GOVT.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AND TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY,

BERHAMPORE
TOPIC: ANALYSIS THE PEFORMANCE OF FOUR STROKE PETROL
ENGINE BY USING DIFFERENT GRADE PETROL FUEL. (Tentative)
SUBMITTED BY
NAME ROLL NO.
IRFAN MOLLA 11100722028
AKASH MAHATO 11100722025
ATHAY HALDER 11100722026
ARGHADEEP BAG 11100721009
3 RD YEAR 5TH SEM MECHANICAL
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF
Mr. SANJOY CHATTORAJ

Asst. Professor

Mechanical Engineering Department

Government College of Engineering & Textile
Technology, Berhampore
4, Cantonment Road, P.O.- Berhampore,Dist -Murshidabad, West Bengal,India Pin-
742101Telephone: 03482-252809E-mail: [email protected]/[email protected]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our gratitude to MR. SANJOY CHATTORAJ,
Mechanical Engineering Department, for developing this project. The
college would also be acknowledged for providing useful guidelines,
technical and moral support during the development of the project.
All the instructors who teach the courses in the existing higher
teaching- learning institutions are acknowledged. Finally, we thank all
the individuals who have in some ways contributed to this project.

Signatures
IRFAN MOLLA, 11100722028,ME ______________________

ATHAY HALDER,11100722026,ME ______________________

AKASH MAHATO,11100722025,ME _____________________

ARGHADEEP BAG,11100721009,ME ____________________

INTRODUCTION
The design of an Internal Combustion (IC) engine is a complex compromise
between performance, fuel economy and emission. These three factors are
interrelated, and they cannot be simultaneously optimized. Furthermore, once
the physical parameters such as displacement, cam profile and compression
ratio are determined, a conventional engine has nearly fixed performance, fuel
economy and emissions properties. By making an engine more efficient, one or
more of these factors could be increased without significantly compromising
the others. Thermodynamics shows that the higher an engine's compression
ratio, the higher its efficiency. However, in the cylinder pressures and
temperature's which result from higher compression ratios place an upper
bound on an engine's compression ratio. The cause of this limiting is largely
engine knock or autoignition. When an engine starts knocking, the progressive
normal combustion is replaced by very fast detonation waves in the
combustion chamber, and the engine can be severely damaged. Another
method of increasing the efficiency of an engine is reducing the mechanical
losses associated with throttling. When an engine is throttling, a plate
obstructs the air intake flow and causes a pressure drop across the plate.
Throttling reduces the amount of air induced into the engine, but it introduces
flow losses which reduce an engine's efficiency.
Two type of RON fuel grade are presently available in India namely RON 91 and
RON 97. The RON 91 fuel had been introduced for local consumption due to
the rapid rising of fossil fuel around the year 2008. RON 97 fuel still remains in
the market with a higher price. Consumer prefers to use the RON 91 fuel
mainly due to its lower price. However, the impact of using different RON grade
fuel to various automobile remains unknown. Therefore, this project was
initiated to provide some insight of the engine performance in term of Power,
Torque, and Fuel consumption and emission produce by using different RON
grade fuel. The data will analyze, and conclusion will be drawn to show which
type of fuel RON and brands have high performance and less emission level.
This reports study focused on to use of the efficient graded fuel in public transit
vehicles including Bike, Maruti Omni, Tata bolt &Zest Hyundai i-10, Nissan
micra, Datsun go, etc.
The rebirth of the steam engine is an interesting study in the development of
technology. Often "the new" displaces "the old" in such a grand scale, that it is
only later that the merits of the old technology can regain some visibility.

HISTORY OF IC ENGINE
a) Many designs have been made over the last 4 centuries but only a few men
were recognized as inventors.
b) The first person to invent a working internal combustion engine automobile
was Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland in 1807, Mixing hydrogen and
oxygen for fuel.
c) The first gasoline powered engine was built in 1864 by a man named
Siegfried Marcus and was said to be the forerunner to the modern automobile.
It reached speeds up to ten mph.
d) In 1876 two of the greatest engines were invented. The two and four stroke
engines by Nikolas August Otto and Sir Dougald clerk. Starting the rise of even

better and more efficient machine.

