PaperCode: ES157 Paper: Engineering Graphics-I L P C

PaperID: 199157 - 4 2
Marking Scheme:
1. Teachers Continuous Evaluation: 40 marks
2. Term end Theory Examinations: 60 marks
Course Objectives:
1: The students will learn the introduction of Engineering graphics, various equipment used, various
scales, dimensions and BIS codes used while making drawings for various streams of engineering
disciplines.
2: The students will learn theory of projections and projection of points.
3: The students will learn projection of lines and projection of planes.
4: The students will learn the projection of solid and development of surfaces
Course Outcomes (CO):
CO1: To understand the theory of projections and projection of points.
CO2: Ability to do line projections.
CO3: Ability to do plane projections.
CO4: Ability to do solid projections and development of surfaces
Course Outcomes (CO to Programme Outcomes (PO) Mapping (scale 1: low, 2: Medium, 3: High
CO/PO PO01 PO02 PO03 PO04 PO05 PO06 PO07 PO08 PO09 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 3 3 3 2 - - - 1 2 1 2
CO2 3 3 3 3 2 - - - 1 2 1 2
CO3 3 3 3 3 2 - - - 1 2 1 2
CO4 3 3 3 3 2 - - - 1 2 1 2

Unit I
Introduction: Engineering Graphics/Technical Drawing, Introduction to drawing equipments and use of
instruments, Conventions in drawing practice. Types of lines and their uses, BIS codes for lines, technical
lettering as per BIS codes, Introduction to dimensioning, Types, Concepts of scale drawing, Types of scales
Theory of Projections: Theory of projections, Perspective, Orthographic, System of orthographic projection: in
reference to quadrants, Projection of Points, Projection in different quadrants, Projection of point on auxiliary
planes. Distance between two points, Illustration through simple problems.

Unit II
Projection of Lines: Line Parallel to both H.P. and V.P., Parallel to one and inclined to other, Other typical
cases: three view projection of straight lines, true length and angle orientation of straight line: rotation
method, Trapezoidal method and auxiliary plane method, traces of line.

Unit III
Projection of Planes: Projection of Planes Parallel to one and perpendicular to other, Perpendicular to one and
inclined to other, Inclined to both reference planes, Plane oblique to reference planes, traces of planes.
Planes Other than the Reference Planes: Introduction of other planes (perpendicular and oblique), their
traces, inclinations etc., projections of points and lines lying in the planes, conversion of oblique plane into
auxiliary plane and solution of related problems.

Unit IV
Projection of Solids: Projection of solids in first or third quadrant, Axis parallel to one and perpendicular to
other, Axis parallel to one inclined to other, Axis inclined to both the principal plane, Axis perpendicular to
profile plane and parallel to both H.P. and V.P., Visible and invisible details in the projection, Use of rotation
and auxiliary plane method.
Development of Surface: Purpose of development, Parallel line, radial line and triangulation method,
Development of prism, cylinder, cone and pyramid surface for both right angled and oblique solids,
Development of surface.

Note: The sheets to be created shall be notified by the concerned teacher.

Textbooks:
1. Engineering Drawing by N.D. Bhatt, 53rd Ed., Charotar Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Gujarat,2017.

References:
1. Engineering Drawingby P.S. Gill, S.K Kataria & Sons, New Delhi, 2013.
2. Technical Drawing with Engineering Graphics by Frederick E. Giesecke, Shawna Lockhart, Marla Goodman,
and Cindy M. Johnson, 15th Ed., Prentice Hall, USA, 2016
3. Engineering Drawingby M.B. Shah and B.C. Rana, 3rd Ed., Pearson Education, New Delhi, 2009.

9
 SHEET NO. 1

LETTERING, DIMENSIONING & LINES

Introduction
Engineering drawing is a two dimensional representation of three dimensional objects. In
general, it provides necessary information about the shape, size, surface quality, material,
manufacturing process, etc., of the object. It is the graphic language from which a trained
person can visualize objects.

Drawing Instruments and aids:

The Instruments and other aids used in drafting work are listed below:
 Drawing board
 Set squares
 French curves
 Templates
 Mini drafter
 Instrument box
 Protractor
 Set of scales
 Drawing sheets
 Pencils

Drawing Board:
Until recently drawing boards used are made of well-seasoned softwood of about 25 mm
thick with a working edge for T-square. Nowadays mini-drafters are used instead of T-
squares which can be fixed on any board. The standard size of board depends on the size of
drawing sheet size required.

Fig. 1 Mini Drafter

Mini-Drafter:
Mini-drafter consists of an angle formed by two arms with scales marked and rigidly hinged
to each other .It combines the functions of T-square, set-squares, scales and protractor. It is
used for drawing horizontal, vertical and inclined lines, parallel and perpendicular lines and
for measuring lines and angles.

10
Instrument Box
Instrument box contains 1. Compasses, 2. Dividers
What is important is the position of the pencil lead with respect to the tip of the compass. It
should be at least 1 mm above as shown in the fig. because the tip goes into the board for
grip by 1 mm.

Fig. 2 Compass and Divider

Pencils:
Pencils with leads of different degrees of hardness or grades are available in the market.
The hardness or softness of the lead is indicated by 3H, 2H, H, HB, B, 2B, 3B, etc. The
grade HB denotes medium hardness of lead used for general purpose. The hardness
increases as the value of the numeral before the letter H increases. The lead becomes
softer, as the value of the numeral before B increases.
 HB Soft grade for Border lines, lettering and free sketching
 H Medium grade for Visible outlines, visible edges and boundary lines
 2H Hard grade for construction lines, Dimension lines, Leader lines, Extension lines,
Centre lines, Hatching lines and Hidden lines.

