WACk UNIT 2

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE and HUMIDITY

Hydrologic Cycle is the continuous movement of water from the Earth’s surface to the
Atmosphere, then back to the surface, then to the atmosphere, then back to the surface,
etc.

The basic cycle involves the processes of Evaporation and Transpiration

(Evapotranspiration), Condensation, water itation, and Runoff.

Transpiration refers to the water released to the atmosphere by vegetation during the
process of photosynthesis. Thus, Evapotranspiration is the combined amount of water lost
by evaporation and transpiration.
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States of Water (Matter) are Solid, Liquid, and Gas

Know these and the processes that change water from one state to another: melting,
evaporation, condensation, freezing, sublimation, and deposition.rain

Also, know whether heat energy is absorbed, or released during each process.

Change of State Process Energy released or absorbed

solid to liquid melting absorbed

liquid to gas evaporation absorbed
gas to liquid condensation released
liquid to solid freezing released
solid to gas sublimation absorbed
gas to solid deposition released

HUMIDITY is a measure of the amount of water vapor in the air. It can be measured in
different ways or units.

Specific Humidity is measured as the grams of water vapor (H2Ov) per kilogram (kg) of
air. A mass-to-mass measurement.

Absolute Humidity is measured as the grams of water vapor (H2Ov) per cubic meter (m3) of
air. A mass to volume measurement.

Relative Humidity (R.H.) is a measurement of the ratio of water vapor (H2Ov) in the air
(water vapor content) compared to the maximum amount of water vapor the air could
hold (water vapor capacity). This is a function of the air temperature and is expressed as a
percentage.
 It is calculated using the specific humidity in units of grams or millibars. The calculation is
the actual water vapor content divided by water vapor capacity and that answer multiplied by
100 to arrive at a percentage. For example, if the amount of water vapor measured in the air is
10g and the water vapor capacity of the air at the measured temperature is 30g, then the
calculation is 10g / 30g x 100 = 33% RH.

Relevant Terms

Partial pressure refers to the idea that each component of the atmosphere makes up a part of
the total air pressure measured.

Water vapor pressure is that portion of the air pressure which is the force exerted by water
vapor molecules. It is measured in millibars (mb).

Saturation vapor pressure is the water vapor capacity of the air as measured in mb.

The amount of water vapor the air can hold, its capacity, is a function of temperature.
Warmer air can hold more water vapor than cooler air, or conversely cooler air will not hold
as much water vapor as warmer air.

Also, the saturation vapor pressure increases with increasing T°.

Saturation is the condition when the air is holding all the water vapor it can hold. The
content (water vapor pressure) equals the capacity (saturation vapor pressure). When the RH =
100%, the air is saturated. In this condition some of the water vapor will change from a gas to
a liquid, condensation occurs. If enough condensation occurs, a cloud, fog, or dew may form.
This is controlled by the water vapor content and the air’s water vapor capacity, which is
controlled by T°.

Dew Point or Dew Point Temperature (Tdp) refers to the T° at which a given mass of air
becomes saturated, holding all the water vapor it can hold. Any further cooling or addition
of water vapor results in active condensation, the formation of dew on a solid surface.

It is an indication of the moisture level in the air and is controlled by water vapor pressure,
NOT by air temperature.

If the air temperature equals the Tdp, then the air is saturated and the RH equals 100%.

How to change the Relative Humidity

Changing the relative humidity (RH) can be done by either adding or subtracting water vapor
to the mass of air OR by lowering or raising the air T°. Two examples of how the air can
reach the point of saturation (RH = 100%):
By adding water vapor to the air when the T° is held constant.

air T° 25°C 25°C 25°C

Sp. Hum. 5gm/kg 10gm/kg 20gm/kg
capacity 20gm/kg 20gm/kg 20gm/kg
R.H. 25% 50% 100%

By cooling the air T° when the water vapor content is held constant.

air T° 30°C 20°C 15°C

Sp. Hum. 10gm/kg 10gm/kg 10gm/kg
capacity 27gm/kg 14gm/kg 10gm/kg
R.H. 37% 71% 100%

When the R.H. varies during the day it’s because of a change in air temperature OR a
change in the amount of water vapor in the air.

The most common way and easiest way for the RH of the air to be changed is by changing
the temperature. This is also the most common and easiest way for the air to become saturated
thus for condensation to occur, by changing the air T°.

The water vapor content in the air thus RH varies from day to day, month to month,
seasonally and spatially (from place to place).

Remember, the colder the air, the less water vapor it can hold. While the warmer the air,
the more water vapor it can hold.

ADIABATIC PROCESSES

In meteorology the term adiabatic refers to a parcel of air changing temperature without
heat energy being added or removed.

fogcoof air that contains warm air is less dense (lighter) thus may rise. As this parcel of air
rises in the atmosphere, it will encounter lower pressure thus expand. As it expands the
molecules in it will start to slow down thus kinetic energy levels will decrease. As this occurs,
the T° will also decrease.