HEAT ENGINE & ITS CLASSIFICATION
Heat engine is a system which transforms chemical energy of a fuel into
thermal energy and utilizes this energy to perform some useful work that is
mechanical energy Heat engine works on 2nd law of thermodynamics
principle. It does this by bringing a work substance from a higher state
temperature to a lower state temperature A heat "source "generates thermal
energy that brings the working substance to the high temperature state The
working substance generates work in the "working body "of the engine while
transferring heat to the colder "sink" until it reaches a low temperature state
during this process some thermal energy is converted to work by exploiting the
properties of the working substance.
INTERNAL COBUSTION ENGINE
The Internal Combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel
(Normally the fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion
chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an Internal
Combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure
gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the
engine The force is applied typically to pistons. turbine blades or a nozzle This
force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into
use mechanical energy The Internal Combustion engine is quite different from
External Combustion engine, such as steam engine, in which the energy is
delivered to a working fluid not consisting of mixed with, or contaminated by
combustion. product. Working fluid can be air, hot water, pressurized water or
even liquid sodium, heated in some kind of boiler. IC engines are usually
powered by energy dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquid derived from
fossil fuel. While there are many secondary applications, most IC Engines are
used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for cars,
aircraft and boats etc.

I.C. ENGINE COMPONENTS:

a) Block: Body of the engine containing cylinders, made of cast iron or
aluminum.

b) Cylinder: The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons
reciprocate back and forth.

c) Head: The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually containing
part of the clearance volume of the combustion chamber.

d) Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder, between the head and
the piston face where combustion occurs. The size of combustion chamber
continuously changes from minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a
maximum volume when the piston at BDC.
e) Crankshaft: Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied
to external systems. The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the
main bearings.

f) Connecting rod: Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft,
usually made of steel or alloy forging in most engines but may be aluminum in
some small engines.

g) Piston rings: Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the
piston and form a sliding surface against the cylinder walls.

h) Camshaft: Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in
the engine cycle, either directly or through mechanical or hydraulic linkage
(push rods, rocker arms, tappets).

i) Push rods: The mechanical linkage between the camshaft and valves on
overhead valve engines with the camshaft in the crankcase.

j) Crankcase: Part of the engine block surrounding the crankshaft. In many

engines the oil pan makes up part of the crankcase housing.

k) Exhaust manifold: Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from
the engine cylinders, usually made of cast iron.

L) Intake manifold: Piping system which delivers incoming air to the

cylinders usually made of cast metal, plastic, or composite material.

a. In most SI engines, fuel is added to the air in the intake manifold

system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor.

b. The individual pipe to a single cylinder is called runner.

m) Carburetor: A device which mixture and meter the proper amount of fuel
into the air flow by means of pressure differential. For many decades it was the
basic fuel metering system on all automobile (and other) engines.

n) Spark plug: Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by

creating high voltage discharge across an electrode gap.
NOMENCLATURE OF IC ENGINE
a) Cylinder Bore (d): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is
called the cylinder bore. It is usually expressed in millimeter (mm).

b) Piston Area (A): The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore
is called the piston area and is usually expressed in square centimeter.

c) Stroke (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves
between two successive reversals of its direction of motion is called the stroke
and is usually expressed in millimeter (mm).

d) Dead Centre: The position of the working piston and the moving parts
which are mechanically connected to it, at the moment when the direction of
the piston motion is reversed at either end of the stroke is called the dead
centre.

e) Top Dead Centre (TDC): It is the dead centre when the piston is farthest
from the crankshaft.

f) Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): It is the dead centre when the piston is
nearest to the crankshaft.

g) Displacement or Swept Volume (Vs): The nominal volume swept by

the working piston.

h) Cubic Capacity: The displacement volume of a cylinder multiplied by

number of cylinders in an engine will give the cubic capacity. For example, if
there are K cylinders in an engine, then, Cubic Capacity = VSK.

i) Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of combustion chamber

above the piston when it is at the top dead centre is the clearance volume and
is expressed as cc.
j) Compression Ratio(r): It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the
piston is at bottom dead centre to the clearance volume of the cylinder.

