A.

KINEMATICS
This area deals with mainly five physical quantities, i.e, distance/displacement(S), Speed/Velocity
(V,U), acceleration(a, g) and time(t) to analyse linear motion.
One will be given 2,3 or 4 variables and then asked to find the missing one.
SI units are of paramount importance, otherwise answers found would not make scientific sense, hence the
need to exercise extreme caution with respect to SI units.
It is also critical that one distinguishes between vector and scalar quantities as applied in engineering.
Kinematics employs equations of motion to make calculations easy and they follow the SUVAT form.
The following are the equations of motion of interest at this stage:

a) v = u + at
b) v2 = u2 + 2as
1
c) s = ut + at ²
2
A velocity -time graph can be employed in some cases to obtain acceleration and distance travelled. The
distance travelled is found by calculating the area under the graph and the acceleration by finding the
gradient of the graph.

For Vertical motion under gravity

Background- All bodies falling to the earth, drop at the same acceleration g, independent of the size, weight and
shape of the body, provided that air resistance is neglected. The acceleration downwards is the same at each point
or path of travel. For bodies thrown upwards, their deceleration is uniform and is equal to g.
For motion downwards a = g = 9.81m/s2
Upwards a = - g = -9.81m/s2

1. A car accelerates from rest to reach a velocity of 10m/s in 5 seconds, it then maintains this
velocity for the next 10 seconds, after which it breaks to come to rest in 5 seconds time.
a) Sketch a velocity-time graph for the above motion. [6]
b) Calculate acceleration during the first 5 s and retardation during the last 5 seconds. [3]
c) Calculate total distance covered using equations of motion [12]
 a) Velocity-time graph

10

Velocity (m/s)

0 5 Time (t) in seconds 15 20 [6]

b) Acceleration of the car in the first five seconds is found by calculating the gradient under the curve from 0 to
5seconds.

10−0
Gradient = = 10/5 = 0.5 thus the acceleration of the car in the first 5s is 0.5m/s2 [3]
5−0

For the last five seconds we repeat the same procedure:

0−10
Gradient = = -10/5 = -2 m/s2 and the negative sign implies a deceleration or a retardation. Therefore we
20−15
say the cars’ deceleration in the last 5s is -0.5m/s2 [3]

c) The distance traveled is calculated by summing up the distances travelled in all the three stages of the journey
1
using the third equation of motion, s = ut + at ².
2
During the first 5s
1
s=0x5+ ( 0 . 5 ) x 0 .5 x 5 ² = 25m [3]
2
In the next 10s the car is moving at a constant velocity thus there is no acceleration (0m/s 2)
s = 10 x 10 + ½ x 0 x 102 = 100m [3]
In the last 5 s
S = 10 x 5 + ½ ( -2) x 52 = 50 – 25 = 25m [3]

Thus the total distance traveled = 25 + 100 + 25 = 150m [3]

2. A farm bike accelerates from rest to reach a velocity of 20m/s in 10 seconds time, after which it
maintains this velocity for the next 10 seconds, it then retards to rest in 10 seconds time
a) Sketch a velocity-time graph for the above motion.
b) Calculate acceleration during the first 10 seconds of motion.
c) Calculate total distance covered using the graph
a) Velocity-time graph

Velocity
(m/s)
20 D E

A B C

0 Time (s) 10 20 30 F

(ii)Acceleration in the first 10s

a= EA = 20-0 = 2m/s2
OE 10-0

(iii)Total distance covered

Calculated as distance under the graph = area of a trapezium ODEF
Total distance = ½ (AB + OC)EA
=½ (30 + 10)20
=½ (40)20
=400m

3. An apple is thrown vertically upwards at a velocity of 18m/s

This is a classic example of Motion under gravity
Calculate:
a) Maximum height reached [5]
b)Total time taken in the air [6]
(a) v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = (18)2 + 2(-9.81)h
0 = 324 + (-19.62)h
h = 16.514 m

(b)Total time taken in air

Time upwards
v = u + (-g)t
0 = 18 + (-9.81)t
t = 1.835 s time upwards
Time downwards
s = ut + ½gt2
16.514 = 0 + ½(9.81)t2
t =1.835s

