Contents

1 A Simple Explanation of the Finite Element Method

for Stress Analysis 2
1.1 External Virtual Work, Wext . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Internal Virtual Work, Wint . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 A Simple Explanation for the Form of the
Element Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Properties of Element Stiffness Matrix . . . 8
1.5 Application of the Principle of Virtual Work
in the Finite Element Method . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Calculation of Element Stresses . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Summary of the PVW for Deriving the Ele-
ment Stiffness Matrix and Solution for Nodal
Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

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1 A Simple Explanation of the Finite Element
Method for Stress Analysis
• The Principle of Virtual Work (PVW) states that, for a
system in equilibrium, the virtual work done by external
forces must equal the internal virtual work.
• We derive the form of the stiffness matrix and nodal
force equilibrium equations for stress analysis by defin-
ing both external and internal virtual work expressions.
• This is not a theory that needs to be disproven; this
is the basis for the finite element method (FEM) and
its application in finite element analysis (FEA) in stress
analysis.

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1.1 External Virtual Work, Wext
• The external virtual work is the work done by external
nodal forces {Fext} acting on the nodes of the element,
resulting from virtual nodal displacements {δunod}:

Wext = {δunod}T {Fext}

• Recall work is the product of displacements with forces.

• The superscript T represents the transpose operation
of a column vector, resulting in a row vector.
• Multiplying the row vector of virtual nodal displacements
with the column vector of external nodal forces gives
the dot-product (inner-product) of the two vectors, re-
sulting in a scalar, as it should, since work is a scalar.
• If the units of displacement are meters and force in New-
tons, then the product is J = N-m, the unit of work and
energy.

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1.2 Internal Virtual Work, Wint
• The internal virtual work within the element is due to
virtual strains {δε} from virtual displacements.
• Using the stress-strain relationship {σ} = [E]{ε}, where
[E] is the elasticity matrix, we write:
T T
Z Z
Wint = V {δε} {σ} dV = V {δε} [E]{ε} dV

• Note the elasticity matrix [E] has units of Young’s mod-

ulus, same as stress; for example, Pa = N/m2.
• After integrating over the volume, the result is units of
work (internal energy) of J = N-m.

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1.3 A Simple Explanation for the Form of
the Element Stiffness Matrix
• Since virtual strain {δε} relates to virtual displacements
{δunod} through the strain-displacement matrix [B] with
units of one over length unit, we have:

{δε} = [B]{δunod}

• The matrix [B] is defined with derivatives of the dimen-

sionless shape functions used to approximate the dis-
placement field at points within an element in terms of
nodal displacements.
• Substituting this together with the stress

{σ} = [E]{ε} = [E][B]{unod}

into the internal virtual work (strain energy) gives:

Wint = V {δunod}T [B]T [E][B] {unod} dV

Z

= {δunod} V [B]T [E][B] {unod} dV

T
Z

T T
Z 
= {δunod} V [B] [E][B] dV {unod}
| {z }
[Ke ]
= {δunod}T [Ke] {unod}
= {δunod}T {Fint}

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 where we have identified the element stiffness matrix
T
Z
[Ke] = V [B] [E][B] dV

and

{Fint} , V [B]T {σ} dV

Z

= V [B]T [E]{ε} dV
Z

= V [B]T [E][B] {unod} dV

Z

= ( V [B]T [E][B] dV ) {unod}

Z

= [Ke] {unod}

represents the nodal internal forces as the product of

the element stiffness [Ke] with nodal displacements {unod}.

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• Thus, we have shown that the internal virtual work for
the element can be expressed in alternative forms:
T T
Z
Wint = V {δε} {σ} dV = {δu nod } {Fint}

or
T T
Z
Wint = V {δε} [E]{ε} dV = {δu nod } [Ke] {unod}

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1.4 Properties of Element Stiffness Matrix
1.4.1 Dimensions of the element stiffness matrix
• The dimensions of the element stiffness matrix [Ke] de-
pend on the number of nodes of the element and the
number of nodal displacement components, also called
degrees of freedom (DOF) per node.

For example, in plain stress, for the Constant Strain

Triangle (CST) Element, the number of nodes is 3,
and there are two perpendicular displacement com-
ponents per node, resulting in 3 × 2 = 6 nodal dis-
placement components for the element.
In this case, the strain-displacement matrix [B] has
dimensions of three rows for the three strain com-
ponents in plane stress (two perpendicular normal
strains and in-plane shear strain) and six columns cor-
responding to the six nodal displacement compo-
nents (DOF) for the element.

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 For plane stress, the elasticity matrix [E] is a square
matrix with three rows and three columns.
Multiplying the transpose of the matrix [B]T with di-
mensions of 6 rows and three columns after the trans-
pose operation, with the three-by-three elasticity ma-
trix [E], and the strain-displacement matrix [B], the
product of the three matrices [B]T [E][B] results in a
square matrix with six rows and six columns.
After integrating over the volume (area times thick-
ness for plain stress), the stiffness matrix [Ke] has di-
mensions of 6 × 6.

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1.4.2 Symmetry of Element Stiffness Matrix
• The stiffness matrix is symmetric because the elasticity
matrix [E] is symmetric.
• Since [E]T = [E], then

[Ke] = V ([B]T [E][B])T dV

T
Z

= V [B]T [E]T [B] dV

Z

= V [B]T [E][B] dV = [Ke]

Z

• The units of the stiffness matrix are the units of the ma-
trix products [B]T [E][B] integrated over the volume.

The units of [B] and its transpose [B]T are one over
length, for example m−1.
The units of [E] are N/m2, multiplying, the units of
the products [B]T [E][B] we have N/m4.
After integrating over the volume with units m3, the
values in the stiffness matrix [Ke] have units:

(N/m4)(m3) = N/m,

- the units of a linear spring as expected.