FOUR STROKE SI ENGINE

In a four stroke spark ignition engine the cycle operation is completed in four
strokes of the piston or two revolutions of crankshaft. During the four strokes,
there are five events to be completed that is suction, compression,
combustion, expansion and exhaust.

Suction stroke:
suction stroke starts when the piston is at the top dead centre and about to
move down wards. The inlet valve is assumed to open instantaneously and at
this time the exhaust valve is in the closed position. Due to the suction created
by the motion of the piston towards the bottom dead centre, the charge
consisting of fuel-air mixture is drawn into the cylinder. When the piston
reaches the bottom dead centre the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve
closes instantaneously.

compression stroke:
The charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed by
the return stroke of the piston. During this stroke both inlet valve and exhaust
valves are in closed position. The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume
is now compressed into the clearance volume. At the end of the compression
stroke the mixture is ignited with the help of a spark plug located on the
cylinder head. During the burning process.

Expansion or Power Stroke:

The high pressure of the brunt gases forces the piston towards the BDC. Both
the valves are in closed position. Of the four strokes only during this stroke
power is produced. Both pressure and temperature decrease during expansion.

Exhaust Stroke:
At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust valve opens instantaneously
and the inlet valve remains closed. The pressure falls to atmospheric level a
part of the brunt gases escape. The piston starts moving from the bottom dead
centre to the top dead centre and sweeps the brunt gases out from the
cylinder almost at atmospheric pressure.

ENGINE PERFORMANCE
The basic performance parameters of internal combustion engine
(I.C.E) may be summarized as follows

Indicated power (i.p):

It is the actual rate of work done by the working fluid on the piston. As its
name Implies, the i.p can be determined from an "indicator diagram" by
subtracting the pumping loop area (-ve) from the positive area of the main
diagram. i.p power could be estimated by performing a Morse test on the
engine. The physical equation for the i.p is:

where N is the number of machine cycles per unit times, which is 1/2 the
rotational speed for a four- stroke engine, and the rotational speed for a two-
stroke engine.

Brake power (b.p):

This is the measured output of the engine. It is usually obtained by a power
absorption device such as a brake or dynamometer which can be loaded in
such a way that the torque exerted by the engine can be measured. The break
power is given by

bp = ΖπΝΤ /(60 ×1000) KW, Where T is the torque.

Brake thermal efficiency:
Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power bp to the
input fuel energy in appropriate units.
Mechanical efficiency:
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake power to the indicated power.

Volumetric efficiency:
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual volume flow rate of air
into the intake system to the rate at which the volume is displaced by the
system.

Relative efficiency: Relative efficiency is the ratio of thermal efficiency of an

actual cycle to that of the ideal cycle.

= Actual Thermal Efficiency /Air Standard Efficiency

COMBUSTION PROCESS IN SI ENGINES:

Combustion may be defined as a relatively rapid chemical combination of
hydrogen and carbon in fuel with oxygen in air resulting in liberation of energy
in the form of heat.
Following conditions are necessary for combustion to take place
a) The presence of combustible mixture
b) Some means to initiate mixture
c) Stabilization and propagation of flame in Combustion Chamber In SI Engines,
carburettor supplies a combustible mixture of petrol and air and Spark plug
initiates combustion.
PROBLEMS IN FOUR STROKE SI ENGINE
KNOCKING:
Knocking is due to auto ignition of end portion of unburned charge in
combustion chamber. As the normal flame proceeds across the chamber,
pressure and temperature of unburned charge increase due to compression by
burned portion of charge. This unburned compressed charge may auto ignite
under certain temperature condition and release the energy at a very rapid
rate compared to normal combustion process in cylinder. This rapid release of
energy during auto ignition causes a high pressure differential in combustion
chamber and a high pressure wave is released from auto ignition region. The
motion of high pressure compression waves inside the cylinder causes
vibration of engine parts and pinging noise and it is known as knocking or
detonation. This pressure frequency or vibration frequency in SI engine can be
up to 5000 Cycles per second. Denotation is undesirable as it affects the engine
performance and life, as it abruptly increases sudden large amount of heat
energy. It also put a limit on compression ratio at which engine can be
operated which directly affects the engine efficiency and output.

