)
2
−2
(2x−1)

d y 2 dy
29. (2x + 3)2 dx2 − 2(2x + 3) dx − 12y = 6x (July 2017)
IET
AJ

Dr. Shantha Kumari.K. AJIET, Mangaluru

 IET Lecture Notes

Mathematics I for Civil Stream (Subject Code -

BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra
AJ
Prepared by

Dr. Shantha Kumari K.

Department of Mathematics
AJIET, Mangaluru
Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 2

IET
AJ

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Module - 5 Linear Algebra

5.1 Elementary row transformation

An elementary row transformation is an operation of any one of the following types.

(i) Interchange of two rows i.e. Ri ←→ Rj

IET
(ii) The multiplication of the elements of rows by a non-zero number. Ri −→ cRi for the multi-
plication of ith row by a non zero constant c.

(iii) The addition to the elements of a row, the corresponding elements of a row multiplied by any
number. Ri −→ Ri + cRj for the addition to the ith row to the products of the jth row by c.

Note : A row of only zero entries is called a zero row

5.1.1 The Row - Echelon Form

AJ

A rectangular matrix is in row echelon form if it has the following three properties:

(i) All zero rows are at the bottom of the matrix (i.e.If there is a row where every entry is zero, then
this row lies below any other row that contains a non zero entry.)

(ii) In any non zero row the leading entry (i.e. first non-zero entry) is 1

(iii) The leading entry of each nonzero row after the first row occurs to the right of the leading entry
of the previous row
 
1 0 −2 3
Example 5.1.1. The following matrix is in row echelon form: A = 0 1 3 5
 

0 0 0 1

Note :
In echelon form the leftmost non zero entry of a non zero row is a leading 1. A column containing a
leading 1 will be called a pivot column.
Minor : Let A be a matrix of order m × n. Let B be a submatrix of A of order r obtained by deleting
few rows and columns from A. Then the determinant of this matrix B is called a minor of A of order

3
Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 4

r.

5.1.2 Rank of a Matrix:

Definition: A matrix is said to be of rank r if

(i) It has at least one non-zero minor of order r and

(ii) Every minor of order higher than r vanishes.

Briefly, the rank of a matrix is the largest order of any non-vanishing minor of the matrix. The rank
of matrix A is denoted by ρ(A).
Note : Using row-operations if we can reduce a matrix to echelon-form, then rank of the matrix is
IET
given by
Rank = Number of non-zero rows in echelon form.
 
4 0 2 1
Example 5.1.2. Find the rank of the matrix A = 2 1 3 4
 

2 3 4 7

Solution :  
4 0 2 1
AJ

A = 2 1 3 4
 

2 3 4 7
using row operationR1 ←→ R2
 
2 1 3 4
A ' 4 0 2 1
 

2 3 4 7
R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 − R1
 
2 1 3 4
A ' 0 −2 −4 −7
 

0 2 1 3
R3 → R3 + R2
 
2 1 3 4
A ' 0 −2 −4 −7
 

0 0 −3 4
This matrix is in Echelon form and number of non-zero rows =3
Henceρ(A) = 3

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 5

 
2 3 −1 −1
 
1 −1 −2 −4
Example 5.1.3. Find the rank of 
  (VTU Jan 2017, Jun 2012)
3 1 3 −2
6 3 0 −7

Sol :  
2 3 −1 −1
 
 1 −1 −2 −4 
A= 
 3
 1 3 −2 

6 3 0 −1
Using R1 ↔ R2 ,
IET
 
1 −1 −2 −4
 
 2 3 −1 −1 
A= 
 3
 1 3 −2 

6 3 0 −7

Using R2 → R2 − 2R1
R3 → R3 − 3R1
R4 → R4 − 6R1
AJ
 
1 −1 −2 −4
 
 0 5 3 7 
∼A=  
 0 4 9 10 

0 9 12 17
UsingR3 → 5R3 − 4R2
R4 → 5R4 − 9R2
 
1 −1 −2 −4
 
 0 5 3 7 
∼A=  
 0 0 33 22 

0 0 33 22
Using R4 → R4 − R3
 
1 −1 −2 −4
 
 0 5 3 7 
∼A=  0 0

 33 22 

0 0 0 0
∴ ρ(A) = 3

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 6

 
1 2 −2 3
 
 2 5 −4 6 
Example 5.1.4. Find the rank of 
  (VTU Jan 2019, June 2019, Jan 2015, Jan
−1 −3 2 −2

2 4 −1 6
2013)

 
1 2 −2 3
 
 2 5 −4 6 
SOl: Given A = 
−1 −3 2 −2

 
2 4 −1 6
 
1 2 −2 3
 
 0 1 0 0 
IET A∼
 0 −1

 0 1 

0 0 3 0
R3 → R3 + R2
 
1 2 −2 3
 
R2 : R2 − 2R1  0 1 0 0 
∼  0 0 0

R3 : R3 + R1  1 

0 0 3 0
R4 : R4 − 2R1
AJ
R3 ↔ R4
 
1 2 −2 3
 
 0 1 0 0 
∼  0 0 3

 0 

0 0 0 1
1
R3 → R3
3
 
1 2 −2 3
 
 0 1 0 0 
A∼  
 0 0 1 0 

0 0 0 1
∼ (Echelom form) ρ(A) = Number of non − zero rows = 4

 
1 2 3 2
Example 5.1.5. Find the rank of 2 3 5 1 (VTU Jan 2020, Jun 2014)
 

1 3 4 5

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 7

 
1 2 3 2
Sol : Given A =  2 3 5 1 
 

1 3 4 5
Applying, R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 − R1
 
1 2 3 2
A ∼  0 −1 −1 −3 
 

0 1 1 3

Applying, R3 → R3 + R2
 
1 2 3 2
A ∼  0 −1 −1 −3 
 

0 0 0 0
Clearly number of non-zero rows=2, then ρ(A) = 2
Exercise 5.1

 
IET
Find the rank of the following matrices by reducing them to echelon form.