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1.5 Application of the Principle of Virtual Work
in the Finite Element Method
• According to the PVW, we equate internal and external
virtual works:

Wext = Wint

• Equating, we obtain:

{δunod}T {Fext} = {δunod}T {Fint}

that is,

{δunod}T {Fext} = {δunod}T [Ke] {unod}

• Since this holds for any arbitrary virtual displacement

{δunod}, subject to any displacement constraints, we
conclude:

{Fext} = {Fint}

that is,

{Fext} = [Ke] {unod}

• These equations represent force equilibrium at each node,

balancing external with internal forces.

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1.5.1 Solving the Nodal Force Balance Equations
• After applying nodal displacement constraints to reduce
the number of equations, we solve for the remaining
unknown nodal displacements {ūnod}, in terms of ap-
plied external nodal forces combined with forces due
to stiffness multiplied by any specified nodal displace-
ments, denoted {F̄ext}.
• After doing this, the reduced system of equations can
be expressed as,

[K̄e] {ūnod} = {F̄ext}

• In abstract form, we can solve these equations for nodal

displacements using the matrix inverse,

{ūnod} = [K̄e]−1 {F̄ext}

• In practice, to obtain more accurate solutions, more

than one element is used in a finite element mesh of
connected elements. In general, the promise is that the
accuracy of the solution will improve by subdividing the
part volume into many smaller elements.

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• In practice, the global stiffness matrix [K] for all nodes
in the finite element mesh is determined by assembling
local element matrices [Ke] in appropriate rows and columns,
accounting for nodal displacement compatibility between
connected elements, using information from node and
displacement component numbers connected with each
element.
• In practice, the inverse [K̄]−1 is never taken to solve
for unknown nodal DOF since it would be a very com-
putationally expensive operation for a large number of
equations in a finite element mesh.

Instead, the equations are solved using direct algo-

rithms such as factorizations or other generalizations
of Gaussian elimination learned in linear algebra or
for very large systems of equations, for example, one-
million equations, to reduce the computer memory
requirements, iterative solvers such as the Conjugate-
Gradient method are more efficient.

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1.6 Calculation of Element Stresses
• After the nodal displacements are solved from the nodal
force balance (stiffness equations), we can distribute
nodal displacements to each element and calculate stress
within each element using the elasticity matrix [E] and
the linear elastic relationship between stress and strain:

{σ} = [E]{ε} = [E][B]{unod}

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1.7 Summary of the PVW for Deriving the
Element Stiffness Matrix and Solution
for Nodal Displacements
• In deriving the stiffness matrix for finite elements, we
apply the Principle of Virtual Work (PVW). The PVW
states that at equilibrium, the virtual work done by ex-
ternal forces must balance the virtual work of internal
forces.
• We proceed by defining the internal nodal forces from
the matrix product of the element stiffness matrix with
nodal displacements and show the internal virtual work
for the stress element is
T T
Z
Wint = V {δε} {σ} dV = {δu nod } {Fint}

from which we deduce the element stiffness matrix [Ke]:

T T
Z
Wint = V {δε} [E]{ε} dV = {δu nod } [Ke] {unod}

• We then apply the PVW to determine the nodal equi-

librium equations, which balance external nodal forces
with internal nodal forces defined by the product of the
stiffness matrix and nodal displacements.

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1.7.1 Internal Nodal Forces, {Fint}
The internal nodal forces {Fint} are defined by the prod-
uct of the element stiffness matrix [Ke] and the nodal dis-
placements {unod}:
T
Z
{Fint} , [Ke]{unod}, [Ke] = V [B] [E][B] dV

1.7.2 External Virtual Work, Wext

The virtual work done by the external forces {Fext} acting
on the nodes of the element due to virtual displacements
{δunod} is:

Wext = {δunod}T {Fext}

1.7.3 Internal Virtual Work, Wint

The virtual work done by the internal forces is similarly
given by:

Wint = {δunod}T {Fint} = {δunod}T [Ke]{unod}

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1.7.4 Applying the Principle of Virtual Work
• According to the Principle of Virtual Work, the external
virtual work equals the internal virtual work:

Wext = Wint

• Expanding both sides, we have:

{δunod}T {Fext} = {δunod}T [Ke]{unod}

• Since this equality holds for any arbitrary virtual dis-

placement {δunod}, it follows that:

{Fext} = [Ke]{unod}

subject to constraints on nodal virtual displacements.

• These equations represent nodal force equilibrium, bal-
ancing external with internal forces.

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Solution of Nodal Force Balance Equations
• This relationship confirms that after assembly of ele-
ment stiffness matrix contributions in a finite element
mesh of the part, and nodal displacement constraints
are applied,
[K̄]{ūnod} = {F̄ext}
the reduced stiffness matrix [K̄] represents the map-
ping between nodal displacements and external nodal
forces in equilibrium adjusted by the product stiffness
and nodal constraints, represented by {F̄ext}.
• By expressing the internal virtual work for the element
as the product of virtual displacements with the internal
nodal forces equating to {Fint} = [Ke]{unod}, applying
the Principle of Virtual Work with nodal displacement
constraints, accounting for element-node connectivity
in an assembly of finite elements, we obtain the sys-
tem of nodal equilibrium equations with the solution
for nodal displacement
{ūnod} = [K̄]−1 {F̄ext}
After distributing nodal displacements to each connected
element in the part mesh, stress is calculated from the
linear elastic equation:
{σ} = [E]{ε} = [E][B]{unod}
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We Love the
Finite Element Method (FEM)
and its application in Finite Element Analysis
(FEA)!

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