Fig. 3 Pencil Leads

Drawing Sheet:
The standard drawing sheet sizes are arrived at on the basic Principal of x: y = 1: 2 and
xy = 1 where x and y are the sides of the sheet. For example AO, having a surface area of 1
Sq.m; x = 841mm and y = 1189 mm. The successive sizes are obtained by either by halving
along the length or doubling the width, the area being in the ratio 1: 2. Designation of sizes is
given in the fig. For class work use of A2 size drawing sheet is preferred.

11
Table 1 Designation of Drawing Sheet

Fig. 4 Drawing Sheet Format

Title Block:
The title block should lie within the drawing space at the bottom right hand comer of the
sheet. The title block can have a maximum length of 150 mm and width of 50 mm.

Fig. 5 Title Block

Lines:
Just as in English textbook the correct words are used for making correct sentences; in
Engineering Graphics, the details of various objects are drawn by different types of lines.
Each line has a definite meaning and sense to convey.

Fig. 6 Main Line Types

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 Fig. 7 Examples of Main Lines

Elements of Engineering Drawing

Engineering drawing are made up of graphics language and word language.
Graphics language: Describe a shape (mainly).
Word language: Describe an exact size, location and specification of the object.

Fig. 8 Elements of Engineering Drawing

Lettering in Engineering Drawing

Lettering is used to provide easy to read and understand information to supplement a
drawing in the form of notes and annotations. Lettering is an essential element in both
traditional drawing and Computer Aided Design (CAD) drawing. Thus, it must be written with:
Legibility – shape & space between letters and words.
Uniformity – size & line thickness.

Types of Lettering
The two types of lettering are:
1. Double Stroke Lettering: In Double Stroke Lettering the line width is greater than that of

13
Single Stroke Lettering.
Double Stroke Lettering is further divided into:
a) Double Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering.
b) Double Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering.
A stencil is mostly used when hand drawing double stroked letters.
2. Single Stroke Lettering: Thickness in single stroke lettering is obtained by a single stroke
of pencil or ink pen. It is further divided into:
(a) Single Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering.
(b) Single Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering.

Conventions for Lettering

 Use all CAPITAL LETTERS.
 Use even pressure to draw precise, clean lines.
 Use one stroke per line.
 Horizontal Strokes are drawn left to right.
 Vertical Strokes are drawn downward.
 Curved strokes are drawn top to bottom in one continuous stroke on each side.
 Use the Single-stroke, Gothic Style of Lettering.
 Always Skip A Space Between Rows Of Letters.
 Always Use Very Light Guide Lines.
 Fractions Are Lettered Twice the Height of Normal Letters.
 Fraction Bars Are Always Drawn Horizontal.
 Use a Medium Lead For Normal Lettering.
 Use a Hard Lead For Drawing Guide Lines.

Dimensioning:
Drawing of a component, in addition to providing complete shape description, must also
furnish Information regarding the size description. These are provided through the distances
between the Surfaces, location of holes, nature of surface finish, type of material, etc. The
expression of these Features on a drawing, using lines, symbols, figures and notes is called
dimensioning.

Methods of Indicating Dimensions:

The dimensions are indicated on the drawings according to one of the following two
methods.
Method - 1 (Aligned method):
Dimensions should be placed parallel to and above their dimension lines and preferably at
the middle, and clear of the line. Dimensions may be written so that they can be read from
the bottom or from the right side of the drawing.

Method - 2 (Uni-directional):
Dimensions should be indicated so that they can be read from the bottom of the drawing
only. Non horizontal dimension lines are interrupted, preferably in the middle for insertion of
the dimension. Note: Horizontal dimensional lines are not broken to place the dimension in
both cases.

14
 Questions

Question 1 Write the letters A to Z and numerals 0 to 9 in single stroke vertical letter
of 14 mm height as per SP- 46: 1988-

Answer 1

15
Question 2 Draw the different types of lines and writes its applications in Tabular
form.

16
 Question 3 Draw the diagrams for Aligned and Unidirectional dimensioning system.

Answer 3

Aligned Dimensioning Unidirectional Dimensioning

VIVA QUESTIONS:
Q1. Name different types of Lines used in engineering drawing?
Q2. What are different methods of dimensioning?
Q3. Name different grades of pencil?
Q4. What are different sizes of engineering drawing sheet?
Q5. What is height to width ration of single stroke lettering?
Q6. Give dimension of Title box

17
 SHEET NO. 2

TYPES OF SCALES

Introduction
Dimensions of large objects must be reduced to accommodate on standard size drawing
sheet. This reduction creates a scale of that reduction ratio, which is generally a fraction &
such a scale is called Reducing Scale and the ratio is called Representative Factor.

Representative Fraction:
The ratio of the dimension of the object shown on the drawing to its actual size is called the
Representative Fraction (RF).

For computing R.F, the numerator and denominator should be in same units
Metric Measurements:
10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm)
10 centimetres (cm) = 1 decimetre (dm)
10 decimetre (dm) = 1 metre (m)
10 metres (m) = 1 decametre (dam)
10 decametre (dam) = 1 hectometre (hm)
10 hectometres (bm) = 1 kilometre (km)
1 hectare = 10,000 m2

Types of Scales
The types of scales normally used are:
1. Plain scales.
2. Diagonal Scales.
3. Vernier Scales.
4. Scale of Chords

Plain Scales
A plain scale is simply a line which is divided into a suitable number of equal parts, the first
of which is further sub-divided into small parts. It is used to represent either two units or a
unit and its fraction such as km and hm, m and dm, cm and mm etc.

Diagonal Scales
Plain scales are used to read lengths in two units such as metres and decimetres,
centimetres and millimetres etc., or to read to the accuracy correct to first decimal. Diagonal
scales are used to represent either three units of measurements such as metres,
decimetres, centimetres or to read to the accuracy correct to two decimals.

Vernier Scales
The vernier scale is a short auxiliary scale constructed along the plain or main scale, which
can read upto two decimal places. The smallest division on the main scale and vernier scale
are 1 msd or 1 vsd repectively. Generally (n+1) or (n-1) divisions on the main scale is
divided into n equal parts on the Vernier scale.