Conversely, a parcel of cold air is denser (heavier) thus sinks. As this parcel of air sinks in the
atmosphere, it will encounter higher pressure thus be compressed. As it is compressed the
molecules in it will start to speed up thus kinetic energy levels will increase. As this occurs,
the T° will also increase.

So, in expanding air in the temperature will decrease and in

compressing air in the temperature will increase.

BUT the T° changes WITHOUT heat energy being added or subtracted. This is Adiabatic
Temperature Change, changing the temperature of the air without adding or subtracting
heat energy. The temperature changes simply as the result of compressing the air or
allowing it to expand.

The result then is that:

Rising air in the atmosphere expands and cools.

Sinking air in the atmosphere is compressed and warms.

The Rate of Adiabatic Temperature Change varies with the humidity condition (water vapor
content) of the air, is it Dry (unsaturated) or Wet (saturated). Unsaturated air will change T°
at a faster rate than saturated air.

Dry Adiabatic Rate or Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DAR or DALR)

A dry parcel of air exists when it is unsaturated when its air T° is less than the dew point
temperature (Tdp) thus, its RH<100%.

The DAR of unsaturated air is known to be a constant rate of 1°C per 100 m or 10°C per
1000m. Thus, rising air cools at 1°C/100 m (10°C/1000m) and sinking air warms at
1°C/100 m (10°C/1000m).

Saturated Adiabatic Rate or Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SAR or SALR) (May also
see this as WAR, Wet Adiabatic Rate or MAR, Moist Adiabatic Rate.) When the air parcel is
saturated its air T° = Tdp thus it’s RH = 100%. The SAR is not a constant rate but a
variable rate of .5° - .9°C per 100m or 5°-9°C per 1000m.

The SAR is dependent on the moisture content of the air. The more water vapor condensing to
liquid in the air, the slower the rate of decline thus closer to 5°C / 1000m. This is because
condensation releases latent heat energy thus, slowing the rate of cooling (or warming). So
as warm air rises (the process of convection) it cools. If the air T° reaches the dew point T°,
saturation is reached and thus condensation may begin. If there is enough water vapor in the air
parcel, then a cloud may form. The level of the atmosphere where this occurs is known as the
condensation level and will vary temporally and spatially. The Condensation Level is the
height in the atmosphere at which condensation occurs, where cloud formation begins
(usually seen as the bottom of a cloud mass). RH= 100% ; air temperature = Tdp.

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
Atmospheric Stability refers to the tendency of an air parcel, with its water vapor, to
wither remain in place or to change vertical position by ascending (rising) or descending
(falling).

A stable parcel of air resists vertical displacement or, when disturbed, tends to return to its
starting place. An unstable parcel of air continues to rise until it reaches an altitude where the
surrounding air has a density and T° like its own.

Rules of Stability

1) When an air parcel is warmer (less dense) than the surrounding air, the parcel will rise
and this is UNSTABLE air conditions.

2) When an air parcel is colder (denser) than the surrounding air, it will tend to stay at the
same level or sink and this is STABLE air conditions.

3) The Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) is the T° profile of the atmosphere (the surrounding
air). This is the actual T° lapse rate in the lower atmosphere at any time under local weather
conditions.

Whether a particular parcel of air will rise (unstable) or not rise (stable) is a function of
the temperature inside the parcel of air as compared to the temperature outside the parcel
of air thus the ELR determines air stability or instability.

Types of Stability

Stable conditions exist when the ELR < DAR (10°C/1000m). (This is also known as
Absolutely stable conditions or Absolute Stability.)

This usually results in NO UPLIFT of air and may bring about subsidence or sinking of the air
parcel. This usually causes clear sky conditions. conssure cells form stable atmospheric
conditions. The most severe example of stable conditions is a T° inversion when the air T° is
increasing with increasing altitude in the troposphere.

Unstable conditions exist when the ELR > DAR (10°C/1000m). (This is also known as
Absolutely unstable conditions or Absolute Instability.)

This usually results in UPLIFT of the air parcel and often leads to cloudy sky conditions.
Low pressure cells form unstable atmospheric conditions.

Conditionally Unstable conditions exist when the ELR is between the DAR and the SAR.
SAR < ELR < DAR.

The atmosphere will vary between Stable and Unstable and usually the atmosphere is more
Unstable in the upper portion and more Stable in the lower portion.

Stability is important in daily weather patterns because it controls whether clouds form or not
and the type of clouds that may form. This in turn will affect the potential for precipitation.

LIFTING MECHANISMS

For air masses or parcels of air to cool adiabatically, reach the dew-point T° (saturation), and
condense to form clouds and perhaps precipitation, they must lift or rise in altitude.

There are four principal lifting mechanisms, which operate in the Atmosphere, Convective
Lifting, Convergent Lifting, Orographic Lifting, and Frontal Wedging.

Convective Lifting is the process of warming a parcel of air at the surface by conduction,
then the parcel rising into the atmosphere since it is warmer than the surrounding air.