The harmful effects of detonation are as follows:

Noise and Roughness:

Knocking produces a loud pulsating noise and pressure waves. These waves
which vibrates back and forth across the cylinder. The presence of vibratory
motion. causes crankshaft vibrations and the engine runs rough.

Mechanical Damage:
(i) High pressure waves generated during knocking can increase rate of wear of
parts of combustion chamber. Sever erosion of piston crown (in a manner
similar to that of marine propeller blades by cavitations), cylinder head and
pitting of inlet and outlet valves may result in complete wreckage of the
engine.
(ii) Detonation is very dangerous in engines having high noise level. In small
engines the knocking noise is easily detected and the corrective measures can
be taken but in aero- engines it is difficult to detect knocking noise and hence
corrective measures cannot be taken.
Hence severe detonation may persist for a long time which may ultimately
result in complete wreckage of the piston.

Carbon deposits: Detonation results in increased carbon deposits.

Increase in heat transfer: Knocking is accompanied by an increase in the
rate of heat transfer to the combustion chamber walls. The increase in heat
transfer is due to two reasons.
(i)The minor reason is that the maximum temperature in a detonating engine is
about 150°C higher than in a non-detonating engine, due to rapid completion
of combustion
(ii) The major reason for increased heat transfer is the scouring away of
protective layer of inactive stagnant gas on the cylinder walls due to pressure
waves. The inactive layer of gas normally reduces the heat transfer by
protecting the combustion and piston crown from direct contact with flame.

Decrease in power output and efficiency:

Due to increase in the rate of heat transfer the power output as well as
efficiency of a detonating engine decreases.

Pre-ignition: The increase in the rate of heat transfer to the walls has yet
another effect. It may cause local overheating, especially of the sparking plug,
which may reach a temperature high enough to ignite the charge before the
passage of spark, thus causing pre-ignition. An engine detonating for a long
period would most probably lead to preignition and this is the real danger of
detonation.

AUTO IGINITION: A mixture of fuel and air can react spontaneously and
produce heat by chemical reaction in the absence of flame to initiate the
combustion or self-ignition. This type of self ignition in the absence of flame is
known as Auto-Ignition. The temperature at which the self-ignition takes place
is known as self-igniting temperature. The pressure and temperature abruptly
increase due to auto-ignition because of sudden release of chemical energy.
This auto-ignition leads to abnormal combustion known as detonation which is
undesirable because it's bad effect on the engine performance and life as it
abruptly increases sudden large amount of heat energy. In addition to this
knocking puts a limit on the compression ratio at which an engine can be
operated which directly affects the engine efficiency and output Auto-ignition
of the mixture does not occur instantaneously as soon as its temperature rises
above the self-ignition temperature. Auto-ignition occurs only when the
mixture stays at a temperature equal to or higher than the self-ignition
temperature for a "finite time". This time is known as delay period or reaction
time for auto-ignition. This delay time as a function of compression ratio is
shown in adjacent. As the compression ratio increases, the delay period
decreases and this is because of increase in initial (before combustion)
pressure and temperature of the charge. The self-ignition temperature is
a characteristic of fuel air mixture and it varies from fuel to fuel and mixture -
strength of the same fuel.

PRE-IGINITION:
Pre-ignition is the ignition of the homogeneous mixture of charge as it comes
in contact with hot surfaces, in the absence of spark.Auto ignition may
overheat the spark plug and exhaust valve and it remains so hot that its
temperature is sufficient to ignite the charge in next cycle during the
compression Stroke before spark occurs and this causes the preignition of the
charge. Pre-ignition is initiated by some overheated projecting part such as the
sparking plug electrodes exhaust valve head, metal corners in the combustion
chamber, carbon deposits or protruding cylinder head gasket rim etc. pre-
ignition is also caused by persistent detonating pressure shockwaves scoring
away the stagnant gases which normally protect the combustion chamber
walls. The resulting increased heat flow through the walls, raise the surface
temperature of any protruding poorly cooled part of the chember, and this
therefore provides a focal point for pre-ignition.