Total time in the air = time upwards + time downwards

= 1.835 + 1.835
= 3.67s

4. A 10 tonne truck travelling at 24m/s decelerates to come to rest at a distance of 20m

Calculate:
a) Retardation [5]
b) Time taken to come to rest [5]
c) Breaking force [5]

mass = 10000Kg
U = 24m/s
V = 0m/s
S = 20m

(a)Deceleration
V2 = U2 + 2aS
02 = (24)2 + 2(a) 20
40a = -576
a = -14.4m/s2

(b) Time taken to come to rest

V = U + at
0 = 24 +(-14.4)t
t = 24
14.4
t = 1.667S

(c) Breaking Force

F= ma
F= 10000 X 14.4
F= 14400N / 144KN

5. Define, giving examples

a) Vector quantity
b) Scalar quantity
c) Distance
d) Displacement
e) Velocity
f) Acceleration

6. (a) Given : u =0
a= 2m/s2
(i) Velocity after 6s
V= u+ at
=0 +2(6)
=12m/s

(ii) Displacement in 6s
S = ut + ½ at2
 = 0 + ½ (2)(6)2
= 36 m

7. A 3.5 t farm van accelerates from rest at 2m/s2 for 3 seconds.

a) Calculate velocity after 3 seconds [4]
b) Distance covered after 3 seconds [4]
c) Final momentum [4]

given: m = 3,5 t = 3500 kg

u = 0 m/s
a = 2m/22
t=3s
required:(a) v = ?
then v = u + at
= 0 + 2(3)
= 6 m/s

(b) s = ?
Then S = ut +⅟2at2
= 0(3) + ⅟2x 2 x (3)2
= 9m

(c) Momentum = mv
= 3500 x 6
= 21000 kg m/s
 B. MASS, WEIGHT,FORCE, INERTIA, MOMENTUM,
NEWTON`S LAWS OF MOTION

1. Define:
a) Mass
b) Wight
c) Force
d) Force of gravity
e) Inertia
f) Impulse force
g) Momentum

2. Law of conservation of mass

The principle of conservation of mass states that the mass of an object remains constant wherever the
body is situated in the universe, i.e it is not affected by acceleration due to gravity. The S.I Unit for mass
is kilogram (kg).

3. State Newton`s three laws of motion

4. Law of Conservation of momentum

Momentum in a closed system remains constant, when two bodies A and B collide, their momentum before
collision is equal to the total momentum after collision / m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 +m2v2

5. Prove that F=ma

The rate of change of momentum α force applied and takes place in the direction of the force.
F= mv-mu
t
F= m(v-u)
t
Since (v-u) = a, thus F=ma
t

6. A 2000kg tractor travelling at 2m/s collides with a stationary 1000kg van, calculate
a) The resultant velocity [6]
b) The kinetic energy of the tractor before collision [4]
c) The kinetic energy of the van after collision [4]

Let the mass of tractor be m1 = 2000kg

The initial tractor velocity be U1 = 2m/s
The mass of van be m2 = 1000kg
The initial velocity of van be u2 = 0 m/s, because it is stationery (not moving)

(a) Resultant Velocity

m1u1 +m2u2= m1v2 +m2v2
2000 x 2 + 1000 x 0 = 2000 x V1+ 1000 x V2
nb v1 = v2 ( they move in the same direction)
4000 = 2000V + 1000V
V = 4000
3000
V = 1.333 m/s
 (b) Tractor before collision
K= ½ mv2
=½ x 2000 x 22
= 4000J

(c) Van after collision

K= ½ mv2
=½ x 1000 x (1.333)2
= 888.445J

(d) Total final momentum = m 1v 2 + m 2v 2

= 2000 x 1.333 + 1000 x 1.333
= 3999kgm/s
7. A car of mass 800kg moving at a velocity of 10m/s is involved in a head on collision with another car
of mass 1200kg moving at a velocity of 72km/hr. Given that after collision the two cars move off at the
same velocity. Calculate:
(a) The velocity at which the cars move at after collision
(b) Their total final momentum

ANS:
(a) We have to use the principle of conservation of momentum
m1u1+m2u2 =m1v1 +m2 v2
let m1 be mass 800kg ,
u1 (initial velocity) = 10m/s
m2 be mass 1200kg ,
72 x 1000
u2 = 72km/hr = = 20m/s
60 x 60

v1 and v2 is the velocity of the cars respectively after collision.