The heating of the Earth’s surface at a given location will produce the necessary elements to
establish these UNSTABLE conditions. If there is enough moisture in the air parcel, then rain
formation may develop and even precipitation. This is commonly how afternoon
thundershowers are produced in the summertime, especially here in the southeastern U.S.
This is also part of the process, in conjunction with convergence, that occurs in Low-
pressure cells.

Convergent Lifting is the process by which winds flow together from opposite directions
and are forced to rise due to compression or ‘squeezing’.

Both convection and convergence are often at work in the same location and are the processes
that form the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and Low-pressure cells.

Orographic Lifting is the process by which air is forced to rise over a mountain range, or
other elevated land barrier, thus cool adiabatically. If the air cools to the Tdp then clouds
may form.

A pattern of precipitation is governed by this, such that rain/snow will occur on the windward
side of the mountain, while little or no precipitation occurs on the leeward side. This often
forms a Rain Shadow Desert on the leeward side.

Frontal Wedging (Lifting) is the process by which cold, dense air acts similarly to a
mountain barrier forcing warmer, less dense air to rise over it.

The leading edge of a mass of cold air is known as a cold front and similarly the leading edge
of a mass of warm air is known as a warm front. So, this mechanism is associated with
cold/warm fronts and Mid-Latitude xs (frontal systems). This usually produces clouds and
precipitation with often severe storms or thunderstorms along the cold front.
CONDENSATION EVENTS: FORMATION and TYPES

Clouds, Fog, and Dew all have two properties in common, they must form from saturated
or nearly saturated air (RH = 100%, Tdp = air T°) and they must have a surface (solid or
liquid) upon which the water vapor can condense.

Dew is the condensation event (water vapor changing to water) wherein liquid water
droplets form on the ground, vegetation, a carf, or similar surface near the ground.

Clouds and fog are condensation events wherein the droplets form suspended in the air.
They form on particles known as cloud condensation nuclei.

A cloud condensation nuclei is a microscopic particle which is necessary as a surface on

which water vapor condenses to form moisture droplets. These can be particles of dust, sea
salts, soot, ash, sulfate, and nitrate crystals, etc. A hygroscopic nuclei is a condensation nuclei
which is very water absorbent and usually of sulfate or nitrate crystals.

CLOUDS

A cloud is a form of condensation best described as a dense, visible aggregation of minute

moisture droplets and/or tiny ice crystals. They are commonly classified by altitude of
occurrence (height above the ground) and shape.

How do they form?

In most circumstances a parcel of warm, moist air rises, cools, and reaches the dew point T°
wherein saturation of the air parcel is reached. Once this occurs, condensation will begin
because the air now has too much water vapor. If enough water droplets form, they may become
dense enough to see. (Ice crystals will form if air temperatures are below freezing, the process
of deposition.) Alternatively, the air parcel may have water vapor added to it (the Tdp is thus
rising) to reach saturation.

So, either by cooling the air temperature to the Tdp OR by adding more water vapor can
saturation be reached. Cooling the air temperature is the most common method.

Cloud Classification

Two basic criteria are used for classifying clouds, the altitude (its height above the surface) at
which the cloud occurs and the shape of the cloud.

Altitude
Four altitudinal classes are used, low, middle, high, and vertically developed through the
Troposphere.

Low clouds are those which lie from near the surface up to 2000 m (6500 ft.). These clouds
typically consist primarily of liquid water droplets. Can consist of ice crystals, especially in
the winter. Examples include stratus, stratocumulus, and nimbostratus clouds.

Middle clouds are those which lie between 2000 m and 6000 m (20,000 ft.). These typically
consist of a mixture of liquid water and ice crystals dependent on the altitude and the
season. Examples include altostratus, and altocumulus clouds.

High clouds are those which lie between 6000 m and 13,000 m (43,000 ft.). These typically
consist primarily of ice crystals. Examples include cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus
clouds.

Vertically developed through the troposphere refers to those cloud masses which may stretch
from near the surface to over 13,000 m. These typically consist primarily of liquid water at
lower levels and ice crystals at higher levels. Examples include cumulus, and nimbus clouds.

Shape

Three basic shapes or forms are recognized, flat, puffy, and wispy.

Flat clouds are those which show primarily horizontal development and are often layered.
These are stratiformed clouds.

Puffy clouds are those which show more vertical development. These are cumuliform
clouds.

Wispy clouds are those which form at high altitude and consist of ice crystals. These are
cirroform clouds.

Some common cloud types:

Stratus clouds are layered, horizontally developed and usually low altitude.

Cumulus clouds are puffy like ‘cotton balls’ and vertically developed.

Cirrus clouds are the wispy-shaped “curls of hair”. They form high in the atmosphere and are
composed of ice crystals.

Nimbus clouds refers to those which are producing precipitation (rain, snow, etc.). There are
two types of nimbus clouds, cumulonimbus, and nimbostratus.
c clouds, or more commonly called Thunderstorms (T-storms), are cumulus clouds which are
producing precipitation.

Nimbostratus clouds are stratus clouds which are producing precipitation.