1 2 4 3
 
2 4 6 8 
1.  
4 8 12 16 (VTU Jun 2013, Jun 2011) Ans : 2
 
1 2 3 4
 
1 2 3 4
AJ

2. 5 6 7 8 (VTU Jan 2016) Ans : 3

 

8 7 0 5
 
1 2 3
3.  1 4 2  Ans : 2
 

2 6 5
 
0 1 −3 −1
 
 1 0 1 1 
4. 
 3 1 0
 (VTU Jun 2014, Dec 2011) Ans : 2
 2 

1 1 −2 0
 
3 −1 2
5.  −6 2 4  Ans : 1
 

−3 1 2
 
1 3 4 3
6.  3 9 12 3  Ans : 2
 

1 3 4 1

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 8

 
−2 −1 −3 −1
 
 1 2 −1 
3
7. 
 1
 (VTU Jan 2016) Ans : 3
 0 1 1 

0 1 −1 −1
 
2 3 −1 −1
 
1 −1 −2 −4
8.   (VTU Jan 2017, Jun 2012) Ans : 3
3 1
 3 −2

6 3 0 −7
 
91 92 93 94 95
92 93 94 95 96
 
 
9. 
93 94 95 96 97  (VTU July 2014) Ans : 2
94 95 96 97 98
 

95 96 97 98 99

10.


 2

1 2 −2 3
5 −4
−1 −3 2 −2
6




IET (VTU Jan 2015, Jan 2013) Ans : 4
 
2 4 −1 6
 
1 1 1 6
 
1 −1 2 5
11. 
3 1 1 8 
 Ans : 3
 
AJ

2 −2 3 7
 
2 1 3 5
 
4 2 1 3 
12. 
8 4 7 13 
 (VTU Jan 2015) Ans :
 
8 4 −3 −1
 
1 2 3 2
13. 2 3 5 1 (VTU Jun 2014) Ans :
 

1 3 4 5
 
1 2 0 −1
14.  3 4 1 2  (VTU Jan 2014) Ans :
 

−2 3 2 5

Augmented Matrix : Suppose we have a system of m equations in n variables, with coefficient

matrix A and constants B. Then the augmented matrix of the system of equations is the m × (n + 1)
matrix whose first n columns are the columns of A and whose last column ( i.e. (n+1)th column) is
the column matrix B. This matrix will be written as [A|B]

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 9

Row-Equivalent Matrices Two matrices, A and B, are row-equivalent if one can be obtained from
the other by a sequence of row operations.

5.2 Solution of system of linear equations - Consistency and Gauss-Elimination

method

Gauss Elimination method applied to three linear equations : First we explain this method applied
to a particular systems of order three given by

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3

This system of linear equations can be written as AX = B where A is the coefficient matrix
IET
 
a11 a12 a13
given by A = a21 a22 a23  X is a column vector(column-matrix) containing the variables, i.e.
 

a31 a32 a33

   
x1 b1
X = x2  and B is the matrix of right hand side constants. i.e. B = b2  The co-efficient matrix
   

x3 b3
A written along with a constant matrix B is called an Augmented matrix and is denoted by [A:B].
 
a11 a12 a13
AJ
The augmented matrix of the above system is [A|B] = a21 a22 a23 
 

a31 a32 a33

Following Steps are used to solve the above system of equations by using Gauss-Elimintion Method :

Step 1: Use the element a11 6= 0 to make the remaining elements a21 = 0anda31 = 0 by ele-
mentary row transformation operation.
a21
i.e.R2 → R2 − → R3 − aa31
a11
R1 , R3 R1
 11
a11 a12 a13 : b1
Then [A : B] ∼  0 a022 a023 : b02 
 

0 a032 a033 : b03

Step 2: Use the element a022 6= 0 to make the remaining elements a032 = 0 by elementary row
transformation operation.
a032
i.e.R3 → R3 − a022
R2
 
a11 a12 a13 : b1
Then [A : B] ∼  0 a022 a023 : b02  (*)
 

0 0 a0033 : b003
There are 3 possibilities:

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 10

(i) If Rank of A = Rank of the Augmented Matrix [A:B] = no.of unknowns, then the
system is consistent and has a unique solution.

(ii) If Rank of A = Rank of the Augmented Matrix [A:B] ¡ no.of unknowns, then the
system is consistent and has infinite number of solutions.

(iii) If Rank of A 6= Rank of the Augmented Matrix [A:B], then there is no solution. i.e.
the system is inconsistent.

If the system is consistent, then (*) can be written as,

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1
a022 x2 + a023 x3 = b02
a033 x3 = b003
By back substitution we get the values of x1 , x2 , x3

Example 5.2.1. Test for consistency and solve the following system of equation by using Gauss-
elimination method. IET
2x + y + 4z = 12; 4x + 11y − z = 33; 8x − 3y + 2z = 20

Solution : The Augmented matrix is given by,

 
2 1 4 : 12
[A : B] = 4 11 −1 : 33
 

8 −3 2 : 20
R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 − 4R1
AJ
 
2 1 4 : 12
∼ 0 9 −9 : 9 
 

0 −7 −14 : −28
R2 → R2 ÷ 9, R3 → R3 ÷ −7
 
2 1 4 : 12
∼ 0 1 −1 : 1
 

0 1 2:4
R3 → R3 − R2
 
2 1 4 : 12
∼ 0 1 −1 : 1
 

0 0 3:3

We can observe that Rank of A = Rank of the Augmented Matrix [A : B] = no.of unknowns, and
hence the system is consistent and has a unique solution.
∴ the system of equation reduces to 2x + y + 4z = 12; y − z = 1; 3z = 3
By using back substitution we get z = 1, y = 2, x = 3

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 11

Example 5.2.2. Solve by using Gauss Elimination method, x + y + z = 9, 2x + y − z =