But since the two cars move off at the same velocity after collision, v 1 = v2 , thus we can say their final
velocity is v and the equation above becomes:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v + m2 v
800 x 10 + 1200 x 20 = 800v + 1200v
8000 + 24000 = 2000v
32000 = 2000v
v = 32000/2000
= 16m/s

(b) Total final momentum = m1v + m2 v

= 800 x 16 + 1200 x 16
= 32000 kgm/s
 C. APPLIED MECHANICS, WORK DONE, POWER, ENERGY

1. Define, giving formula and SI units

a) Work done
b) Power
c) Potential energy
d) Kinetic energy

2. a) Calculate the work done by a crane in lifting a 50kg load vertically upwards [4]
b) Calculate power developed if the work is done in 10 s time in watts and Hp
(assume g= 9.81m/s2 ) [4]

given: m = 50 kg
mg = 50 x 9.81 = 490.5 N
d = 20m
t = 10s
Required: (a) work done = ?
Work done = F (load) x d
= (50 x 9.81) x 20
= 9810 J

(b) Power = work done

Time
= 9810
10
= 981 W
1Hp = 754.7
More = 981
=(981/754.7 ) X 1
=1.299 Hp

3. given: m = 7000 kg, mg = 7000 x 9.81 = 68670 N

U = 36 km/hr, 36 x 1000 = 10m/s

60 x 60
V = 0 m/s
S = 20 m

required: (i) average retardation = ?

then: v2 = u2 + 2as
02 = 102 + 2a(20)
0 = 100 + 40a
a = - 2.5 m/s2

(ii) average breaking force = ?

then: F = ma
F = 7000 x 2.5
F = 17500 N
 (iii)momentum = ?
Then: momentum = mv
= 7000 x 10 m/s
= 70000 kgm/s

(c) given: m = 800 kg, mg = 800 x 9.81 = 7848 N

d = 16 m
t = 18 s
Power = ?

Then: Power = Work done

Time
=Fxd
T
= mg x 16
18

= 6978 W

4. Water pump power calculation

Calculate the power of a pump capable of raising 480 kg of water through a vertical distance
of 72 m in 7 seconds. Assume g=9.81m/s2
Power = Workdone
Time taken

= Force X Distance ,where F= mg = 480 X 9.81 = 4708,8N

Time

= 4708,8 X 72
7
=48433,371 W/ 48.433 KW
=64.176 Hp
 D. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES, MOMENTS

1. Define the following:

a) Equilibrium
b) Resultant
c) Equilibrant
d) Coplanar forces
e) Concurrent forces
f) Collinear forces
g) Triangle of forces
h) Polygon of forces

2. MOMENTS
A moment is defined as the turning effect of a force. It is calculated by the product of force and
perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force, and the S.I Unit for force is Nm.

Principle of moments
When a body is in equilibrium the sum of clockwise moments = the sum of anticlockwise moments. It
can also be stated as, The algebraic of moments at any point = 0 i.e (∑M = 0) when an object is at
equilibrium.

Moment of a couple/ Torque

Is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between them.

NOTE: It is customary to give a positive sign to anticlockwise moments and a negative sign to
clockwise moments. The various moments are written down with appropriate signs and are added
algebraically.

Example
A rod AE of negligible weight, 40cm long, is pivoted at a point D.W eights 1,2,3 and 4 N act on the rod
as shown in the diagram below. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant moment and hence give its
direction.
3N

10 10 10 10

A B C D E

1N 2N 4N

ANS: For the rod to be in equilibrium ∑M = 0 i.e the sum of moments about D = 0.

Notice that 1N and 2N are anticlockwise hence their moments should be given a positive sign, 3N and
4N are anticlockwise hence their moments should be given a negative sign. You also have to convert
10cm into m to get 0.1m.