FOG

Fog is basically a cloud in contact with the ground, but the air parcel does not reach
saturation by rising and cooling. The air parcel in contact with the ground either cools the
Tdp or has water vapor added to reach saturation at the ground.

As the water droplets get bigger, they become visible, this decreases visibility (being able to
look through the mass of droplets). If visibility is reduced to 1 km, the haze or cloud is
categorized as fog. Four basic types of fog can be categorized, Radiation, Advection, Upslope,
and Evaporation.

Radiation fog is produced over land as the ground emits LW radiation, thus losing heat
energy and cooling. This cools the air in contact with the ground and if the air
temperature drops to the Tdp then condensation may occur. This process is known as
radiational cooling.

This type of fog is also called ground fog. This the most common type of fog which forms in the
Athens, GA area. If it forms in a mountainous area, then it may be called valley fog. This occurs
as cold, heavy air drains downhill (cold air drainage). It forms best on calm, clear nights in late
fall and winter and is usually deepest around sunrise.

Advection fog occurs when warm, moist air moves over a colder surface and the air cools to
its Tdp. This is most common as warm air from off a large water surface (ocean, gulf) moves
over the colder, coastal land. (Remember that advection means the horizontal movement of
air.) This type of fog is usually associated with winds of 5-15 mph and is often 300-600m thick.
Areas where this type of fog occurs include the West Coast of U.S. (San Francisco area), the
Gulf of Mexico coastal area, and the Midwest U.S., especially in winter. For some coastal
Deserts (Atacama in S.A., Namib in Africa), advection fog may be the only moisture they
receive.

Ice fog is a type of advection fog which may form in cold Polar areas, where the fog
droplets freeze and form ‘ice droplets’.

Upslope fog forms as warm, moist air flows up along an elevated plain, or mountain range.
The air T° reaches the Tdp by adiabatic cooling as it rises. A good example occurs in the
Western Great Plains of the U.S. along the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains.
Evaporation fog forms when the air reaches saturation (Tdp = air temperature) by having
water vapor added to it and not by lowering of the air temperature. In other words, liquid
water evaporates into the air parcel from off a water body or wet surface. Steam fog and
Frontal fog are two types of Evaporation fog.

Steam fog forms when cold air moves over warmer water, and the warmer water
evaporates into the unsaturated cold air causing saturation, condensation, and fog
formation. Some examples include over a heated pool (especially in fall or winter), over hot
springs and thermal pools, and in polar regions.

Frontal fog forms as warm raindrops evaporate in a cool air mass as they fall. This type of
fog is associated with frontal systems and dreary, drizzly days.

DEW is water that has condensed onto objects near the ground when the T° has fallen below
the Tdp of the surface air. In winter, however, two types of solid ‘dew’ may form, frozen dew
and frost.

Frozen Dew refers to dew (in the liquid state) which has formed and then freezes (to the
solid state) (water vapor to liquid to solid).

Condensation occurs at a T° above the freezing point, then the temperature continues to
drop below the freezing point and the dew freezes. Condensation then freezing.

Frost or Hoarfrost is a covering of ice produced by deposition because the Tdp is below
freezing.

Water vapor changes directly to the solid state by deposition.

PRECIPITATION PROCESSES

The simple or basic process of precipitation formation is water vapor molecules changing to
either the liquid state (condensation) or to the solid state (deposition) to form a cloud. Then
these liquid or solid molecules must obtain a size large enough to fall out of the cloud and reach
the surface without changing back into the gaseous state. The two basic processes for this to
occur are the Bergeron and Collision-Coalescence Processes.

The basic process of rain begins as water vapor and condenses into liquid water droplets
forming clouds. These cloud droplets coalesce (join together) enlarging in size to become
heavy enough to be pulled down by gravity as precipitation (raindrop) if they do not evaporate
before they hit the ground.

Cloud droplet average size is about 20 microns in diameter and fall very slowly, about 1000
m/48 hr. thus, they usually evaporate before reaching the surface. One raindrop equals ~1
million cloud droplets, so cloud droplets must coalesce or join together into a raindrop to
avoid evaporation.

The basic process of snow begins as water vapor changes to ice crystals (by deposition)
within the clouds. These ice crystals coalesce (join together) to become a snowflake thus
become heavy enough to be pulled down by gravity as precipitation (snow) if they do not melt
before they hit the ground.

The two basic mechanisms to explain precipitation formation are the Bergeron Process (or
Ice-Crystal Process) and the Collision-Coalescence Process.

The Bergeron Process (Ice-Crystal Process) is the primary process for forming
precipitation in the middle and high latitudes and the only process to form snow. This
process was first described by the Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron in the early
1930s. It requires utilizing two properties of water, that pure water in the air does not
freeze until -40 degrees Celsius and that the saturation vapor pressure over ice crystals is
much lower than over super-cooled liquid water. This means that water vapor molecules and
liquid water molecules are more “attracted” to ice crystals than super-cooled liquid water.

