2: Token Bucket Algorithm *It allows large bursts to he sent at faster rate

This algorithm allows bursts for short after that constant rate.
transmission while making sure that no data is It saves token to send large bursts.
lost. In contrast to the Leaky Bucket algorithm, Leaky Bucket Algorithm
not the data that is to be send but tokens are Token independent
queued in a time-depended queue. One token is *If bucket is full packet or data is discarded.
needed to send a single portion of data *Packets are transmitted continuously.
Implementations contain a token counter thatis *It sends the packet at constant rate.
incremented on every time interval, so that the It does not save token.
counter grows over time up until a maximum QUALITY OF SERVICE
counter value is reached. The token counter is is defined as something fiow seeks to attain
decremented by one for every data portion A Stream of packets from a source to
sent. When the token counter is zero no data destination is called flow. In a connection
can be transmitted. oriented network all packets belonging to a flow
For many applications it is better to allow the follow the same route, in a connection-less
output to speed up somewhat when a larger service they may follow different routes
burst arrives than to lose the data. Token The needs of each flow can be characterised by
Bucket algorithm provides such a solution.
destroy o
must capture and
primary parameters vi, reliability, delay, jitter
it
be transmitled, and bandwidth. together these determine the
Hosl Copuc Qos(Quality of Service) the flow requires
Cos hc Ducke
QoS defines a set of attributes related to the
One token O
added O the h o d s iakcns
performance of the connection for each
burkel<ven connection the user can request a particular
attributes.
flow Characteristics
1: Reliability: Reliability is a characteristic that
Networds
( flow needs. lack of reliability means losing a
Main steps of this algorithm can be described as packet or acknowledgment which entails
retransmission. However, the sensitivity of
follows:
In regular intervals tokens are thrown into the application programs to reliability is not the
same
bucket.
The bucket has a maximum capacity. 2: Delay: Source-to-destination delay is another

If there is a ready packet, a token is removed characteristic Againi plication can tolerate
from the bucket, and the packet is send. delay in different degree. In this case,
I fthere is no token in the bucket, the packet telephony, audio conferencing, video
cannot be send. conferencing and remote login need minimum
delay, while delay in file transfer or e-mail is less
One token abled per lich
important
3: Jitter: Jitter is the variation in delay for
packets belonging to thee same flow. For
One itken remove
example, if four packets depart at times 0,1,2
and dicardeu
ell rartnificd and 3 and arrive at 20,21,22 and 23, all have the
same delay, 20 units of time. Jitter is defined as
IILIIFProcesor Departure
ArrivalK Full the variation in the packet delay. High jitter
Quewe
means the difference between delays is large;
DhcandY low jitter means the variation is small
Token Bucket Algorithm 4: Bandwidth: Different applications need
Token dependent different bandwidths. In video conferencing one
If bucket is full token are discarded, but not need to send millions of bits per second to
the packet.
refresh a colour screen while the total number
*Packets can only transmitted when there are of bits in an e-mail may not reach even a million.
enough token.
cONGESTION of packets from the user process in an even flow
ocur in a computer network when the resource of packers onto the network. Conceptually. each
demands exceed the capacity Packets may be host is connected to the network by an interface
lost due to too much queuing in the network. Containing a leaky bucket, that is, a finite
During Congestion the network throughput may internal queue. If a packet arrives at the queue
drop and the path delay may become very high when itis full, the packet is discarded
Congestion in a network may occur if users send
bcl algoridhm
data into the network at a rate greater than Remoe pacaa
a o s a n rae
allowed by network resources. for example,
Congestion may occur because the switched in a
ATival
network have a limited buffer size to store Procesr PDepaur
arrived packets before processing
Causes of Congestion Discard
1: Unpredictable statistical fluctuation of traffic In other word, if one or more processes within
flows the host try to send a packet when the
2: faults conditions within the network maximum number is already queued, the new
3: Slow processor speed. if the router's CPU packet is unceremoniously discarded. This
speed is very low and performing tasks like arrangement can be built into the hardware
queuing buffer, tables updating etc. queries are interface or simulated by the host operating
built up, even though the line capacity is not system. It was first proposed by Turner (1986)
fully utilized and is called the leaky bucket algorithm. In fact
4: Inefficient control policies it is nothingg other thana single-server queuing8
5: Bandwidth of the links is important in system with constant service time. This
Congestion. The links to be used must be of high mechanism turns an uneven flow of packets
Bandwidth to avoid Congestion from the user processes inside the host into an
Mid Congestion even flow of packets onto the network.
No Congetinn Severe Congestion
Smoothing out bursts and greatly reducing the
/Controlled Tralfic chances of congestion
Network
tidral cave) Fause
Throughp
packets Uncontrolled
Packet
delivered) Traffic
Uneegulated
Plo
Beciet hol
Offered Ln Packcts
packets e n Leaky w Centanng
Leky Hecke
Bucket
EMecd ef Cengestion
Fleure 41:

TYPES OF cONGESTION CONTROL Water drips

of hode al
ALGORITHMS cUmLant t a
Netwer

Congestion in a frame relay network is a

Implementing the original leaky bucket
problem that must be avoided because it
algorithm is easy. The leaky bucket consists of a
decreases throughput and increases delay
finite queue. When a packet arrives, if there is
1: Leaky Bucket Algorithm: If there is a hole at
room on the 4ueue it is appended to the queue
the bottom of a Bucket, then no matter at what
otherwise, it is discarded. At every clock tick,
rate the Bucket is filled up, the water leaks out one packet is transmitted (unless the queue is
drop by drop at a constant rate from the hole.
empty).
Each host is connected by an interface that has This arrangement can be simulated in the
finite queue acting like leaky Bucket. operating system or can be builit into the
When a packet comes to a host with the queue
hardware. Implementation of this algorithm is
full, It is discarded. The host 1s allowed to put easy and consists of a finite queue. wWhenever a
one packet per clock tick info the network. This packet arrives, if there is room in the queue it is
can he enforced by the interface card or by the queued up and if there is no room then the
operating system. This converts an uneven flow packet is discarded
SUBNETTING its best to get a transmission through to its
is a unique and powerful feature that is destination. but with no guarantees.
exclusive to the TCP/IP protocol and is one of IPv4 Datagram Format
the reasons TCP/IP offers great scalability. 20-45,53 yt
Subnetting allows network address to be further
divided, apart from the already established
classful boundaries, into smaller, more Service

manageable networks. This division provides for Bis

dentlication

unparalleled scalability and hierarchy, and gives

ocales

a network administrator benefits such as

reduced network traffic, less susceptibility to
inatinn P AMles
broadcast traffic, network optimisation. and
greater ease of management. For example, if
you were to borrow one bit from the host
portion of a Class B network, your subnet mask Limitation of IPv4
would be 255.255.128.0 1:The IP address relies on network layer
Subnet Mask address to identify end-points on networks, and
There are two parts to the IP address, the each networked device has a unique IP addresS
network portion and the host portion. Node 2: Uses a 32-bit addressing scheme, which gives
assigned that IP address as well as other it 4 billion possible addresses
nodes
that must communicate with it have no idea of 3: Ifa network has slightly more number of host
the location of the line between hoOst and than a particular class, then it needs either two
network portions of the address. The subnet IP addresses of that class or the next class of IP
mask provides the answer to this dilemma. The address
subnet mask follows the IP address and details 4: Identified limitations of the IPv4 protocol are
the line indicating where the network portion of Complex host and router configuration, non-
the address ends and the host portion begin. hierarchical addressing. difficulty in
Like the IP address, the subnet mask is in a 4- renumbering address large routing tables, non
octet, 32-byte format. trivial implementations in providing security.
An example of a subnet mask is 255.0.0.0. a QoS (Quality of Services) mobility and multi-
value of 255 means match all. Each of the three homing, multicasting etc.
configurable IP address
Classes has a default subnet mask:
1: Class A 255.0.0.0
2: Class B 255.255.0.0
3: Class C 255.255.255.0
IPv4 (INTERNET PROTOcOL VERSION 4)
Application
Traap sCTP L TCP UDP

Ndtwur
Layer
GMP|Licur ARIr ARr
DataLi
yer
Phy uical
Underly nmg LAN w WAN Tohrdagy

Layer Flgare 41% Rtien ef U i n T C P Prutecel Sale

IPv4 is an unreliable and connectionless

datagram protocol a best-effort delivery service.
The term best-effort means that IPv4 provides
no error control or flow control (except for error
detection on the header). IPv4 assumes the
unreliability of the underlying layers and does