LOGIC & CRITICAL THINKING

MIDTERMS
LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS
Types of Proposition
OUTLINE
A. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
Logical Propositions
I. Types of Proposition 1) The nature of Categorical Proposition
A. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
1. The nature of Categorical Proposition
 Categorical proposition- is restricted to two
2. Parts of the Categorical Proposition
alternatives:true of false. A proposition is true if it affirms
3. Properties of the Categorical of Proposition
something, false if it does not.
4. The A-E-I-O Matrix
5. Quantity of the Predicate  For instance, that the color of the sky is green, when in fact
it is blue. He is false, and to verify he can simply be
presented with the color sample blue. It can be said he
committed error.
PROPOSITIONS
 Error exist due to the misuse of the faculty of the senses,
WHAT IS PROPOSITION? But let us examine the statement “God is Love.” There is
no empirical data that would affirm or deny the truth of
 A Proposition is the basic building block of logic. It is the statement. The statement, in this regard, is a mere
defined as a declarative sentence that is either true or statement. It is not a proposition. It offers no knowledge
false, but not both. about world or condition of the states of affairs of things.
(https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/proposition-logic/) It is meaningless. Menaningless is based on factual
content.
 A Proposition is “a statement of fact”. As a statement of
fact, a proposition says something about reality. Thus, 
TEACHER’S INSIGHT
what is real is what is logical. As such, language, in

Russell’s Philosophy, is nothing but the total sum of all A proposition is true if it is a picture of a fact. It is false
propositions. when it does not picture a fact. It sense then comes the
fact that it pictures. Meaning, thus is derived from the
 Propositional Language reveals the world. The worlds is
tstaes of affairs of things. Thus, a proposition is an
nothing but an encyclopaedia of facts expressed in the
observation-statement of a fact. It expresses only truth
language of atomic propositions. For Russell, such
or falsity.
language must be a logical one for it is necessary
requirement for language to be logical so that it can
picture world that is logical. The claim that the world
divided into facts is the soul of logical atomism. For  In form, a proposition is a declarative statement. Let us
atomist, only facts can exist. Facts are expressed in consider the following:
language. Since the world is factual, language can only
be factual. The implication of this is the rejection of any 1. Is it possible that the water is present in Mars?
language that does not pass the criterion of logic  This is a sentence P.
 P is a question about Q (water in Mars)
 P says nothing about Q (Water in Mars)
2. There is water in Mars
 This is a sentence P.
 P is a statement about Q(water in Mars)
 P says something about Q (water in Mars)
 According to Alfred Jules Ayer, whose book, Language
and logic, influenced the vieena Circle, the movement
popular for promoting logical positivism, examining a fact
like the asseted by the sample proposition requires
empirical verification. In explaining the criterion of
verifiability, he says that “the meaning of a statement is the
method of its verification.”8
 Thus, the claim “ there is water in Mars” can only be
proven by way of probing the surface of mars for traces of
water. If a statement is factual, then corresponding
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 empirical evidence must be available. This means that we  The copula (ie., am, is are, was were..) is that
can be acquainted with reality it purports to express. In this which connects the subject and the predicate.
case of finding traces of water in Mars , the evidence from
 Lets us take the statement “My Left Foot” was the story of
Mars rover missions can serve as our source of data.
Christy Brown.” In this example, the term “the inspiring
During the 1940’s, the idea of weak and strong verifiability
story of Christy Brown” is the predicate. Both terms are
was used by Ayer since humans had never been into
joined by linking verb “was”.
space.
Note: The copula always has the form of a linking verb ( am, is,
 Strong verifiability would refer to the evidence that is
are, was, were)
easily accessible and weak verifiability would refer to
verifiability in principle, man can also examine objects in  The copula serves to unite the subject and the
space. Today, such a distinction may no longer be predicate in the propositions in its positive form.
necessary with the use of stae-of-the-art space technology.
 For instance, if we state, “Pluto is a dwarf planet”, “Pluto” is
joined with the idea of “a dwarf planet”. On the other hand,
TEACHER’S INSIGHT the copula separates the subject from the predicate in its
negative form, as in the example “The last king of France
The meaningfulness of any proposition, thus, should be
was not bald,” expressing the fact that “ The last king of
based on evidence or empirical observation of reality.
France” was not “bald”
Therefore, propositions are declarative statements
about reality, for they purport to express facts

What are facts?

 Facts are physical.
 Facts refers to the states of affairs of the world, and
propositions gives us a clear picture of them.
 Facts is something that has actual existence, an actual
occurrence and a piece of information presented as
having objective reality. (Merriam Webster Dictionary)
 Facts are tangible.
Consider the following examples
1. In 2008, China was responsible for 19% of CO2
emissions.
2. Earth temperarture will rise by 2.5% in 2050 due
to climate change
3. India produce 135, 000 MW of power from coal
4. South Africa is the 13th largest CO2 emitter in
the world’