Thus summing the moments from left we get:

(1 x 0.3) – (3 x 0.2) + (2 x 0.1) – (4 x 0.1) = -0.5Nm
Hence the resultant moment = 0.5Nm acting in the clockwise direction. The direction is indicated by the
negative sign as explained above.

E. FRICTION
(a)Cases where friction is desirable
 Walking
 Breaking
 Grinding
 Filing/sharpening
 Cutting

(b)Where Friction is a Nuisance

 On roller and ball bearings
 On moving parts of machine
 On door hinges

(c) Friction Increment

 Roughening
 Using grit
 Using asbestos linings
 Using carbon linings
 Using sandstone

(d) Friction Reduction

 Lubrication
 Using roller and ball bearings
 Smoothening surfaces
 F. SIMPLE MACHINES

1. Define the following, giving formulae and SI unit

a) Machine
b) Mechanical advantage (M.A)
c) Velocity Ratio (V.R)
d) Mechanical Efficiency (η)

2. Explain the working principles of the following

a) Single fixed pulley
b) Single movable pulley
c) Block and Tackle

3. Given :E= 350N

L = 700N
VR = 3
M.E= ?

Mechanical efficiency = Mechanical advantage = Work output X 100%

Velocity Ratio Work input

Where Mechanical efficiency = Load = 700 = 2

Effort 350
Thus Efficiency = MA
VR
= 2 X 100%
3
= 66.7%

4. Gear drives
A gear is a wheel which has a number of teeth cut around its circumference. The spacing of the teeth on
this gear wheel is called the pitch. The number of teeth per gear wheel is proportional to its
circumference. Two gears meshed together will rotate at the same speed if they have the same number
of teeth but however in opposite directions.
Formula for connecting the speeds of two gears in mesh:
Speed of driving gear number of teeth on the driven gear
=
Speed of driven gear number of teeth on the driving gear

5.
6.

24 teeth 16 teeth
 If you want the gears to rotate in the same direction, you in cooperate another small gear in between
them as shown below. Notice from the diagram that 1 and 3 are rotating in the anticlockwise
direction.

1 2 3

1. A gear with 56 teeth drives another with 40 teeth. Calculate the speed of the driving gear , given
that the other gear is rotating at 12rpm [6]

Speed of driving gear = number of teeth on the driven gear

Speed of driven gear number of teeth on driving gear

Speed of driving gear = 40

12rpm 56

Speed of driving gear = 12 X 40

56
8.571 rpm

2. given: Driver gear – 32 teeth

Driven gear- 48 teeth
Driven gear speed – 13rpm
Driver gear =? = X
Then: speed of driving gear = no. of teeth in driven gear
Speed of driven gear no. of teeth in driving gear
X = 48
12 32
X = 9 rpm

Belt drives
Belts are usually employed when one machine is required to another one at a speed not designed for it.
For belt drives the following formula is used to calculate the speed transmission ratio:

speed of driving pulley diameter of driven pulley

speed of driven pulley
= diameter of driving pulley

n1 / n2 = d2 / d1 n is the speed and d is the diameter

From the formula above you can deduce that the speeds of two pulleys connected by a belt are inversely
proportional to their diameter.

c) Belt System
A pulley of 0.15 m diameter rotates at 120rpm. Calculate the speed of the driving pulley
given that its diameter is 0.25 m.
 A pulley of 0.15 m diameter rotates at 120rpm. Calculate the speed of the driving pulley
given that its diameter is 0.25 m.
speed of driving pulley = diameter of the driven pulley
Speed of driven pulley diameter of the driving pulley

Speed of driving pulley = 0.15

120rpm 0.25

Speed of driving pulley = 120 X 0.15

0.25
=72 rpm

3.
 G.STRESS AND STRAIN

1. Define the following

a) Stress
b) Strain
c) Hooke`s law
d) Elasticity

2. A force of 20N is applied at the end of a 4m wire , 0.2 cm in radius to produce an extension
of 0.00024m. Calculate
a) Stress in the wire
b) Strain
c) Young Modulus (E)
d) Explain the significance of the Young Modulus

a) Stress = Force / C.S.A

F- Force applied = 20N
C.S.A Cross Sectional Area = ∏r2
22 0 .002
Thus A = 7 x ( 2 )2 = 3.14 x 10-6 m2
20
−6
3. 14 x 10
Therefore Stress = = 6.36 x 106 Nm-2 [5]
extension 0 .00024
(b) Strain = originallength = 4 = 0.00006 or 6 x 10-5 [4]
 Stress 6360000
(c) Young Modulus (E) = Strain = 0 .00006 = 1.06 x 1011 Nm-2 [4]

(d) Modulus of Elasticity or Young Modulus measures the ability of a material to resist strain. [2]

Material properties
(a)Malleability
Ability of a material to be hammered or rolled into sheets without breaking.
A property exhibited by most metals.