0, 2x + 5y + 7z = 52 (VTU Jan 2019)

Sol :  
1 1 1 :9
(A, B) =  2 1 −1 : 0 
 

2 5 7 : 52
R2 : R2 − 2R1
R3 : R3 − 2R1
 
1 1 1 :9
∼  0 −1 −3 : −18 
 

0 0 −4 : −20
R3 : R3 + 3R2
 
1 1 1 :9
IET
∼  0 1 3 : 18 
 

0 0 1 :5
∴ ρ(A) = ρ(A, B) = 3 Number of unknown
Hence system is consistent and unique solution exists.
From 3rd row, z = 5 From 2nd row, y + 3z = 18 ⇒ y + 3(5) = 3 ⇒ y = 3
from first row, x + 3 + 5 = 9 ⇒ x = 9 − 8 ⇒ x = 1
∴ x = 1, y = 3, z = 5
AJ

Example 5.2.3. Find the values of λ and µ so that the equations 2x+3y+5z = 9, 7x+3y−2z =
8, 2x + 3y + λz = µ have (i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of solutions.
(VTU July 2021)

Sol : The augmented matrix [A, B] is

 
2 3 5 9
[A, B] =  7 3 −5 8 
 

2 3 λ µ
R2 → 2R2 − 7R1
R3 → R3 − R1
 
2 3 5 9
[A, B] ∼  0 −15 −45 −47 
 

0 0 λ−5 µ−9

The above matrix is in echelon form (i) When λ = 5, µ 6= 9,

ρ(A) = 2, ρ(A, B) = 3 (i.e) ρ(A, B) 6= p(A)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 12

The system is inconsistent and it has no solution. (ii) When λ 6= 5, µ ∈ R,

ρ(A, B) = ρ(A) = 3 = number of unknowns
The system is consistent with a unique solution.
(iii) When λ = 5, µ = 9, then ρ(A, B) = ρ(A) = 2 < number of unknowns
The system is consistent with infinite number of solutions.

Example 5.2.4. Find the values of λ and µ so that the equations x + y + z = 6, x + 2y + 3z =

10, x + 2y + λz = µ have (i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of solutions.
(VTU Jan 2021)

Solution : The given system of linear equations can be written as

    
1 1 1 x 6
 1 2 3   y  =  10 
    

1 2 λ z µ

The Augmented matrix is :

IET 
1 1 1
[A, B] =  1 2 3 10 
 
6


1 2 λ µ
Applying elementary row transformations R2 → R2 − R1 and R3 → R3 − R1 we get
 
1 1 1 6
[A, B] ∼  0 1 2 4 
 

0 1 λ−1 µ−6
AJ

Using R3 → R3 − R1
 
1 1 1 6
[A, B] ∼  0 1 2 4 ,
 

0 0 λ − 3 µ − 10

This is in echelon form.

(i) For no solution, we must have ρ(A) 6= ρ(A, B)
i.e λ − 3 = 0 or λ = 3 and µ − 10 6= 0 ⇒ µ 6= 10
(ii) for unique solution, we must have ρ(A) = ρ(A, B) = 3
i.e. λ − 3 6= 0 ⇒ λ 6= 3
and µ − 10 6= 0 ⇒ µ 6= 10
(iii) for infinite solutions, we must have ρ(A) = ρ(A, B) < 3
i.e. λ − 3 = 0 ⇒ λ = 3 and µ − 10 = 0 ⇒ µ = 10
Exercise 5.2

1. Test for consistency and hence solve 4x − 2y + 6z = 8, x + y − 3z = −1, 15x–3y + 9z =

21 Ans : x = 1, y = 3k − 2, z = k

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 13

2. Solve x + 3y − 2z = 0, 2x − y + 4z = 0, x − 11y + 14z = 0 Ans :

−10 8
x= 7
k, y = 7
k, z =k

3. Solve: x + 3y + 2z = 0, 2x − y + 3z = 0, 3x − 5y + 4z = 0, x + 17y + 4z = 0 Ans

; x = 11k, y = k, z = −7k

4. Find the values of k for which the equations x + y + z = 1, 2x + y + 4z = k and

4x + y + 10z = k2 has a solution and solve them in each case. Ans :
k = 1, x = −3n, y = 2n + 1, z = n and when k = 2, x = 1 − 3m, y = 2m, z = m

5. Find the values of λ for which the system x+y+z = 1, x+2y+4z = λ, x+4y+10z = λ2
has a solution. Solve it in each case. Ans : when λ = 1, x = 2k1 + 1, y = −3k1 , z = k1
and when λ = 2, x = 2k2 , y = 1 − 3k2 , z = k2

6. Find the values of λ and µ so that the equations 2x + 3y + 5z = 9, 7x + 3y − 2z =

8, 2x + 3y + λz = µ have (i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of
solutions.
IET
Ans: (i) λ = 5, µ 6= 9 , (ii) λ 6= 5 (iii) λ = 5 and µ = 9

7. Solve by using Gauss Elimination method, x + 2y + z = 3, 2x + 3y + 2z = 5, 3x − 5y +

5z = 2. (VTU July 2017)

8. Solve by using Gauss Elimination method, 2x − 3y + 4z = 7, 5x − 2y + 2z = 7, 6x −

3y + 10z = 23 VTU July 2017

9. 3x − y + 2z = 12, x + 2y + 3z = 11, 2x − 2y − z = 2 (VTU Jan 2015)

AJ

10. 5x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 4, x1 + 7x2 + x3 + x4 = 12, x1 + x2 + 6x3 + x4 =

−5, x1 + x2 + x3 + 4x4 = −6 (VTU Jun 2015) Ans :
x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = −1, x4 = −2

11. Test for consistency and solve by Gauss Elimination method : 4x + y + z = 4, x+4y − 2z =
4, 3x + 2y − 4z = 6 (VTU Mar 2001) Ans : x = 1, y = 21 , z = − 12