18
 (n  1)  1
Thus, 1 vsd  msd or 1  msd
 
n  n 
When 1 vsd < 1 it is called forward or direct vernier. The vernier divisions are numbered in
the same direction as those on the main scale.
When 1 vsd> 1 or (1 + l/n), It is called backward or retrograde vernier. The vernier divisions
are numbered in the opposite direction compared to those on the main scale.
The least count (LC) is the smallest dimension correct to which a measurement can be
made with a vernier.
For forward vernier, L C = (1 msd - 1 vsd)
For backward viermier, LC = (1 vsd - 1 msd)

Scale of Chords
A scale of chords may be used to set or read an angle in the absence of a protractor. To
draw an angle, compasses describe an arc from origin with a radius taken from the 60 mark.
The required angle is copied from the scale by the compasses, and an arc of this radius
drawn from the sixty mark so it intersects the first arc.

Questions
Question 1 Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance
of 6 m. Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm..
Answer 1

19
Q:2 The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km. In a railway map it is represented
by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F. Draw a diagonal scale to show single km and
maximum 600 km.
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km

Question 3 A map of size 500cm X 50cm wide represents an area of 6250 sq.Kms.
Construct a vernier scaleto measure kilometers, hectometers and decameters and long
enough to measure upto 7 km. Indicate on it a) 5.33 km b) 59 decameters
Answer 3

Backward Reading Vernier Scale

20
Question 4: Construct a forward reading vernier scale to read distance correct to
decameter on a map in which the actual distances are reduced in the ratio of 1 : 40,000.
The scale should be long enough to measure upto 6 km. Mark on the scale a length of
3.34 km and 0.59 km.
Answer 4

Question 5 Construct 25o and 1150 angles with a horizontal line, by using scale of
chords.

Answer 5

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VIVA QUESTIONS:
Q1. What is representative factor?
Q2. Mention different type of scale used
Q3. Mention types of Vernier scale?
Q4. How scale of chord is different from other scale?
Q5. Highlight difference between plane scale and diagonal scale?
Q6. Why vernier scale is preferred over diagonal scale

22
 SHEET No. 3
PROJECTION OF POINTS
Introduction

What is point?
An element or entity which has no dimensions known as point. It can be situated in the
following positions with respect to principal planes of the projections.

 Point situated above H.P and in front of V.P.  Point situated on H.P and in front of V.P.
 Point situated above H.P and behind V.P  Point situated above H.P and on V.P.
 Point situated below H.P and behind V.P.  Point situated on H.P and behind V.P.
 Point situated below H.P and in front of  Point situated below H.P and on V.P.
V.P.  Point situated on both H.P and V.P.

Conventional Representation:

 Actual Position of a point designated by capitals i.e. A, B, C, D ..etc

 Front view of a point is designated by small letters with dashes i.e. a’, b’, c’, d’ ..etc
 Top view of a point is designated by only small letters i.e. a, b, c, d ..etc
 Side view of a point is designated by small letters with double dashes i.e. a”, b”, c”, d”
..etc

Behind V.P In front of V.P

V.P
1st Quadrant
2nd Quadrant B
A
Above H.P

Above H.P H.P

H.P

V.P Below H.P

Below H.P
C D
rd
3 Quadrant
4th Quadrant
In front of V.P
Behind V.P

23
Q 1. Draw the projections of the following points on a common principle axis.

(A) In the H.P and 20 mm behind the V.P

(B) 40 mm above the H.P and 25 mm in front of the V.P
(C) In the V.P and 40 mm above the H.P
(D) 25 mm below the H.P and 25 mm behind the V.P
(E) 15 mm above the H.P and 50 mm behind the V.P
(F) 40 mm below the H.P and 25 mm in front of the V.P
(G) In both the H.P and the V.P

Fig.1

24
Q 2 A point A is 35mm above H.P and 25mm in front of V.P. Another Point B is
20mm above H.P and 15mm in front of V.P. The distance between their projector
is 40mm. Draw the projection of point A and B and find the distance between
them.

Steps:
(1) First draw the projections and point A and B on same principle axis by
maintain 40mm projector distance.

(2) Join a’b’ and ab which are elevation and plan view of line joining A and B. At a and b
draw perpendicular aA and bB, equals to 35mm and 20mm repectively. Join AB and
measure the length AB.

(3) Distance between AB may also be found by drawing perpendicular a’A and b’B from
point a’ and b’ as shown in figure.

NOTE: Length AB must come same from step (2) and (3)

Fig.2

25
Q 3 A point E is 35mm below H.P and 25mm behind V.P. Another Point F is 30mm
above H.P and 40mm in front of V.P. The distance between their projector is
40mm. Draw the projection of point E and F and find the distance between them.

Steps:
(1) First draw the projections and point E and F on same principle axis by maintain
40mm projector distance. Point E is in 3rd quadrant and F is in first quadrant.

(2) Join e’f’ and ef which are elevation and plan view of line joining E and F. At e
and f draw perpendicular eE and fF, equals to 35mm and 30mm respectively.
Join EF and measure the length EF.

(3) Distance between EF may also be found by drawing perpendicular e’ E and f’F
from point e’ and f’ as shown in figure.

NOTE: Length AB must come same from step (2) and (3)

Fig.3
VIVA QUESTIONS:
Q1. Define a point?
Q2. Discuss different position of point w.r.t V.P and H.P
Q3. Why projections are never followed in 2nd and 3rd angle?
Q4. What are different types of projection?
Q5. What s orthographic projection?

26
 SHEET No. 4
PROJECTION OF STRAIGHT LINES
Introduction
A straight line is the locus of path traced by point on a straight path. Length of line in projection
can be equal or less than the actual length of line. In actual there are three types of length.

1. ACTUAL LENGTH - Length of line

given in problem which is actual
distance in between its end point.