Effects of Pre-ignition:
a. It increase the tendency of denotation in the engine.
b. It increases heat transfer to cylinder walls because high temperature gas
remains in contact with for a longer time.
c. Pre-ignition in a single cylinder will reduce the speed and power output.
d. Pre-ignition may cause seizer in the multi-cylinder engines, only if only
cylinders have pre-ignition.

EFFECT OF ENGINE OPERATING VARIABLES ON THE

ENGINEKNOCKING DETONATION

TEMPERATURE FACTORS:
Increasing the temperature of the unburned mixture increase the possibility of
knock in the SI engine we shall now discuss the effect of following engine
parameters on the temperature of the unburned mixture.

Raising the compression ratio:

Increasing the compression ratio increases both the temperature and pressure
(density of the unburned mixture). Increase in temperature reduces the delay
period of the end gas which in turn increases the tendency to knock.
Supercharging: It also increases both temperature and density, which increase
the knocking tendency of engine.

Coolant temperature:
Delay period decreases with increase of coolant temperature decreased delay
period increase the tendency to knock.

Temperature of the cylinder and combustion chamber wall:

The temperature of the end gas depends on the design of combustion
chamber. Sparking plug and exhaust valve are two hottest parts in the
combustion chamber and uneven temperature leads to pre-ignition and hence
the knocking.

DENSITY FACTORS:
Increasing the density of un-burnt mixture will increase the possibility of knock
in the engine. The engine parameters which affect the density are as follows:
a) Increased compression ratio increase the density.
b) Increasing the load opens the throttle valve more and thus the density.
c) Supercharging increase the density of the mixture.
d) Increasing the inlet pressure increases the overall pressure during the cycle.
The high pressure end gas decreases the delay period which increase the
tendency of knocking.

Advanced spark timing:

quantity of fuel burnt per cycle before and after TDC position depends on spark
timing. The temperature of charge increases by increasing the spark advance
and it increases with rate of burning and does not allow sufficient time to the
end. mixture to dissipate the heat and increase the knocking tendency.

TIME FACTORS:
Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto- ignition
conditions increase the possibility of knock in SI engines.

Flame travel distance:

If the distance of flame travel is more, then possibility of knocking is also
more. This problem can be solved by combustion chamber design, spark plug
location. and engine size. Compact combustion chamber will have better anti-
knock characteristics, since the flame travel and combustion time will be
shorter. Further, if the combustion chamber is highly turbulent, the combustion
rate is high and consequently combustion time is further reduced; this further
reduces the tendency to knock.

Location of sparkplug:
A spark plug which is centrally located in the combustion chamber has
minimum tendency to knock as the flame travel is minimum. The flame travel
can be reduced by using two or more spark plugs.

Location of exhaust valve:

The exhaust valve should be located close to the spark plug so that it is not in
the end gas region; otherwise, there will be a tendency to knock. Large engines
have a greater knocking tendency because flame requires a longer time to
travel across the combustion chamber. In SI engine therefore, generally limited
to 100mm.

Turbulence:
turbulence of the mixture decreases the flame speed and hence increases the
tendency to knock. Turbulence depends on the design of combustion chamber
and one engine speed.

COMPOSITION:
The properties of fuel and A/F ratio are primary means to control
knock:
Molecular Structure: The knocking tendency is markedly affected by the type
of the fuel
used. Petroleum fuels usually consist of many hydro-carbons of different
molecular structure.
The structure of the fuel molecule has enormous effect on knocking tendency.
Increasing the
carbon-chain increases the knocking tendency and centralizing the carbon
atoms decreases
the knocking tendency. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have less knocking
tendency than saturated hydrocarbons.