12. x + 2y + z = 3, 2x + 3y + 3z = 10, 3x − y + 3z = 13 (VTU Model 2015)

13. 4x1 + x2 + x3 = 4, x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 = 4, 3x1 + 2x2 − 4x3 = 6 Ans :

1
x1 = 1, x2 = 2
, x3 = − 21

14. 2x + 4y + z = 3, 3x + 2y − 2z = −2, x − y + z = 6 Ans :x = 2, y = −1, z = 3

15. x + 2y − z = 3, 3x − y + 2z = 1, 2x − 2y + 3z = 2 Ans : x = −1, y = 4, z = 4

16. x1 + x2 + x3 = 4, 2x1 + x2 − x3 = 1, x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 2 (VTU Jan 2014) Ans :

3 13 12
x1 = 7
, x2 = 7
, x3 = 7

17. 2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1, −3x1 + 4x2 − 5x3 = 0, x1 + 3x2 − 6x3 = 0

9 23 13
(VTU jun 2014, Jun 2012) Ans : x1 = 34
, x2 = 34
, x3 = 34

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 14

18. Test the consistency and solve x + 2y + 2z = 1, 2x + y + z = 2, 3x + 2y + 2z =

3, x + z = 0 Ans : x = 1, y = −k, z = k

19. Test the consistency of the following equations, 4x–2y + 6z = 8, x + y − 3z = −1, 15x −
3y + 9z = 21

20. x + 4y − z = −5, x + y − 6z = −12, 3x − y − z = 4 (VTU Model 2014)

21. 2x + 3y − z = 5, 4x + 4y − 3z = 3, 2x − 3y + 2z = 2 (VTU Jan 2015, July 2014)

Ans : x = 1, y = 2, z = 3

22. 2x − y + 3z = 1, −3x + 4y − 5z = 0, x + 3y − 6z = 0 (VTU Jan 2012)

3y + 2z = 20
IET
23. Solve by using Gauss Elimination method, 2x + y + 4z = 12, 4x + 11y − z = 33, 8x −
(VTU June 2018)

24. Solve by using Gauss Elimination method, x+y+z = 9, 2x+y−z = 0, 2x+5y+7z = 52

(VTU Jan 2019)

25. Solve by using Gauss Elimination method, x−2y+3z = 2, 3x−y+4z = 4, 2x+y−2z =

AJ

5 (VTU Jan 2020)

26. Solve by using Gauss Elimination method, x + y + z = 9, x − 2y + 3z = 8, 2x + y − z = 3

(VTU July 2021)

5.3 Gauss-Jordan method

This method aims in reducing the coefficient matrix A to a diagonal matrix by using only row-
operations.

Example 5.3.1. Solve the following system of equation by using Gauss- Jordan method

2x + y + 4z = 12; 4x + 11y − z = 33; 8x − 3y + 2z = 20

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 15

Solution : The Augmented matrix is given by,

 
2 1 4 : 12
[A : B] = 4 11 −1 : 33
 

8 −3 2 : 20
R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 − 4R1
 
2 1 4 : 12
∼ 0 9 −9 : 9 
 

0 −7 −14 : −28
R2 → R2 ÷ 9, R3 → R3 ÷ −7
 
2 1 4 : 12
∼ 0 1 −1 : 1
 

0 1 2:4
R1 → R1 − R2 ; R3 → R3 − R2
IET
 
2 0 5 : 11
∼ 0 1 −1 : 1 
 

0 0 3 :3
R3 → R3 ÷ 3
 
2 0 5 : 11
∼ 0 1 −1 : 1 
 

0 0 1 :1
AJ

R1 → R1 − 5R3 ; R2 → R2 + R3
 
2 0 0 :6
∼ 0 1 0 : 2
 

0 0 1 :1

∴ the system of equation reduces to 2x = 6; y = 2; z = 1

By solving , we get x = 3, y = 2, z = 1.

Example 5.3.2. Solve by using Gauss Jordan, x+y +z = 9, 2x+y −z = 0, 2x+5y +7z = 52
(VTU June 2019)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 16

 
1 1 1 :9
[A, B] =  2 1 −1 : 0 
 

2 5 7 : 52
R2 : R2 − 2R1
R3 − 2R1
 
1 1 1 :9
Solution :
[A, B] ∼  0 −1 −3 : −18 
 

0 3 5 : 34
R1 → R1 + R2 : R3 + 3R2
 
1 0 −2 : −9
[A, B] ∼  0 −1 −3 : −18 
 

0 0 −4 : −20
 
1
R3 : R3 IET
4
 
1 0 −2 −9
∼  0 −1 −3 : −18
 

0 0 1 : 5
R1 : R1 + 2R3
R2 : R2 + 3R3
 
1 0 0 :1
∼  0 −1 0 : −3 
 
AJ

0 0 1 :5
Rewriting the equations, we get
x = 1, − y = −3 ⇒ y = 3 and z = 5
Example 5.3.3. Apply Gauss - Jordan method to solve the system of equations, 2x + y + z =
10, 3x + 2y + 3z = 18, x + 4y + 9z = 16 (VTU Jan 2015)

Solution : The Augmented matrix of the system is

 
2 1 1 10
[A | B] =  3 2 3 18 
 

1 4 9 16
Applying R2 → R2 − 23 R1 and R3 → R3 − 21 R1 , we get
 
2 1 1 10
[A | B] ∼  0 1/2 3/2 3 
 

0 7/2 17/2 11
Applying R3 → R3 − 7R2 , we get
 
2 1 1 10
[A | B] ∼  0 1/2 3/2 3 
 

0 0 −2 −10

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 17

Applying R1 → R1 + 12 R3 , R2 → R2 + 43 R3 and R1 → R1 − 2R2 we get

 
2 0 0 14
[A | B] ∼  0 1/2 0 −9/2 
 

0 0 −2 −10
We see that A is reduced to diagonal form.
From this, we get 2x = 14 ⇒ x = 7;
1 −9
2
y = 2
⇒ y = −9;
−2z = −10 ⇒ z = 5
Thus x = 7, y = −9, z = 5 is the solution.