2. TRUE LENGTH - Length we get in

projection which is equals to actual
length.

3. REDUCED LENGTH - Length we get

in projection which is less than actual
length.

Orientation of Straight Lines

Line parallel to both H.P and V.P- fig.1

Line perpendicular to H.P and parallel to V.P- fig.2
Line perpendicular to V.P and parallel to H.P- fig.3
Line inclined to H.P and parallel to V.P -fig.4
Line inclined to V.P and parallel to H.P- fig.5
Line inclined to H.P and parallel to V.P- fig.6

fig.1 fig.2

27
 fig.3 fig.4

fig.5 fig.6

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

(1) A line AB, 90mm long, is inclined at 45 to the H.P. and its top view makes an angle of 60
with the V.P. The end A is in the H.P. and 12mm in front of V.P. Draw its front view and
finds its true inclination with the V.P.

(2) A line AB, 90mm long, is inclined at 30 to the HP. Its end A is 12mm above the HP and
20mm in front of the VP. Its FV measures 65mm. Draw the TV of AB and determine its
inclination with the VP.

(3) A line AB, inclined at 40º to the V.P. has its end 50mm and 20mm above the H.P. the
length of its front view is 65mm and its V.T. is 10mm above the H.P. determine .the true
length of AB its inclination with the H.P. and its H.T.

(4) A line PF, 65mm has its end P, 15mm above the HP and 15mm in front of the VP. It is
inclined at 55deg to the VP. Draw its projections.

28
 Solved Problem
Q1. A line AB, 70mm long, has its end A 15mm above HP and 20mm in front of
VP. It is inclined at 30° to HP and 45°to VP. Draw its projections and mark its
traces.

Q2. The top view of a 75mm long line AB measures 65mm, while its front view
measures 50mm.Its one end A is in HP and12mm in front of VP. Draw the
projections of AB and determine its inclination with HP and VP.

29
 Q3. The projectors of the ends of a line AB are 5cm apart. The end A is 2cm above
the H.P and 3cm in front of V.P. The end B is1cm below H.P. and 4cm behind the
V.P. Determine the true length and traces of AB, and its inclination with the two
planes.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
Q1. What is difference between Actual length and True length?
Q2. Discuss different position of line w.r.t V.P and H.P?
Q3. How inclination of line with H.P & V.P is represented?
Q4. How inclination of F.V/T.V of line with H.P & V.P is represented?
Q5. What do you mean by trace of line. Discuss types of traces?
Q6. Explain process of finding H.T and V.T

30
 SHEET NO 5
TITLE: - PROJECTION OF PLANE
THEORY:
A plane surface or figure has only two dimensions i.e. length and breadth and negligible
thickness.
A plane surface enclosed by straight lines or a curved line is called a plane figure. The least
number of straight lines which can enclose a space is three and the plane surface enclosed is
a triangle. With four straight lines, the figure obtained is a quadrilateral. The most common
plane figures include square, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, circle, ellipse, etc.

The orientation/position of plane figures with respect to the reference Planes can be
classified as follows:
(i) Plane Parallel to one of the reference plane and perpendicular to the other plane.
(ii) Plane Inclined to one of the reference plane and perpendicular to the other plane.
(iii) Plane Perpendicular to both the reference planes.
(iv) Plane Inclined to both the reference planes.

Projections of Plane Figure:

o If a plane figure is perpendicular to the HP and parallel to the VP, its plan will be a
straight line parallel to xy. The elevation will have the exact size and shape of the plane
figure.
o If a plane figure is perpendicular to the VP and parallel to the HP, its elevation will be a
straight line parallel to xy. The plan will have the exact size and shape of the plane
figure.
o If the plane figure is perpendicular to both the reference planes, its projections on both
the reference planes will be straight lines and perpendicular to xy. The projection on the
profile plane will have the exact size and shape of the plane figure.
o The plane figure on extension will intersect the two reference planes (HP and VP) at two
different lines. These lines of intersections are called traces of the plane figure.
o The line of intersection of plane figure with horizontal plane is called horizontal trace
(HT).
o The line of intersection of plane figure with vertical plane is called vertical trace (VT).
o If the plane figure is parallel to one of the reference plane, it has no trace on that
reference plane.

SOLVED QUESTIONS:
Q1. A hexagonal plane of side 25 mm has its plane perpendicular to H.P. and 20 mm from
V.P. It is inclined 30° to V.P. Its one side is parallel to and 10 mm above H.P. Draw its
projections.
Solution: A hexagonal plane is first assumed to be parallel to V.P. and perpendicular to H.P.
(1) Draw a hexagon a´b´c´d´e´f´ of 25 mm side in front view having one side parallel to and
10 mm above reference line xy. Project its top view at any line parallel and 20 mm below
the reference line.
(2) Reproduce the top view so that it is inclined at 30° to reference line xy. Obtain new
points a1´ b1´ c1´ d1´ e1´ and f1´ in the front view by joining the point of intersection of the

31
projectors from the top view of step 2 and horizontal locus lines from the front view of
step1. Join points a1´ b1´ c1´ d1´ e1´ and f1´ to represent the final front view.

Q2. A hexagonal plane of side 30 mm has an edge on the H.P. The surface is inclined at 45°
to the H.P. and perpendicular to V.P. Draw its projections.
Solution: The plane has an edge on the H.P., so consider that initially the hexagonal plane is
placed on the H.P. with side AB perpendicular to the V.P.
(1) Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping ab perpendicular to xy to represent the Top view.
Project the corners to xy and obtain a´e´ as the front view.
(2) Reproduce the front view of step 1, keeping a´ on xy and a´ e´ inclined at 45° to xy.
Obtain new points a1 , b1 , c1 , d1 , e1 and f1 in the top view by joining the points of
intersection of the projections drawn from the front view of step 1 and top view of step 2.
Join a1 , b1 , c1 , d1 , e1 and f1 to represent the final top view.