(b)Ductility
Ability of a material to be rolled into a wire without breaking. This property increases with heat. E.g Cu, Al

(c)Electrical Conductance
Ability of a material to allow the passage of electric current. Exhibited by materials with
free valency shell electrons esp metals.

(d) Tensile strength

Ability of a material to resist forces that tends to tear materials apart. Steel has high tensile strength
that is why it is used in reinforcement concrete works.
high strength, resistant to corrosion, deformation and is durable e.g steel Cr

H. PRESSURE

1. Define the following , giving SI Units

(a) Pressure
(b) Density(ρ)
(c) Specific Weight(γ)
(d) Specific Gravity
(e) Relative Density

2. Calculate pressure exerted by a lathe machine of mass 3.4 tonnes making a surface area
contact of 6840cm2 with the floor. Assume g=9.81m/s2
Pressure = F/A
=mg/A
= 9.81 X 3400
6840/10000
= 33320
0.684
= 48713.450 N/m2

3. Given a metallic shaft 20kg mass, 90cm long 0.2m diameter. Calculate
(a) Volume
(b) Weight of shaft
(c) Density
 Given : 2r = 20 cm = 0.2 m
m = 20 kg
h = 90 cm = 0.9 m
(i) Volume
V¿ π r 2h
= 22/7 x (0.1)2 x 0.9
= 0.0281 m3

(ii) Weight of shaft

W = mg
= 20 x 9.81
= 196.2 N

(iii) Density = ρ= m
V
=20/0.0281
= 711.744 kg/m3

(b) Given : m = 15 kg
2r = 12 cm
h = 52 cm
ρ=?

Then: ρ= m
v
= 15
Π r2 h
= 15
22/7 x (0.6)2 x 0.2

= 15/0.00588

= 2551.02 kg/m3

THE HYDRAULIC JACK

The hydraulic jack is a device used for lifting heavy loads by the application of much smaller force or
effort. It is based on Pascal’s law, which states that intensity of pressure is transmitted equally in all
directions through a mass of fluid at rest.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The working principle of a hydraulic jack may be explained with the help of the diagram below.
Consider a ram and plunger, operating in two cylinders of different diameters, which are interconnected
at the bottom, through a chamber, which is filled with some liquid.

Hydraulic jack

Let W= Weight to be lifted, F = Force applied on the plunger, A = Area of ram, and a = Area of
plunger.
A force F, applied to the plunger of the small cylinder, forces oil or water into the larger cylinder, thus
raising the ram supporting the load, W. Mechanical advantage of press = A/a. The force F acting on
area A , produces a pressure P, which is transmitted equally in all directions through the liquid.
If r1 is the radius of the smaller cylinder and r2 is the radius of the larger cylinder and also that l1 and l2
are the heights at which the effort (smaller cylinder) and the load (larger cylinder) pistons are standing
respectively.
Also given that the volume of fluid displaced by the effort is the same displaced by the load.
Therefore π r12 l1 = π r22 l2
r12 x l1 = r22 x l2
l1 / l2 = r12 / r22
r12 / r22 gives the velocity ratio between these two pistons.
Hydraulic jack may be employed for the following jobs:
 Metal press work (to press sheet metal to any required shape).
 Drawing and pushing rods.
 Bending and straightening any metal piece.
 Packing press.
I. THEORY OF GASES

THE KINETIC THEORY

For a container which contains gas molecules, the gas moles are said to be in continuous random
motion, moving in a straight line with constant velocity. The pressure of the gas is interpreted as
being the action of the moles colliding with the walls of the container, the greater the number of
collisions per unit area of the walls, the greater the pressure. These gas molecules are assumed to
obey the principle of conservation of kinetic energy.