Example 5.3.4. Solve by Gauss Jordan method : x + y + z = 9, 2x − 3y + 4z = 13, 3x +

4y + 5z = 40
 
1 1 1 : 9
[A : B] =  2 −3 4 : 13 
 

3 4 5 : 40
R2 −→ R2 − 2R1 and
IET
R3 −→ R3 − 3R1
 
1 1 1 9 9
[A : B] ∼  0 −5 2 : −5 
 

0 1 2 : 13
R1 −→ 5R1 + R2 and
AJ

R3 −→ 5R3 + R2
Sol :  
5 0 7 : 40
[A : B] ∼  0 −5 2 : −5 
 

0 0 12 : 60
R3
R3 ⇒
12
 
5 0 7 : 40
[A : B] ∼  0 −5 2 : −5 
 

0 0 1 : 5
 
5 0 0 : 5
R2 ⇒ R2 − 2R3 and R1 ⇒ R1 − 7R3 [A : B] ∼  0 −5 0 : −15 
 

0 0 1 : 5
5x = 5 ⇒ x = 1
− 5y = −15 ⇒ y = 3
z=5

Exercise 5.3

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 18

Apply Gauss - Jordan method to solve the system of equations.

1. Apply Gauss - Jordan method to solve the system of equations, 2x + y + z = 10, 3x + 2y +

3z = 18, x + 4y + 9z = 16 (VTU Jan 2017, Jan 2015) Ans : x = 7, y = −9, z = 5

2. x + y + z = 9, x − 2y + 3z = 8, 2x + y − z = 3 (VTU Jan 2021, Jan 2018, July 2017)

3. Solve by using Gauss Jordan method, 2x+y+z = 10, 3x+2y+3z = 18, x+4y+9z = 16
(VTU Jan 2017, Jan 2015)

4. Solve by using Gauss Jordan method, 2x + 5y + 7z = 52, 2x + y − z = 0, x + y + z = 9

(VTU Jan 2016, June 2014) Ans : x = 1, y = 3, z = 5

5. Solve by using Gauss Jordan method, x+2y+z = 3, 2x+3y+3z = 10, 3x−y+3z = 13

(VTU Jan 2018)

6. Solve by using Gauss Jordan, x + y + z = 9, 2x + y − z = 0, 2x + 5y + 7z = 52 (VTU

IET
June 2019)

7. Solve by using Gauss Jordan method,

2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 1, 4x1 + 4x2 + 7x3 = 1, 2x1 + 5x2 + 9x3 = 3 (VTU Jan 2020)

8. x + y + z = 9, 2x − 3y + 4z = 13, 3x + 4y + 5z = 40 Ans :x = 1, y = 3, z = 5

9. x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 8, 2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 = 20, 4x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 = 16 Ans :

x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
AJ

10. 10x + y + z = 12, x + 10y + z = 12, x + y + 10z = 12 Ans : x = 1, y = 1, z = 1

11. x + y + z = 4, 2x + y − z = 1, x − y + 2z = 2 Ans : x = 37 , y = 13
7
,z = 12
7

12. 2x + 3y − z = 5, 4x + 4y − 3z = 3, 2x − 3y + 2z = 2 (VTU Dec 2011) Ans :

x = 1, y = 2, z = 3

5.4 Gauss-Seidel Iteration Method:

Iterative methods provide an alternative approach. An iterative method starts with an approximate
solution, and uses it by means of a recurrence formula to provide another approximate solution; by
repeatedly applying the formula, a sequence of solutions is obtained which converges to the exact
solution.
First we explain this method applied to a particular systems of order three given by

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 19

To begin, solve the 1st equation for x1 , the 2nd equation for x2 and third equation for x3 and obtain
the rewritten equations :
1
x1 = [b1 − a12 x2 − a13 x3 ]
a11
1
x2 = [b2 − a21 x1 − a23 x3 ]
a22
1
x3 = [b3 − a31 x1 + a32 x2 ]
a33
(0) (0) (0)
Then make an initial guess of the solution x1 = y1 = z1 = 0 Substitute these values into the
right hand side the of the rewritten equations to obtain the first approximations as

(1) 1 (0) (0)

x1 = [b1 − a12 x2 − a13 x3 ]
a11
(1) 1 (1) (0)
x2 = [b2 − a21 x1 − a23 x3 ]
a22
(1) 1 (1) (1)
x3 = [b3 − a31 x1 + a32 x2 ]
a33
IET
In each iteration we use the new values(i.e.latest values) as soon as they are known. i.e. we calculate
(1) (1)
x1 from the first equation, its value is then used in the second equation to obtain the new X2 ,
(1) (1) (1)
and these new values of X1 and X2 are then used in the third equation to obtain the new X3 .
(0) (0) (0)
To find the second approximations we use the above set of equations by replacing x1 , y1 , z1 by
(1) (1) (1)
x1 , y1 , z1 . We continue like this by obtaining each successive approximation, using a previous
approximation until the values of x1 , x2 and x3 obtained in two successive approximations are equal.
Note : The following condition is essential to use Gauss-Seidel Iteration Method.
AJ
• The Coefficient matrix of given system of equations must be diagonally dominant.
( A matrix is said to be diagonally dominant if for every row of the matrix, the magnitude of the
diagonal entry in a row is larger than or equal to the sum of the magnitudes of all the other (non-
diagonal) entries in that row.