32
Q3. A thin circular plate of diameter 60 mm appears in the front view as an ellipse of
major and minor axis 60 mm and 40 mm respectively. Draw its projections when the
major axis of the ellipse is horizontal.
Solution:
(1) The circular plate is first assumed to be parallel to V.P. and perpendicular to H.P. In this
position true shape and size of the plate is given by its projection on V.P. The top view will
be a true line parallel to the reference line xy. Draw a circle a’ b’ c’ d’ e’ f’ g’ h’ i’ j’ k’ l’ to
represent the front view. Divide it into 12 equal parts. Project all the points to reference line
xy and obtain ag as the top view.
(2) Draw locus line from points a’ and g’ of the step 1. Mark on it points a’ and g’ such that
they are 40 mm apart and equal to the length of the minor axis. Project a’ to meet xy at
point a. Draw an arc with Centre a and radius equal to length ag of the step 1 to meet the
projector of point g’1 at g. Join ag and marg other point online ag. Obtain points a’1 b’1 c’1 d’1
e’1 f’1 g’1 h’1 i’1 j’1 k’1 and l’1 of the front view by joining the points of intersection of the
projectors from points a b c d e f g h i j k and l of the step 2 with locus lines from points a’ b’
c’ d’ e’ f’ g’ h’ i’ j’ k’ and l’ of step 1. Join points a’1 b’1 c’1 d’1 e’1 f’1 g’1 h’1 i’1 j’1 k’1 and l’1.
(3) Reproduce the front view of the step 2 keeping j1 d1 parallel to reference line xy. Other
points a’ b’ c’ d’ e’ f’ g’ h’ i’ j’ k’ l’ for the top view by joining the points of intersection of the
projectors from point a’1 b’1 c’1 d’1 e’1 f’1 g’1 h’1 i’1 j’1 k’1 and l’1of the step 3 with the locus
lines from points a b c d e f g h i j k and l of the step 2. Join a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 h1 i1 j1 k1 and l1
to represent the final top view.

33
PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
Q1. A square ABCD of 50 mm side has its corner A in the H.P., its diagonal AC inclined at 30°
to the H.P. and the diagonal BD inclined at 45° to the VP and parallel to the H.P. Draw its
projection.
Q2. Draw the projection of a regular hexagon of 25mm side, having one in the H.P. and
inclined at 60° to the V.P. and its surface making an angle of 45° with the H.P.
Q3. A thin rectangular plate of sides 60mm x 30mm has its shorter side in the V.P. and
inclined at 30° to the H.P. Projects its top view if its front view is a square of 30 mm long
sides.
Q4. A rectangular plane of edges 35 mm and 70 mm is resting on an edge in the H.P. The
surface is inclined to the H.P. such that the top view appears as a square. Draw its
projections when the edge resting on the HP is inclined at 30° to the V.P.
Q5. The top view of a plane whose surface is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined at 45° to
the H.P. is a circle of diameter 60mm. Draw the projections of the plane and determine its
true shape.
Q6. A thin circular plate of diameter 50mm appears in the front view as an ellipse of major
and minor axis 50 mm and 30 mm respectively. Draw its projections when the major axis of
the ellipse is horizontal.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
Q1. What is a plane?
Q2. Give different classification of planes.
Q3. What are the different positions of planes?
Q4. What is the difference between a plane and a lamina?
Q5. If a plane is parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP, what will be its elevation?
Q6. If a plane is parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP, what will be its plan?
Q7. If a plane is parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP, what will be its trace?

34
 SHEET NO 6
TITLE: - PROJECTION OF SOLIDS
THEORY:
A solid may be defined as an object having dimensions like length, breadth and thickness.
Classification of Solids:
Solids generally used in the study of Engineering Drawing may be classified as:
1. Polyhedron 2. Solids of revolution.

Polyhedron: A polyhedron is defined as a solid bounded by planes called faces. Regular

polyhedra, prisms and pyramids are some of the solids coming under this group.

Regular Polyhedra: A regular polyhedron is defined as a solid bounded by regular planes

called faces whose edges are equal in length.

Prism: A prism is a polyhedron having two equal and similar end faces parallel to each other
and joined by side faces which are either rectangles or parallelograms. Prisms are named
according to the shape of the end faces such as triangular, square, pentagonal, and
hexagonal.

Pyramid: A pyramid is a polyhedron having a polygon as base and a number of equal

isosceles triangular faces equal to the number of sides of the polygon, meeting at a point
called apex or vertex. Pyramids are named according to the shape of its base such as
triangular, square, pentagonal, hexagonal, etc.

35
Solids of Revolution: A solid of revolution is defined as a solid generated by the revolution
of a plane figure about a line called axis. Cylinder, cone and sphere are some of the solids
coming under this group.

Cylinder: A solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its sides which
remains stationary is called a right circular cylinder.

Cone: A solid generated by the revolution of a right angled triangle about one of its sides
which remains stationary and containing the right angle is called right circular cone.

Sphere: A solid generated by the revolution of a semi-circle about its diameter which
remains stationary is called a sphere.

Solids may also be classified as:

1. Right solids 2. Oblique solids.
If the axis of a solid is perpendicular to its base or end faces, that solid is called a right solid.
If the axis of a solid is inclined to its base or end faces, that solid is called an oblique solid.

36
SOLVED QUESTIONS:
Q1. A Hexagonal prism of base edge 30mm and axis 70mm has an edge of its base in the
V.P. such that the axis is inclined at 30° to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw its
projections.

37
Q2. A cone of base diameter 50 mm and axis 60 mm has a generator in the V.P. and the
axis is parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.

38
Q3. A cylinder base diameter 50 mm and axis 70 mm parallel to the VP and inclined at 45°
to the H.P. Draw its projections.