Water at a temperature <0°C is called super-cooled water. This process utilizes freezing nuclei
(also called deposition nuclei) to initiate change of water vapor to the solid water (deposition of
water vapor) thus need T°s below -10°C, where both liquid drops and ice crystals can exist.
Supersaturated conditions (RH > 100%) are also required so ice crystals can collect more
water vapor than they lose thus grow. The difference in air pressure between lower and higher
altitudes allow for supersaturation to exist at higher altitudes.

The basic process is water vapor changing to ice crystals by deposition, and those ice
crystals joining with other ice crystals to make snow crystals and then snowflakes. If they
melt while falling, then they become a raindrop.

The Collision-Coalescence Process is the primary process in tropical areas for

raindrop formation and in mid-latitudes during the summer.

The basic process is water vapor changing to liquid water droplets (cloud droplets) by
condensation. Then the cloud droplets coalesce with other droplets to enlarge and form
raindrops.

The process requires larger cloud droplets to form often from ‘larger’ condensation nuclei
(hygroscopic nuclei) since small droplets don’t collide and coalesce by themselves very well.
The maximum size a raindrop will achieve is about 5 mm. If it gets bigger, then it gets
pulled apart by friction and drag forces as it falls.
Often a combination of the Bergeron and Collision-Coalescence processes exists in
thunderstorms to form precipitation. Even in summer, ice crystals will form in the top of the T-
storms and then melt as they fall forming raindrops.

Fall or Terminal Velocities of Cloud Droplets and Raindrops

Type Diameter Velocity

(mm) (kph) (mph)
Typical cloud
droplet .02 .04 .03

Drizzle .5 7 4

Raindrop 2-5 23 - 33 14 - 20

PRECIPITATION TYPES

Remember that all precipitation comes from either nimbostratus or cumulonimbus clouds.

Rain droplets average between .5 mm to 5 mm in size and are a liquid form of precipitation.
Following the Bergeron Process raindrops will form in the following way, water vapor
changes into ice crystals in the clouds, then the ice crystal (snowflake) melts, forming a
raindrop before it hits the ground. So, water vapor (gas) to ice crystal (a solid via
deposition) to a raindrop (a liquid via melting).

Following the Collision-Coalescence Process raindrops will form in the following way, water
vapor changes to liquid droplets in the clouds, and these coalesce to form raindrops. These
hit the gund as raindrops. So, water vapor (gas) to raindrop (a liquid via condensation).

Snow is a solid form of precipitation and averages 1 - 2 mm in size. Snow only forms via the
Bergeron Process. Following the Bergeron Process snowflakes will form in the following way,
water vapor changes into ice crystals in the cloud (deposition), and the ice crystal
(snowflake) remains a snowflake as it hits the ground. So, water vapor (a gas) to a
snowflake (a solid via deposition).

When calculating the total precipitation for a location, the amount of snowfall is added to the
amount of rainfall for the specified period, usually a month or a year. But it is not a
straightforward addition calculation. A single snowflake does not have the same water content
as a single raindrop. Snow has less water content than an average raindrop, so a conversion is
calculated, and the common conversion used is 10 inches of snow is equivalent to 1 inch of
rain. But this is dependent on the amount of moisture in the snow. Wetter snow will be fewer
than 10 inches and drier snow will be more than 10 inches.
Lake-Effect Snow is a result of a cold air mass moving over a large, warmer water
surface causing the lower layers of air to warm, increasing evaporation and instability.
This leads to cloud and precipitation (snow) development that would not have occurred if
the water body (lake) had not been there.

This is best see America around the Great Lakes where downwind (leeward)
areas of the lakes often have higher snow totals than similar areas upwind (windward) of the
lakes. It is most prevalent in the late fall and early winter when T° differences between the
water and the air are commonly the greatest. It also occurs off other large freshwater lakes or
seas (Caspian) and ocean surfaces in polar and sub-polar areas.

Sleet and Freezing rain are two other solid forms of precipitation commonly occurring in
winter.

Sleet is essentially a frozen raindrop. If it starts as a snowflake (Bergeron Process), then it

melts to form a raindrop that then re-freezes before it hits the ground. As the snowflake falls,
it passes through air which is at a T° above 32° F, melts, then passes through colder air (<32° F)
again and freezes. So, following the Bergeron Process this would be water vapor (gas) to ice
crystal (solid via deposition) to raindrop (liquid via melting) to sleet (solid again via
freezing before it hits the surface). Following the Collision-Coalescence Process it would be
water vapor (gas) to raindrop (liquid via condensation) to sleet (solid via freezing before it
hits the surface).

re is like sleet except it freezes (re-freezes) after contacting the ground. This usually
involves super-cooled raindrops which allows them to freeze on contact with solid
objects/surfaces. This type of event is commonly referred to as an Ice storm or glaze. So,
following the Bergeron Process this would be water vapor (gas) to ice crystal (solid via
deposition) to raindrop (liquid via melting) to freezing rain (solid again via freezing, after
it hits the surface). Following the Collision-Coalescence Process it would be water vapor
(gas) to raindrop (liquid via condensation) to sleet (solid via freezing, after it hits the
surface).