TEACHER’S INSIGHT
The above example show that propositions express
facts. They give us the particulars of certain things,
events or people. Thus, facts being the hard data of
human experience are statements about reality of the
world.
Facts, in the sense inform us about what can be said
about the world. Statements like “who am I?” , what are
we in power for? And “Being is the being of beings are
not factual assertions. They state nothing about the
world. What can be said about the world are the states
of affairs of things.
3) Properties of the Categorical of Proposition
A. Quantity of a Proposition
2) Parts of the Categorical Proposition
 The quantity of a proposition depends on the quantity
 Now, let us consider the parts of the proposition. The of a subject term.
proposition consist of subject, predicate and a copula.
 A proposition is singular if the subject term is
 The Subject is about which something is being singular;
affirmed or denied.
 A proposition is particular if the subject term is
 The predicate is what is affirmed or denied by the particular;
subject.
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 A proposition is universal if the subject term is
universal
 Propositions like “Filipino’s love their
motherland” and “Asians hate western food” are
general propositions. They express something
that is held to be true generally. General
Propositions, however are not universal but
particular. This is because exceptions will have
to be admitted.
 Below are examples of of Singular, particular
and Universal propositions

a. Examples of Singular Propositions

1. The Philippines is the land of my birth.
2. “Every Child is Special” by Aamir Khan is a B. Quality Of A Propositions
great film.  In terms of quality, propositions are either positive or
3. My world is a mystery to an alchemist. negative. Propositions like “the rainbow is something
that intrigues the children” and “my love is real” are
4. This day is very important for the two of us. positive while propositions like “Anne Frank was not
an American” and “ Roosevelt was not a friend of
5. The largest planet in the solar system is
Einstein” are negative.
Jupiter.
b. Examples of Particular Propositions TEACHER’S INSIGHT
1. Some children are victims of abuse. The determinant of the qualities of such propositions is
2. An old house was torn apart. the copula. A negative copula signifies that a
propositions is negative. A positive copula qualifies the
3. A few students were listening to the lecture proposition as positive.
of professor Giordano.
4. Many politicians are corrupt.
5. Several persons were arrested after the  The following are propositions are positive:
fiasco at JP’S
1. The Pithecophaga jefferyi is an endangered
c. Examples of Universal Propositions bird.
1. All men are equal. 2. Some philosophers are atheists
2. A whale shark is a mammal. 3. All that is immoral is evil.
3. Iguanas are not felines. 4. Every tree is a finite substance
4. Every man is rational. 5. I am the master of my fate.
5. Whatever is beautiful is pleasing
 The following is example of
1. The cartoon series” South Park” is not for
general patronage.
2. Some sharks are not man-eaters.
3. No galaxy is infinite.
4. Every dead star is not billion years old.
5. Not all powerful men are good.

4) The A-E-I-O MATRIX

 The symbols A, E, I and O designate the quantity and
quality of propositions.
 An A proposition is the symbol for the universal or
singular and affirmative. An E proposition is universal
or singular and negative.
 An I proposition is the one that is particular and
affirmative while 0 propositions is one that is
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 particular and affirmative and negative. Refer to the
illustration below

 The following are examples of A, E, I, and O

PROPOSITIONS:
A- Propositions
1. All substances are real.
2. Every woman is finite.
3. Each child is endowed with the freedom to be.
4. Whatever exists is present in time.
5. Nuclear power is dangerous.
E- Propositions
1. Jimmy Neutrons is not a reptile.
2. An amphibian is not a reptile
3. None of you here are capable of violence.
4. No man is a product of evil.
5. I am not your servant.
I- Propositions
1. A Dodo was found in the valley.
2. Some victims of abuse are children.
3. An old bridge was destroyed by flood.
4. Several politicians are disadvantaged.
5. A few infants were vaccinated.
O-Propositions
1. Some species are not yet discovered.
2. A few anthropologist are not against creationism
3. Some men are not satisfied with their lives.
4. Not all workers are organized.
5. Several military men are not trained in
counterterrorism.
5) Quantity of the Predicate

Note: read it from left to right (L ---> R)  The quantity of the predicate is singular if it stands for
one individual or group and such an individual or
group is designated definitely, as in the proposition
“ the Beatles is the most popular band of century”.
The predicate of the above proposition, “ the most
popular band of the century”clearly indicates one and
only entity and that entity has been designated
definitely to be” The Beatles”.
 Here are other examples
1. Neil Armstrong was the first man on the Moon.
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 2. Angels and Demons is the only novel to use an
ambiram.
3. Konrad Adenauer was the first German
chancellor after the war.
4. Rancho is the brightest person in school.
5. The Bridges of Madison Country is the greatest
love story ever told
 Note: When it is judged that the predicate is not
singular, the following rules apply:
1. The predicate of an affirmative propositions is
particular.
2. The predicate of a negative proposition is
universal.
 In the proposition “A man is running,” the propositions
implies that “some man is running” which means “ a
man” is included in the extension of the
predicate”running” as particular instance of it. If we
state that “All men are mortal” the predicate “mortal”
implies that “some mortal beings are men”. This
means that “men” are included in the extension of
term” moratl”. The predicate in the sense embraces
as part of the subject term, but clearly not all,
because thre are other mortal being.
 Examples of Particular Predicate:
1. The Catcher in the Rye is an inspirational story.
2. The books of jean Baudillard are about
hyperreality.
3. Albert Einstein was a clerk.
4. Newton was an alleged member of the Priory of
Sison
5. Education is the only hope of our poor children.
 In the proposition, “All goats are not birds,” clearly the
predicate “birds” and the subject “goats” are
separated from one another by way of the negative
copula. This means that the predicate is excluded
from the extension of the subject in all instance’s,
thus connoting universality. Therefore, “All goats are
not birds” and “All birds are not goat.” To say that
“Some Filipinos are not brown” means that the
predicate “brown” is excluded from the extension of
some Filipinos, since there are Filipinos who are fair
in all complexion.
 Examples of Particular Predicate:
1. Howard Roark is not an artist.
2. The City of Tangub is not in Metro Manila.
3. Mark Anthony is not a symbolists.
4. No government in Europe is corrupt.
5. The Philippine tarsier is not found in Batanes.