39
Q4. A hexagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and axis 60 mm has an edge of its base on
the H.P. Its axis is inclined at 30° to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
Q1. A triangular pyramid base 40 mm side, 70 mm long, resting on one edge of base in H.P.
having the axis perpendicular to V.P. Draw its projections when the base is near to the V.P.
and 15mm from it.
Q2. A pentagonal prism of base edge 40mm and axis 70 mm rests on an edge of its base in
the H.P. its axis is parallel to V.P. and inclined at 60° to the H.P. Daw its projections.
Q3. A hexagonal pyramid of base side 40 mm and axis 70 mm has an edge of its base on the
H.P. its axis is inclined at 45° degree to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.
Q4. A square prism of base edge 40 mm and axis 70 mm is resting on an edge of its base on
the H.P. and axis inclined at 30° to the H.P. If the edge resting on the H.P. is inclined at 45°
to the V.P., draw its projections.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
Q1. What is a solid?
Q2. Give different classification of solids.
Q3. What are the types of prisms?
Q4. Explain the following: prism, pyramid, pentagonal pyramid, cone, cube and tetrahedron.
Q5. What is the difference between right solid and oblique solid?
Q6. What is the shape of elevation and plane of a sphere?
Q7. What is frustum of cone and pyramid?

40
 SHEET NO 7
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Projection: Projection is defined as an Image or drawing of the object made on a plane. The
lines form the object to the plane is called projectors.

Methods of Projections: In engineering drawing the following two methods of projection

are commonly used

1) Pictorial projection
a. Isometric projection
b. Oblique projection
c. Perspective Projection

2) Orthographic Projection

Pictorial Projections: The Projections in which the description of the object is completely
understood in one view is known as pictorial projection. They have the advantage of
conveying an immediate impression of the general shape and details of the object, but not its
true dimensions or sizes.

Orthographic Projection: 'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means right angled
drawing. When the projectors are perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is
obtained, it is known as orthographic projection. Generally, three views of an object are
prepared. These are Top View, Front View, and Side View.

Planes of Reference: Two principal planes are used in orthographic projection, one
horizontal and the other vertical, intersecting and dividing space into four quadrants. These
planes are denoted as the horizontal plane (HP) and the vertical plane (VP). The line of
intersection of the planes of projection is called as the reference line xy. The object is
supposed to be situated in one of the quadrants. It is represented by its orthographic
projection on the HP and VP, the views giving, respectively, its plan (front view) and
elevation (top view). To show these views on a plane surface, the HP is rotated about xy line
until it coincides with the VP. The convention is that the first quadrant is always opened out.

41
For projection in the second, third and fourth quadrants, the planes are assumed to be
transparent and the projections are drawn looking from the first quadrant. For practical
purposes, the first and third quadrants only are used for the projection; in the second and
fourth quadrants, the views overlap and cause confusion. An auxiliary vertical plane (profile
plane) perpendicular to both the horizontal plane and vertical plane is also used to get a third
view (side view) of the object.

Question: A pictorial view of a machine bracket is shown in the figure. Draw using the first
angle projection method front view, top view and left end side view.

Solution:
1. Draw a Reference line xy, which represents the intersecting line of the planes V.P. and
H.P.
2. Draw rectangular block of size 100 x 70 and the thickness is 15 mm each on the two
parallel portions of the slot.
3. Now on the top of this rectangular block draw a rectangle of size 60 mm x 20 mm.
This rectangle represents a boss of Φ60 on the rectangular block.
4. Draw a hole of Φ50 in the above boss. Note carefully that the lines are dashed lines as
they are invisible from the front side. The Φ30 hole is in the rectangular block.
5. Draw the two holes on the parallel edges of the rectangular block. These holes are
represented by dotted lines in the front view as they are hidden. This completes the
front view construction.
6. To draw the top view, project all the details from front view.

42
 7. Draw a vertical centre line form the centre of the rectangular block.
8. The top view of the rectangular block appears as a rectangle of size 100 x 80.
9. Draw the holes in the centre of the rectangle. These holes are drawn taking the
common centre point on vertical centre line.
10. The two holes of Φ40 on the lobes are not visible, so they are projected as dashed
lines. This completes the top view.
11. To draw the side view, draw projectors from all the points in front view and top view
to side view. Join the intersection points. This completes the side view.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
Q1. What is orthographic Projection?
Q2. What are different types of projection?
Q3. Why projections are preferred in 2nd and 3rd angle only?
Q4. Explain process of making orthographic projection.

43
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

44
 Sheet 8
Development of Surface

Introduction
A layout of the complete surface of a three dimensional object on a plane is called the
development of the surface or flat pattern of the object. The development of surfaces is very
important in the fabrication of articles made of sheet metal.
The objects such as containers, boxes, boilers, hoppers, vessels, funnels, trays etc., are made of
sheet metal by using the principle of development of surfaces.
In making the development of a surface, an opening of the surface should be determined first.
Every line used in making the development must represent the true length of the line (edge) on
the object.
The steps to be followed for making objects, using sheet metal are given below:
1. Draw the orthographic views of the object to full size.
2. Draw the development on a sheet of paper.
3. Transfer the development to the sheet metal.
4. Cut the development from the sheet.
5. Form the shape of the object by bending.
6. Join the closing edges.
Note: In actual practice, allowances have to be given for extra material required for joints and
bends. These allowances are not considered in the topics presented in this chapter.
Methods of Development
The method to be followed for making the development of a solid depends upon the nature of its
lateral surfaces. Based on the classification of solids, the following are the methods of
development.
1. Parallel-line Development
It is used for developing prisms and single curved surfaces like cylinders in which all the edges /
generators of lateral surfaces are parallel to each other.
2. Radial-line Development
It is employed for pyramids and single curved surfaces like cones in which the apex is taken as
centre and the slant edge or generator (which are the true lengths)as radius for its development.