Hail is another form of solid precipitation consisting of hard, rounded pellets or lumps of
ice. They are only produced in large cumulonimbus clouds, thunderstorms. They form in the
network of updrafts and down drafts contained within the T-storm which move the hail stone up
and down within the cloud causing it to grow. Unlike sleet and freezing rain, hail is primarily a
summertime phenomenon. Most hailstones average 5 mm to 10cm (.2 in to 4 in) in diameter,
with the largest reported hailstone weighing 1 lbs. 15 oz. and measuring 8" in diameter. Some
may seem bigger because they are several hailstones which have coalesced.

Sleet, Freezing Rain, and Hail are typically not counted in precipitation totals.
GLOBAL PATTERNS of PRECIPITATION

An idealized pattern of precipitation would be quite simple with more in tropical areas where
the air is warmer and can hold more moisture versus polar areas where it’s cold and dry. But
other factors complicate the picture.

Air Pressure systems greatly affect precipitation patterns with areas of Low Pressure typically
being unstable (ITCZ) and areas of High Pressure consisting of subsidence and being stable
(STH).

Wind directions affect precipitation patterns by whether it is flowing onshore or offshore,

diverging or converging, encounters mountain ranges, etc.

Seasonality or shifting of pressure belts (ITCZ and STH) during the year which shifts wind
directions.

Landmass and Ocean locations which can affect wind flow, differential heating, rain shadows,
etc.

So, throw all this together and we could model an Idealized Continent for precipitation.

BUT some exceptions to the Idealized pattern give us a truer picture of precipitation patterns.

Sub-Tropical High-pressure cells (STHs), which sit over oceans, don’t have the same
characteristics on both the east and west side.

East Side of STH shows the typical subsidence, temperature inversion, and stable, dry
conditions. They are also affected by upwelling of cold ocean currents. For the STH located in
the Northern Atlantic Ocean this would be the Sahara of northwest Africa, and the Iberian
Peninsula (Portugal and Spain). For the STH in the Northern Pacific Ocean this would be the
deserts of Baja California and Mexico.

West Side of STH shows little subsidence, more uplifting, convergence, and warm ocean
currents which leads to greater instability, and weather conditions. This is the
Southeastern U.S. for the STH in the North Atlantic.

Rain Shadow Deserts are formed by coastal mountain barriers and orographic effects
such as that the leeward side is often much drier than the windward side. A good example
is the Great Basin area of the western U.S. (the Sierra Nevada Range and Coast Ranges),
while another is Patagonia in southern Argentina (the Andes). The Himalayas also act as a great
mountain barrier.

Monsoon is an annual cycle of dryness and wetness, associated with seasonally shifting
winds produced by shifting atmospheric pressure patterns. The location of High-Pressure
cells (STHs) and the ITCZ Low-Pressure belt shift between summer and winter. This changes
the direction of the winds, basically establishing a large Sea Breeze for part of the year
(Summer/wet season) and a large Land Breeze for part of the year (Winter/dry season). This
pattern is best developed in Southern and Southeast Asia.

AIR MASSES and FRONTS

An Air Mass is an immense body of air, some 1000+ miles across and 1-2 miles thick, with
relatively homogeneous physical properties (density, T°, moisture) at a given altitude.

Classification Scheme of air masses is based on the basic T° and moisture (water vapor content
or humidity) conditions of the air. A two-letter abbreviation system is used to indicate the
various types of air masses.

The First letter is a reference to the surface over which the air mass develops thus the level
of moisture (dry vs. humid).

A lower-case ‘c’ represents a Continental air mass indicating it formed over a landmass
thus, typically has a lower water vapor content, it is dry air.

A lower-case ‘m’ represents a Maritime air mass indicating it formed over an ocean or
other large water surface thus typically has a high, water vapor content, it is humid air.

he Second letter is a reference to the latitude of origin thus the temperature (cold vs.
warm).

An upper-case ‘A’ represents Arctic air which is bitterly cold. An upper-case ‘P’ represents
Polar air which is cold to very cold (but warmer than Arctic air). An upper-case ‘T’ represents
Tropical air, which is warm, and an upper-case ‘E’ represents Equatoriail air which is very
warm.

The Source Region in which an air mass originates determines the initial characteristics of
the air masses. Polar equates to cold air mass, tropical to a warm air mass, land to a dry air
mass, and water to a humid air mass.

Keep in mind that cold and warm are relative terms. For example, a cold air mass in
winter may be 20° F, but a cold air mass in summer may be 70° F.

Types of Air Masses (for North America)

Continental Arctic (cA) forms in the Arctic Ocean basin and Greenland and is a bitterly
cold, very dry, stable air mass.
Continental Polar (cP) forms in interior, central Canada and Alaska and is a cold (winter)
to cool (summer), dry, stable air mass.