Example 5.4.1. Solve the following system of equation by using Gauss- Seidel method. x + y +
54z = 110; 27x + 6y − z = 85; 6x + 15y + 2z = 72

Solution : The system of equation is not in diagonal form by interchanging the rows.
27x + 6y − z = 85; 6x + 15y + 2z = 72; x + y + 54z = 110
We can observe , |27| > +| − 1|; |15| > |6| + |2|; |54| > |1| + |1|
∴ the system of equation is diagonally dominant.
1
From(1)x = [85 − 6y + z]
27
1
From(2)y = [72 − 6x − 2z]
15
1
From(3)z = [110 − x − y]
54
Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore
Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 20

First Iteration :
1 85
x(1) = [85 − 0 + 0] = = 3.1481
27 27
1 1
y (1) = [72 − 6x(1) − 2z] = [72 − 6(3.1481) − 0] = 3.5481
15 15
1
z (1) = [110 − x(1) − y (1) ] = 1.913
54
Second Iteration :
1
x(2) = [85 − 6y (1) + z (1) ] = 2.432
27
1
y (2) = [72 − 6x(2) − 2z (1) ] = 3.572
15
1
z (2) = [110 − x(2) − y (2) ] = 1.925
54
Third Iteration :
1
x(3) = [85 − 6y (2) + z (2) ] = 2.4256
27 IET
1
y (3) = [72 − 6x(3) − 2z (2) ] = 3.5730
15
1
z (3) = [110 − x(3) − y (3) ] = 1.925
54
Third Iteration :
1
x(4) = [85 − 6y (3) + z (3) ] = 2.425
27
1
y (4) = [72 − 6x(4) − 2z (3) ] = 3.573
15
(4)
1
z = [110 − x(4) − y (4) ] = 1.925
AJ

54
(3) (4) (3)
Since x ≈ x = 2.425, y ≈ y (4) = 3.573, z (3) ≈ z (4) = 1.925, the solution is
x = 2.425, y = 3.573, z = 1.925

Example 5.4.2. Solve the following system of equations by Gauss-Seidal iteration method, 20x +
y − 2z = 17, 3x + 20y − z = −18, 2x − 3y + 20z = 25 (VTU Jan 2020, June 2019, Jan
2018, July 2017, Jan 2017, Model 2015)

Given, 2x + y − 2z = 17 −→ (1)
3x + 20y − z = −18 −→ (2)
2x − 3y + 2z = 25 −→ (3)
∴ The equation are diagonally dominant.
1
(1) ⇒ x = [17 − y + 2z]
20
1
(2) ⇒ y = [−18 − 3x + z]
20
1
(3) ⇒ z = [25 − 2x + 3y]
20
Let x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
First Iteration :

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 21

1
x(1) = [17 − 0 + 0] = 0.85
20
1
y (1) = [−18 − 2.55 + 0] = −1.0275
20
1
z (1) = [20 − 1.7 − 3(0.825)] = 1.0109
20
Second iteration :
1
x(2) = [17 + 1.025 − 12(1.0109)] = 1.0025
20
1
y (2) = [−18 − 3(1.0025) + 1.0109] = −0.999
20
1
z (2) = [25 − 2(1.0025) + 3(−0.9998)] = 0.9998
20
Third iteration :
1
x(3) = [17 + 0.9998 + 2(0.9998)] = 1
20
1
y (3) = [−18 − 3(1) + 0.9998] = −1
20
1 IET
z (3) = [25 − 2(1) + 3(−1)] = 1
20
∴ x = 1, y = −1, z = 1

Example 5.4.3. Solve the system of equations 12x + y + z = 31, 2x + 8y − z = 24, 3x + 4y +

10z = 58 using Gauss Seidal method. (VTU Jan 2019)
AJ

Sol : ⇒ Given equation are diagonally dorninant.

1
x= [31 − y − z]
12
1
y = [24 − 2x + z]
8
1
z= [58 − 3x − 4y]
10
1 31
x(1) = [31 − 0 − 0] = = 2.583
12 12
1
y (1) = [24 − 2(2.583) + 0] = 2.354
8
1
z (1) = [58 − 3(2.583) − 4(2.354)] = 4.0835
10
1
x(2) = [31 − (2.354) − (4.0835)] = 2.04.6
12
1
y (2) = [24 − 2(2.046) + 4.0835] = 2.99 = 3
8
1
z (2) = [58 − 3(2.046) − 4(3)] = 3.98 = 4
10
Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore
Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 22

1
x(3) = [31 − (3) − (4)] = 2
12
1
y (3) = [24 − 2(2) + 4] = 3 ∴ x = 2, y = 3, z = 4
8
1
z (3) = [58 − 3(2) − 4(3)] = 4
10

Example 5.4.4. Solve the system of equations 83x + 11y − 4z = 95, 7x + 52y + 13z =
104, 3x + 8y + 29z = 71 using Gauss Seidal method. (VTU Model 2018)

IET
Sol:
The given equation can be written in the iteration form as
1
x= (95 − 11y + 4z)
83
AJ
1
y= (104 − 7x − 13z)
52
1
z= (71 − 3x − 8y)
29
Taking first x(1) = 0, y (1) = 0, z (1) = 0 and put these values in (i), we get
1
x(2) = 95 − 11y (1) − 4z (1)


83
1 95
= (95 − 11 × 0 + 4 × 0) = = 1.14
83 83
x(2) = 1.14, y (1) = 0, z (1) = 0, in (ii), we get
1 1
y (2) 104 − 7x(2) − 13z (1) =


= (104 − 7 × 1.14 − 13 × 0)
52 52
96.02
= = 1.85
52
Put x(2) = 1.14, y (2) = 1.85, z (1) = 0 in ( iii ), we get
1
z (2) = 71 − 3x(2) − 8y (2)


29
1 52.78
= (71 − 3 × 1.14 − 8 × 1.85) = = 1.82
29 29
Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore
Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 23

Now put x(2) = 1.14, y (2) = 1.85, z (2) = 1.82 in (i), we get
1
x(3) = 95 − 11y (2) + 4z (2)

83
1
x(3) = [95 − 11 × 1.85 + 4 × 1.82]
83
81.93
= = 0.99
83
x(3) = 0.99, y (2) = 1.85, z (2) = 1.82 in (ii), we get
1  1
y (3) = 104 − 7x(3) − 13z (3) =