45
Development of Prism

1. Assume the prism is resting on its base on H.P. with an edge of the base parallel to V.P and
draw the orthographic views of the square prism.
2. Draw the stretch-out line 1-1 (equal in length to the circumference of the square prism) and
mark off the sides of the base along this line in succession ie 1 -2,2-3,3-4 and 4-1.
3. Erect perpendiculars through 1,2,3 etc., and mark the edges (folding lines) I-A, 2-B, etc.,
equal to the height of the prism 50 mm.
4. Add the bottom and top bases 1234 and ABeD by the side of an)' of the base edges.

Development of a Cylinder
Construction
Figure shows the development of a cylinder. In this the length of the rectangle representing the
development of the lateral surface of the cylinder is equal to the circumference ( 1t d here d is the
diameter of the cylinder) of the circular base.

46
Development of a square pyramid with side of base 30 mm and h height
eight 60 mm.
Construction
1. Draw the views of the pyramid assuming that it is resting on H.P and with an edge of the base
parallel to V.P.
2. Determine the true length o-a of the slant edge.
3. with centre 0 and radius o’a’ draw an arc.
4. Starting from A along the arc, mark the edges of the base ie. AB, BC, CD and DA.
I
5. Join 0 to A,B,C, etc., representing the lines of folding and thus completing the development.

47
Development of the Pentagonal Pyramid

1. Draw the orthographic views of the pyramid ABCDE with its base on H.P and axis parallel to
V.P.
2. With centre 0 of the pyramid and radius equal to the true length of the slant edge draw an arc.
3. Mark off the edges starting from A along the arc and join them to 0 representing th e lines of
folding.
4. Add the base at a suitable location.

Development of a Cone
Construction
The development of the lateral surface of a cone is a sector of a circle. The radius and length of
the arc are equal to the slant height and circumference of tthe
he base of the cone respectively. The
included angle of the sector is given by (r / s) x 360°, where r is the radius of the base of the cone
and s is the true length.

48
Q.1 Draw the development of a square pyramid of base 40 mm square and height 60 mm.

The plan and elevation of the square pyramid are drawn as shown in Fig. 1(i). The true length of
slant edge is found out by the construction shown in the figure. The true length TL of the slant
edge is given by the line o’s’. With centre O and radius o’s’, draw an arc ABCDA. Mark the
points B, C and D such that AB = BC = CD = DA = 40 mm, side of base. Join the chords AB,
BC, CD and DA. A square ABCD is drawn on the side BC. The square represents the base of the
pyramid. The complete development of the pyrami
pyramid
d is shown in Fig. 1(ii) following the radial
line method.

Fig. 1

49
Q.2 Draw the development of the lower portion of a cylinder, diameter of base 50 mm and
axis 70 m, when it is cut by a plane perpendicular to the VP, inclined at 40 to the HP and
passing through the mid-point of the axis.

The plan and elevation of the cyl

cylinder
inder are drawn as shown in Fig. 2(i). The plan is divided into
eight equal parts. Through each of these division points, generators are drawn on the lateral
surface of the cylinder in the elevation. The stretch out line A -A equal to the circumference of
the cylinder is drawn, and this line is divided into eight equal parts with the division points as
shown in Fig. 2(ii). From the division points, draw parallel lines equal to the length of the axis of
the cylinder. These parallel lines are generators of the cylinder in the development. The section
plane cuts the cylinder bisecting the axis as shown in the elevation. The intersection points 1’, 2’,
3’, 4’, 5’, 6’, 7’ and 8’ are marked in the elevation. Horizontal lines are drawn through these
points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. The horizontal lines intersect and locate points 1, 2, 3, etc. on the
corresponding generators in the development. A smooth curve is drawn passing through the
points 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-1. A circle representing the base of the cylinder is also drawn passing
through the point E with the stretch out line as tangent to complete the development of the cut
cylinder.

Fig. 2

50
Q.3 A square pyramid, side of base 40 mm and height 60 mm, stands on the HP with a base
edge parallel to the VP. It is cut by a plane inclined at 450 to the HP, perpendicular to the
VP and bisecting the axis. Draw the development of
truncated pyramid.
The plan and elevation of the square pyramid are drawn as shown in Fig. 3(i). The true length of
slant edge is found out by the construction shown in the figure. The true length TL of the slant
edge is given by the line o’s’. With centre O and radius o’s’, draw an arc ABCDA as shown in
Fig. 3 (ii). Mark the points B, C and D such that AB = BC = CD = DA = 40 mm, side of base.
Join the chords AB, BC, CD and DA. The section plane cuts the pyramid bisecting the axis as
shown in the elevation. The intersection points 1’, 2’, 3’ and 4’ are marked on the slant edges. A
horizontal line is drawn through point 1 ’ to intersect the edge o’s’ at 1 giving the distance of
point 1 from O on the edge OA. The point 1 is marked on the edge OA in the development. The
same procedure is repeated for the remaining points 2’, 3’ and 4’, and points 2, 3 and 4 are
located on the respective edges in the devel opment. These points 1-2- 3-4-1 are joined by straight
lines. These points are also joined to the base points A, B, C and D in the development. A square
ABCD is drawn on the side CD. The square represents the base of the pyramid. The development
of the cut pyramid is drawn by thick lines as shown in Fig. 3 (ii).

Fig. 3
VIVA QUESTIONS:
Q1. What is application of Development of surface?
Q2. What are different method of developing surface?

51
Q.4 A street lamp shade is formed by cutting a cone of diameter of base 100 mm and axis
200 mm by a HP at 100 mm from the vertex and a plane inclined at 350 to the HP and
passing through one extremity of the base. Draw the development of the lamp shade.