Continental Tropical (cT) forms in northern interior Mexico and the southwestern U.S. in
the Summer only. It is a hot, dry, and usually unstable air mass.

Maritime Polar (mP) forms in the northern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. In the Pacific it is a
cool and humid, unstable in winter and stable in summer air mass. In the northern Atlantic
it is cold and unstable in winter, cool and stable in summer, and both are humid.

Maritime Tropical (mT) which forms in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and western
Atlantic Ocean is a warm, humid, and usually unstable air mass, this is on the western side
of the STH. The mT air which forms in the eastern pacific, is a warm and humid, but more
stable since it is on the eastern side of the STH.

Polar Vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding both Earth’s poles. It
always exists near the poles but weakens in summer and strengthens in winter. The term
"vortex" refers to the counterclockwise flow of air that helps keep the colder air near the Poles.
Many times, during winter in the northern hemisphere, the polar vortex will expand, sending
cold air southward with the jet stream. This occurs regularly during wintertime and is often
associated with large outbreaks of Arctic air (cA) in the United States. This is not confined to
the United States. Portions of Europe and Asia also experience cold surges connected to the
polar vortex.

A FRONT is an invisible boundary separating air masses of different characteristics,

primarily humidity, density, and temperature. One air mass is usually warmer (or colder)
than the other and of differing humidity level.

The Polar Front refers to the zone separating air masses of polar origin from air masses of
tropical origin. Wave cyclone refers to a weather pattern which may develop in conjunction
with or along the front. Low pressure cells and fronts are the primary structure of a Mid-
Latitude Wave Cyclone.

Types of Fronts: Cold, Warm, Stationary, and Occluded

Cold Front is the boundary at the forward edge of an advancing cold air mass that is
displacing warmer air.

A cold front will move at an average speed of approximately 25-35 mph forward speed and
has a steep slope of 1:100. Cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds are typically associated with
cold fronts. More violent weather (T-storms, tornados) is associated with a cold front than
a warm front. A cold front is symbolized on weather maps as the symbol below with the
symbols, triangles, pointing in the direction the air mass is moving toward.
 (warm air on this side)

(cold air on this side)

Warm Front is the boundary at the forward edge of an advancing warm air mass that is
displacing cooler air.

A warm front will move at an average speed of approximately 15-20 mph forward speed
and has a more gradual slope of 1:200. Usually, stratus and nimbostratus clouds are
associated with warm fronts thus less serve weather is associated with warm fronts than
cold fronts. A warm front is symbolized on weather maps as the symbol below with the
symbols, half circles, pointing in the direction the air mass is moving toward.

(cooler air on this side)

c
(warm air on this side)

Stationary Front represents a situation when air movement is almost parallel to the
boundary and the surface position of the front doesn’t move very quickly, usually less than 5
mph forward speed. Primarily, stratus clouds are associated with stationary fronts. A
stationary front is symbolized on weather maps as the symbol below with the half circles on
one side, and the triangles on the other side.

(cool to cold air on this side)

(warmer air on this side)

Occluded Front is a front formed when a cold front overtakes and replaces a warm front
at the surface. Usually, stratus and nimbostratus clouds associated with occluded fronts
thus less severe weather. An occluded front is symbolized on weather maps as the symbol
below with the half circles and triangles on the same side.

Frontal symbols as seen on weather maps. 1. cold front, 2. warm front, 3. stationary front
4. occluded front, 5. surface trough, 6. squall / shear line, 7. fr, and 8. tropical wave
Drylines (#7 in the diagram above) indicate a boundary between mT (wet) and cT (dry) air
masses as seen during the Summer in Texas and the southern Great Plains. A dryline indicates
a boundary separating the two-air mass of varying water vapor content (humidity) and not
temperature.

MID-LATITUDE WAVE CYCLONE

Mid-Latitude Wave Cyclone is a low-pressure cell that forms and moves along a frontal
boundary. It exhibits counterclockwise circulation (NH) around the low center and
produces a wavelike deformation of the front.

Stages of the Wave Cyclone Life Cycle

Stage 1: Two air masses, a cold (cP or mP) and a warm (mT) are set-up along a stationary
front and move parallel to it.

Stage 2: A wave forms along the stationary front as warm air starts to move poleward and
cold air moves equatorward.

Stage 3: Cyclonic (counterclockwise) circulation develops, with general convergence at the

surface and uplifting. The warm air overrides the cold air (frontal wedging), and a Cold Front
and Warm Front are established.

berg: The Cold Front moves faster than the Warm Front and begins to overtake it. This is
the beginning stage of occlusion and the formation of an Occluded Front.

Stage 5: Full development of an Occluded Front has occurred, and the system is at its
maximum intensiy. It exhibits a steep pressure gradient and strong winds it is in this stage
when the severest weather (tornados, hail, etc.) will likely occur, if it is going to occur.

Stage 6: The pressure gradient weakens, and its energy supply (warm moist air) has been
exhausted thus the system dissipates.