Gas behaviour w.r.t V, P, and T for a fixed gas mass

 V α T, at constant P (Charles` Law)
 P α I/V, at constant T (Boyle`s Law)
 P α T , at constant V (Pressure Law)

Dalton’s Law of Partial pressure

Dalton’s law states that in a mixture of gases, the total pressure is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of the individual gases, if no chemical change is taking place.
For three gases A, B and c in a mixture, their total pressure:
P = PA + P B + P C

1. 125 cm3 of a fumigant are collected at 755 mmHg pressure and at 15 0C. Calculate volume at stp.
P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2
Initial values Required Values
P1 = 755mmHg P2 = 760mmHg
 V1 = 125cm3 V2 = ?
0
T1 = 15 C = 15 + 273 = 288K T2 = 273K
Since P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2 we have to make V2 the subject of formula since it is the required value.
P1V1 T2 / T1 P2 = V2
125 x 755 x 273
V2 =
760 x 288
= 118cm3 [6]

J. HEAT TRANSFER
1. (a) Conduction
 Heat transfer in mostly solids
 Here, when a substance is heated, its particles gain energy and vibrate more vigorously. The
particles bump into nearby particles and make them vibrate more.
 This passes the thermal energy through the substance by conduction, from the hot end to the
cold end.

(b) Convection
 In liquids mainly
 When a liquid is heated at the bottom a current of hot liquid moves upwards and its place is
taken by a cold current moving downwards.
 Here, heat is carried from one place to another by the movement of the liquid itself.

(c) Radiation
 Process does not require a material medium ( no particles involved)
 All objects transfer thermal energy by radiation called infrared radiation
Radiation can even work in space and is the reason why the sun`s heat is felt on earth even if it is millions of
km away in space.

K.BASIC MATHS,CALCULUS, SI UNITS

1.(a) Conversion of units into S.I units

(i)1600mg
1Kg = 1 000 000 mg
Less = 1600mg

= 1600 X 1Kg
1000000
=0.0016Kg / 1.6 X 10-3 Kg
 (ii)800μg
1Kg = 1 000 000 000
Less = 800 μg

= 800 X 1Kg
100000000
=8X 10-7 Kg

(iii)22 0C
0 0C = 273k
27oC =( 273+22)
=295K

(iv) 0.5 HP
1HP = 745,7 W
0.5HP = less

= 0.5 X 745,7
1
= 372.85 W/0. 37285KW

(v) 500 Nano-grammes

1Kg = 1 000 000 000
Less= 500 ng

= 500 X 1Kg
1000 000 000
=5 X 10-7 Kg

(vi) 1.7 tonnes

1 t = 1000kg
1.7 t = 1000 x 1. 7
=1 700kg

2. Determination of Rates of change

Given: L =1 + 3t 0.3t2
dL =3 + 2(0.3)t
dt
= 3 + 0.6t
(i) when t = 15 0C
dL =3 + 2(0.3)15
dt
= 3.9m/0C

(ii) when t = 16 0C
dL =3 + 2(0.3)(-6)
dt
= 2.64m/0C

3. (a) Evaluate
 2
(i) ∫ ¿ ¿x3) dx = [-3x-3 +c ]20
−4

= [-3(2)-3+ c] –[-3(0)-3+ c]

=24-0

=24 U2
6
(ii)∫ ¿ ¿ ) dx
2

2
(iii)∫ ¿ ¿ ) dx
0

(b) Differentiate

(i)y=3x-4+4x-1

dy/dx= -4(3)x-5+4

= -12/x5+ 4

(ii)Sin4x+e-3x

dy/dx= 4Cos4x+(-3e-3x)

=4Cos4x-3e-3x

(iii)y=x3+x2-4

dy/dx=3x2+2x

Evaluate

(i) a-2b= 2-x – 2(4-3x)

=2-x-8-6x
= -6-7x

(ii) 4x = 32
22x= 25
2x =5
x = 2.5

(iii) Log28
2x = 23
X=3

4
(iv) √(16a-4)
= 4√1/(16a4)
=1/2a