The plan and elevation of the cone are drawn as shown in Fig. 4(i) adopting a scale of 1:2. The
slant length TL of the right extreme generator, o’s’, is found to be 206 mm. The ang le subtended
by the circumference of base circle is calculated from the formula ϴ = (3600×r)/(TL), i.e. ϴ =
(3600) × (50)/(206) = 870, where r is the radius of base circle and TL is the slant length of the
cone. The development of the full cone is a sector of a circle having radius equal to the slant
length of the cone and the angle subtended by the circumference of its base circle as shown in
Fig. 4(ii). The cone is cut by a horizontal plane passing through a point 100 mm below the vertex
in the elevation. With centre O and radius o0r0, draw an arc to cut the eight generators as shown
in the development. The cone is cut by a plane inclined at 35 0 to the HP and passing through the
left extremity of the cone in the elevation. The section plane cuts eight gen
generators
erators at 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’,
5’, 6’, 7’ and 8’. Horizontal lines are drawn through these points to meet the right extreme
generator o0s0. The meeting points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 furnish the distances of these points
from O in the development. These poin points
ts are marked in the respective generators in the
development. Join the points 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-1 by a smooth curve to complete the development
of the lamp shade.

F
i
g
.

Fig. 4

52
 Innovative Project-1

Knuckle Joint

53
Knuckle Joint

54
 Assembly Drawings 323

38
104 86

12
30

25
18

24
3

24

25

80
28

10
18
R24
R32
24
R24

12
4

28
28

38
24 2

1
5

5

44

Parts list
Sl. No. Name Matl. Qty.
1 Fork end Forged steel 1
2 Eye end Forged steel 1
3 Pin Mild steel 1
4 Collar Mild steel 1 55
5 Taper pin Mild steel 1

Fig. 18.40 Knuckle joint

18.5.3 Protected Flanged Coupling

Couplings are used to join two shafts so that they act as a single unit during rotation and power
can be transmitted from one shaft to the other. The protected flanged coupling is a rigid shaft
coupling, the axes of the shafts being collinear. Figure 18.41 shows the various parts of a protected
flanged coupling. The flanges 2 and 3 are mounted at the ends of two shafts 1 by means of keys 5.
Later, the two flanges are connected to each other by means of bolts with nuts 4. In this rigid
coupling, the bolt heads and nuts are located in the annular recesses provided on the flanges and
so are not exposed. Hence, the name protected flanged coupling. Figure 7.5 shows the assembly
drawing.
Exercise
Assemble the parts of a protected flanged coupling shown in Fig. 18.41 and draw the following
views:
(i) Half sectional view from the front, with top half in section, and
(ii) View from the right.
18.5.4 Bushed-pin Type Flanged Coupling
This coupling is also used to join two circular shafts. However, this is not a rigid coupling, but a
flexible one. Flexible couplings are preferred to rigid ones, as perfect alignment of two shafts is
difficult to achieve; which is the requisite condition for rigid couplings.
 Innovative Project-2

Oldham Coupling

56
Oldham Coupling

57
326 Machine Drawing

KEY WAY,

100
10×4
30

12

100

60
12

10

1
30 20 2
12
KEY WAY,
10 × 4 10

10

30

3 4
50
10
Parts list
Sl. No. Name Matl. Qty.
1 Flange MS 2
2 Disc MS 1
3 Shaft MS 2 58
4 Key MS 2

Fig. 18.43 Oldham coupling

The two flanges 1 are mounted on the ends of shafts 3 by means of sunk keys 4. The flanges
are having rectangular slots in them. These flanges are set such that, the slots in them are at
right angle to each other. The circular disc 2 is now positioned in-between them so that the
projections in the circular disc, enter into the corresponding slots of the flanges. During rotation
of the shafts, the central disc slides in the slots of the flanges. Figure 7.12b shows the assembly
drawing.
Exercise
Assemble the parts of the Oldham coupling shown in Fig. 18.43 and draw, (i) sectional view from
the front and (ii) view from the left.
18.5.6 Universal Coupling
This is a rigid coupling and is used to connect two shafts, whose axes intersect if extended.
 Innovative Project-3

Universal Joint

59
 Assembly Drawings 327
KEY WAY,
16

16
8×4

25

16

5

30

16

6
56

12
56
HOLE FOR DIA 3
TAPER PIN

16
18 6
10 18 3
30
16
48
2
30

100

16

56
4

55
57

R15

25

10
KEY WAY,
8×4
Parts list

30

Sl. No. Name Matl. Qty.

1 Shaft MS 2
2 Fork FS 2 SLOPE, 1
3 Central block FS 1
1:100
4 Pin MS 2
5 Collar MS 2
8

6 Key MS 2 40 8
60
6

Fig. 18.44 Universal coupling

Figure 18.44 shows the details of universal coupling. The forks 2 are mounted at the ends
of two shafts 1, making use of sunk keys 6. The central block 3, having two arms at right angle
to each other, is placed between the forks and connected to both of them by using pins 4 and
collars 5. A taper pin (not shown) is used to keep the pins 4 in position. During rotation of shafts,
the angle between them can be varied. Figure 7.11b shows the assembly drawing.
Exercise
Assemble the parts of universal coupling and, shown in Fig. 18.44 and draw, (i) sectional view
from the front and (ii) view from the right.
18.5.7 Plummer Block
This bearing is used for long shafts, requiring intermediate support, especially when the shaft
cannot be introduced into the bearing, end-wise.
 BHARATI VIDYAPEETH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, NEW DELHI
Department of Applied Science
Course Exit Survey

Subject Name: Engineering Graphics-I Lab

Subject Code: ES-157
Semester: 1st

Please rate how well you understood the course (Tick the most appropriate option)
(1 – Poor, 2- Good , 3- Excellent)

ES-157.1 Have you understood the theory of projections and projection of points?
1. 2. 3.

ES-157.2 Are you able to do line projections?

1. 2. 3.

ES-157.3 Are you able to do plane projections?

1. 2. 3.

ES-157.4 Are you able to do solid projections and development of surfaces?

1. 2. 3.

Suggestions to improve the teaching methodology:

Overall how do you rate your understanding of the subject (tick whichever applicable)
1. Below 50%. 2. 50%-70%. 3.70%-90% 4. Above 90%

Name of student
Enrolment number Signature

61