[104 − 7 × 0.99 − 13 × 1.82]
52 52
73.41
= = 1.41.
52
Put x(3) = 0.99, y (3) = 1.41, z (2) = 1.82 in ( iii ), we get
1
z (3) = 71 − 3x(3) − 8y (3)


29
IET
1
= (71 − 3 × 0.99 − 8 × 1.41)
29
56.75
= = 1.95
29
Now put x(3) = 0.99, y (3) = 1.41, z (3) = 1.95 in (i), we get
1
x(4) = 95 − 11y (3) + 4z (3)


83
1
= (95 − 11 × 1.41 + 4 × 1.95)
AJ
83
1
=(87.29) = 1.05
83
1 1
= 83 (95 − 11 × 1.41 + 4 × 1.94.59) = 1.05 = 83 (87.29) x(4) = 1.05, y (3) = 1.41, z (3) =
1


1.95 in (ii), we get y (4) = 52 104 − 7x(3) − 13z (3) Put
1
= (104 − 7 × 1.05 − 13 × 1.95)
52
71.3
= = 1.37
52
Put x(4) = 1.05, y (4) = 1.37, z (3) = 1.95 in (iii), we get
1
z (4) = 71 − 3x(4) − 8y (4)


29
1
= (71 − 3 × 1.05 − 8 × 1.37)
29
56.89
= = 1.96
29

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 24

1
z (4) = 71 − 3x(4) − 8y (4)


29
1
= (71 − 3 × 1.05 − 8 × 1.37)
29 Here The values are sufficiently close to x(3) , y (3) , z (3)
56.89
= = 1.96
29
x(4) = 1.05, y (4) = 1.37, z (4) = 1.96
respectively. Hence the solution is

x = 1.05, y = 1.37, z = 1.96.

5.5 Eigen values and Eigen Vectors :

Let A be an n × n matrix. Then a real number λ is called an eigenvalue of the matrix A, if and only
if, there is a n-dimensional nonzero vector, X for which
IET
AX = λX · · · (1)

Any such vector, X is called an eigenvector of the matrix A, associated with the eigenvalue λ.

5.6 Rayleigh’s power method

AJ

To find largest eigen value and corresponding eigen vector of a given square matrix A, we use the
following steps.

Step1. To find the largest eigen value and corresponding eigen vector of a given square matrix
h ’A’ of
i
order 3 ,we initially assume the eigen vector in the form X ( 0) = [1 0 0]T = 1 0 0
h i
(0) T
orX = [0 0 1] = 0 0 1
h i
or X (0) = [0 1 0]T = 0 1 0

Step2. Evaluate the matrix product AX (0) ,which is a column matrix of order 3.

Step3. Take out the numerically largest value and write it in the form λ(1) X (1)

Step4. Compute AX (1) and re-write it in the form λ(2) X (2)

Step5. Similarly Compute AX (2) = λ(3) X (3) and so on.

Continue this iterative process until we get two consecutive values of λ and X with desired
accuracy.

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 25

The values so obtained are largest eigen value and corresponding eigen vectors respectively for the
given square matrix A .

Example 5.6.1. Use power method to find the largest eigen value and the corresponding eigen vectors
 
2 0 1
of the matrix A by using power method. Take [1 0 0]0 as the initial eigen vector. A = 0 2 0
 

1 0 2
(Apply 4 iterations) (VTU Jan 2020, June 2019, June 2018, Jan 2017, Jan 2016)

SOl : Given,    
2 0 1 1
A =  0 2 0  , X (0) =  0 
   

1 0 2 0

(0)
Ax =  0

2

0
2
1
 
1
 
 
2
 


IET
1


0   0  =  0  = 2  0  = λ(1) x(1)


1 0 2 0 1 0.5
      
2 0 1 1 2.5 1
(1)
AX =  0 2 0   0  =  0  = 2.5  0  = λ(2) x(2)
      

1 0 2 0.5 2 0.8
      
2 0 1 1 2.8 1
Ax(2) =  0 2 0  0  =  0  = 2.8  0 (3) (3)
=λ x
AJ
      

1 0 2 0.8 2.6 0.9286

      
2 0 1 1 2.9286 1
(3) (4) (4)
Ax =  0 2 0  0 = 0  = 2.9286  0  = λ (x)
      

1 0 2 0.9228 2.8572 0.9756

      
2 0 1 1 2.9756 1
Ax(4) =  0 2 0  0 = 0  = 2.9756  0
      

1 0 2 0.9756 2.9512 0.9918
      
2 0 1 1 2.9918 1
(5)
Ax =  0 2 0  0 = 0  = 2.9918  0
      

1 0 2 0.9918 2.9836 0.9973
∴ The large Given value λ = 2.9918 ∼ 3 and λ(6) x(6)
   
1 1
it’s eigen value  0 ∼ 0 
   

0.9973 1

Example 5.6.2. Find the Dominant eigen value and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 26

 
6 −2 2
A = −2 3 −1 by power method taking the initial eigen vector as (1 1 1)0 (VTU Jan 2018,
 

2 −1 3
July 2017, Jun 2015)

Sol : Given,
   
6 −2 2 1
 (0)
A =  −2 3 −1 ,x =  1 
  

2 1 3 1
      
6 −2 2 1 6 1
(0)  (1) (1)
Ax =  −2 3 −1  1  =  0  = 6 0 λ x
     

2 −1 3 1 4 0.67
      
6 −2 2 1 IET 7.34 1
AX (1) =  −2 3 −1  0  =  −2.67  = 7.34  −0.36  = λ2 x2
      

2 −1 3 0.67 4.01 0.55

      
6 −2 2 1 (7.82) 1
(2)
AX =  −2 3 −1   −0.36  =  −3.63  = 7.82  −0.46  = λ3 X3
      

2 −1 3 0.55 4.01 0.51

      
6 −2 2 1 7.94 1
AX (3) =  −2 3 −1   −0.46  =  −3.89  = 7.94  −0.49  = λ4 X4
      

2 −1 3 0.51 3.99 0.5

AJ

  
6 −2 2 1
(3)
AX =  −2 3 −1   −0.49 
  

2 −1 3 0.5
   
7.98 1
=  −3.97  = 7.98  −0.5  = λ5 x5
   

3.99 0.5
   
8 1
 −4  = 8  −0.5  = λ6 x6
   

4 0.5
 
1
∴ The large Given value of λ = 7.9970 ∼ 8 and it’s eigen value is −0.4994 
 

0.5002

Example 5.6.3. Determine the largest eigen value and the corresponding eigen vector of A =
 