Sectors of a Wave Cyclone

A Mid-Latitude Wave Cyclone can be thought of as having three sections based primarily on
temperature but exhibiting different weather as well.

Warm Sector is the area between the Warm Front and the Cold Front.

Cool Sector is the area ahead of the Warm Front.

Cold Sector is the area behind the Cold Front.

Winds of a Wave Cyclone

Warm sector: The winds are primarily southwesterly to southeasterly.

Cool sector: The winds are primarily southeasterly to easterly and then northeasterly as you
move counterclockwise.

Cold sector: The winds in this sector are primarily northerly to northwesterly, then
westerly as you move counterclockwise.

(Remember, we name winds for the direction they are coming from.)

Moisture, Sky, and Weather Conditions

Warm sector: Has humid to very humid conditions, often with clear skies to scattered cumulus
clouds. It exhibits warm T°s. In the U.S., this is primarily mT air off the Gulf of Mexico.
Precipitation may be associated with the advancing Cold Front.

Cool sector: Has humid to very humid conditions with a large area of stratus and
nimbostratus clouds. Light to moderate precipitation along and ahead of the Warm Front.
Clouds are thinner further ahead of the warm front (cirrus type clouds). It exhibits cool T°s.

Cold sector: This sector exhibits dry, clear air back from the cold front, but often has
intense precipitation (T-storms) along the Cold Front. It has cold T°s.

Mid-Latitude Wave Cyclones usually takes between 3-7 days to form and move cross the U.S.
They are pushed by the geostrophic wind pattern, primarily the Jet Stream, from west to east
along storm tracks. These tracks shift with the seasons, being more northerly in the summer
and southerly in the winter.

CYCLOGENESIS

Cyclogenesis is the process that forms and develops a new wave cyclone OR strengthens
an exciting wave cyclone. There are specific criteria for a wave cyclone to form.

First, cyclonic flow must be established. This rotation (spin) of the air is known as or
absolute vorticity, and has two components, Relative Vorticity and Earth Vorticity.

Relative Vorticity is the vorticity (spin) relative to the earth’s surface.

Earth Vorticity is the vorticity (spin) due to the earth’s daily rotation about its axis.

This is dependent as to the location of the event (the spin), in which hemisphere, Northern or
Southern, is it occurring.

If the flows are both in the same direction (counterclockwise in NH, clockwise in the SH)
then they complement each other increasing absolute vorticity. This is known as
vorticity.

If the flows are in opposite directions (one clockwise the other counterclockwise) then they
do not complement each other thus decreasing absolute vorticity. This is known as
negative vorticity.

Low-pressure cells show positive vorticity, while High-pressure cells show negative
vorticity. This is true for both hemispheres.

In relation to Rossby Waves the vorticity changes as you move along a wave through troughs
and ridges. This is caused by convergence of air in one portion of a trough and divergence in
another portion of a trough. On the down slope of a trough there is more convergence thus,
increased vorticity or spin, while on the upslope there is divergence and decreased
vorticity.

Upper-level divergence is another factor which helps develop a wave cyclone. It helps draw
air upward from the surface, acting as a lifting mechanism above the surface low-pressure
cell.

Another factor in cyclone development is speed divergence, and speed convergence. These
events also occur along the Rossby Wave with speed divergence occurring on the downslope
of a trough. Speed convergence occurs on the upslope of a trough.

The last factor which is involved in developing a wave cyclone is diffluence and confluence.
These are related to a change in the horizontal component of moving air. As air moves along a
trough is either being spread apart or squeezed together. Diffluence refers to when air is being
spread apart and occurs on the upslope of the trough. Confluence refers to when air is
forced, or squeezed closer together, and occurs on the downslope of the trough.

Geostrophic winds (Rossby Waves and the Jet Stream) not only play a role in the development
of a Mid-Latitude Wave Cyclone system, but it is these upper air winds which move the wave
cyclone along. The primary mover of a cyclone is the Jet Stream, the narrow ribbon of high-
speed geostrophic winds which move within and are a part of the general Westerlies flow in the
Mid-Latitudes (~30°-60° latitude).

The Jet Stream is generally located at altitudes between 25,000 to 35,000 ft. and can attain
speeds of 120 to 200 mph. It is not stationary, meandering N-S both on a weekly and seasonal
cycle and show either a Zonal or Meridional pattern. The Polar Front generates the polar jet
stream associated with it, which greatly affects daily weather in the mid-latitudes. The
undulations of the jet stream are the Rossby waves thus, as explained above, dictate the location
a cyclone will develop and its path of movement across the Earth’s surface.

This also is in conjunction with the movement of cP and mT air masses. Normally the cold,
dry cP air is located north of the jet and warm, humid mT air is located south of the jet.
There is also a subtropical jet stream associated with the Hadley Cell flow. This doesn’t
influence mid-latitude cyclones as much as it does the initial flow of mT air northward and as a
stirring mechanism for tropical cyclone (hurricane) development.

Again, remember that the jet stream shifts north and south with the seasons, and is usually
further north in the summer months and towards the south in the winter months.