2 −1 0
−1 2 −1 using Rayleigh’s power method. (VTU Model 2014)
 

0 −1 2

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 27

Sol :       
2 −1 0 1 2 1
AX 0 =  −1 2 −1   0  =  −1  = 2  −0.5  = λ(1) X (1)
      

0 −1 2 0 0 0
      
2 −1 0 1 2.5 1
AX (1) =  −1 2 −1   −0.5  =  −2  = 2.5  −0.8  = λ(2) X (2)
      

0 −1 2 0 0.5 0.2
Repeating the above process, we get
 
1
AX (2) = 2.8  −1  = λ(3) X (3) ;
 

0.43
 
0.87
AX (3) = 3.43  −1  = λ(4) X (4)
 
IET 


0.54
0.80
AX (4) = 3.41  −1  = λ(5) X (5) ;


0.61
 
0.76
AX (5) = 3.41  −1  = λ(6) X (6) ;
 

0.65
 
0.74
AJ

(6)
AX = 3.41  −1  = λ(7) X (7)
 

0.67

Clearly λ(6) = λ(7) and X (6) = X (7) approximately.

Hence the largest eigen value is 3.41 and the corresponding eigen vector is [0.74, −1, 0.67]0 .

Example 5.6.4. Find the largest eigen value and the corresponding eigen vector of the matrix A =
 
25 1 2
 1 3 0  by using Power method.
 

2 0 −4

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 28

   
25 1 2 1
Solution : Let A =  1 3 0  , andX (0) = 0
   

2 0 −4 0
st
I iteration :    
25 1 2 1
AX (0) =1 3 0  0
   

2 0 −4 0
 
25
=1
 

2
 
1
= 25 0.04
 

0.08

IET = λ(1) X (1)

2nd iteration :    
25 1 2 1
AX (1) =  1 3 0  0.04
   

2 0 −4 0.08
 
25.2
= 1.12
 

1.68
 
1
AJ

= 25.2  0.04 
 

0.0666
= λ(2) X (2)
3rd iteration:    
25 1 2 1
AX (2) =  1 3 0   0.04 
   

2 0 −4 0.0666
 
25.173
=  1.12 
 

1.7336
 
1
= 25.173 0.0444
 

0.0689
= λ(3) X (3)

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 29

4th iteration :    
25 1 2 1
AX (3) =  1 3 0  0.0444
   

2 0 −4 0.0689
 
25.1822
=  1.1332 
 

1.7244
 
1
= 25.1822 0.045
 

0.069
= λ(4) X (4)
5th iteration:    
25 1 2 1
AX (4) =1 3 0  0.045
   
IET

2 0 −4
25.183

0.069

=  1.135 
 

1.724
 
1
= 25.183 0.0450
 

0.0685
AJ
= λ(5) X (5)
6th iteration :    
25 1 2 1
AX (5) =  1 3 0   0.045 
   

2 0 −4 0.0685
 
25.182
=  1.135 
 

1.726
 
1
= 25.182 0.0450
 

0.0685
= λ(6) X (6)
 
1
Here λ(5) = λ(6) = 25.183 and X (5) = X (6) = 0.0450
 

0.0685

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore

Mathematics-I for Civil Engineering Stream (Subject Code - BMATC101 )- Module 5- Linear Algebra Page 30

 
1
Hence largest eigen value is λ = 25.183 and largest eigen vector is X = 0.0450
 

0.0689

Exercise 5.4

1. Use power
" method
# to find the largest eigen value and the corresponding eigen vectors of the
1 2
matrix taking [0 1]0 as the initial eigen vector. (VTU Model 2015)
3 4
 
6 −2 2
2. Find the Dominant eigen value and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix A = −2 3 −1
 

2 −1 3
by power method taking the initial eigen vector as (1 1 1)0 (VTUJuly 2017, Jun 2015) Ans :
8, [1, −0.5, 0.5]0
IET
3. Determine the largest eigen value and the corresponding eigen vectors of the matrix  3


1

−1 4 10
3 −1
24 



taking [0 0 1]0 as the initial eigen vector. Perform 5 iterations. (VTU Jan 2015)

4. Use power method to find the largest eigen value and the corresponding eigen vectors of the
 
2 0 1
0
matrix A by using power method. Take [1 0 0] as the initial eigen vector. A = 0 2 0
 

1 0 2
AJ

(VTU Jan 2017, Jan 2016) Ans : 2.99, [1 0 1]0

5. Use power method to find the largest eigen value and the corresponding eigen vectors of the
 
4 1 −1
matrix A by using power method. Given A =  2 3 −1 Take [1 0.8 − 0.8]0 as the
 

−2 1 5
initial eigen vector. Ans : 5.994, [1, 0.999, −0, 999]0
 
2 −1 0
6. Determine the largest eigen value and the corresponding eigen vector of A = −1 2 −1
 

0 −1 2
using Rayleigh’s power method. (VTU Model 2014) Ans : 3.41 and [0.74, −1, 0.67]T
 
−1 2 −2
7. reduce the matrix  1 2 1  to diagonal form. (VTU June 2011)
 

−1 −1 9

Dr. Shantha Kumari K., Department of Mathematics AJIET, Mangalore