Paraffin’s:

a) Increasing the length of carbon chain increases the knocking tendency.

b) Centralizing the carbon atoms decreases the knocking tendency. ¢) Adding
methyl group
(CH to the side of the carbon chain in the centre position decreases the
knocking tendency.
Olefins:
Introduction of one double bond has little effect on anti-knock quality but two
or three double bond results less knocking tendency except C and C.
Napthenes and Aromatics
:
a) Napthenes have greater knocking tendency than corresponding aromatics.
b) With increasing double-bonds, the knocking tendency is reduced.
¢) Lengthening the side chains increases the knocking tendency whereas
branching of the
side chain decreases the knocking tendency.

FUEL AIR RATIO:

The most important effect of fuel-aft ratio is on the reaction time or
ignition delay. When the mixture is nearly 10% richer than stoichiometric (fuel-
air ratio
=0.08) ignition lag of the end gas is minimum, and the velocity of flame
propagation is
maximum. By making the mixture leaner or richer (than F/A 0.08) the tendency
to knock is
decreased. A too rich mixture is especially effective in decreasing or
eliminating the knock
due to longer delay and lower temperature of compression.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENT GRADE FUEL:

a) It is difficult to obtain different grade fuel in the market specially RON 97.
b) Sometimes the engine gives the wrong data which leads us to the wrong
calculation.
¢) During testing of flash point and fire point of petrol fuel refrigeration also
another problem.

EMISSION AND ITS CONTROL:

INTRODUCTION:

Emission is defined as the discharge of some substance such as gas into the
environment. During the combustion process in an IC engine, undesirable
emissions are generate that means some pollutants and odors are emitted into
the environment. The pollutants are CO2, CO, Nitrogen, Sulphur and others
particulates and these pollutants are very harmful for environment. In
automobile engineering means employed to limit the discharge of noxious
gases from the IC engine. There are four main sources of these gases as like the
engine exhaust, the crank case, and the carburettor. An emission test is an
assessment of a vehicle’s pollution output under simulated driving conditions.
In most cases it can only be performed by auto mechanics with certain limited
specialized equipment and training. Many countries set minimum emissions
standards for cars or trucks that are sold within their jurisdictions, and states,
provinces, and localities often also require car owners to get tests
done every year or every other year in order to be sure that all vehicles using
the roads meet these standards. The Bharat Stage norms have been styled to
suit specific needs and demand of Indian condition. In the year 2000, India
started adopting European emission norms and fuel regulation for four
wheeled light duty and heavy duty vehicles. Car engines can emit a
range of dangerous gases as they burn gasoline. There has been a great
concern in recent year that the IC engines are responsible for too much
atmospheric pollution which is detrimental to human health and environment.
So, if we try to control the emission level of the engine we can modify the
engine design, operating parameters and treatment of exhaust products of
combustion and if we mix the organic fuel like alcohol in different proportion in
different RON brand then reduction of emission is possible because alcohol has
some advantage such as better antiknock characteristics and reduction of CO
emission.

EMISSION OF IC ENGINE:

Internal combustion engine generate undesirable emissions during combustion

process. Both SI and CI engine are equally responsible. The emission exhausted
into the surrounding pollutes the atmosphere and causes global warming, acid
rain, smog and odors. The major causes of these emissions are non
stoichiometric combustion dissociation of nitrogen and
impurities in the fuel and air. The SI engine emissions are divided into three
categories as exhaust emission, evaporative emission and crank case emission.
The major constituents which contribute to air pollution are CO, NOX, and HC
coming from SI engine exhaust. In most of the modern engine the non exhaust
unburned HC are effectively controlled by returning the blow by gases from
the crank cases to the engine intake system by venting the
fuel tank through a vapour absorbing carbon canister which is purged as some
of the engine intake air during normal engine operation.CO also forms during
combustion process with lean A:F mixtures, even is sufficient O2 to burn all the
carbon in the fuel to CO2.but in high temperature products even with lean
mixture, there is sufficient CO in exhaust because of dissociation of CO2 .Later
in expansion stroke, the CO oxidation process also freezes as the
gas temperature falls. One of the most important variables in determining SI
engine emission is the fuel air equivalence ratio (a). The SI engine is always
operated at stoichiometric or slightly rich mixture give lower emissions until
the combustion quality becomes poor. At the starting of the engine, very rich
mixture is supplied as vaporization is very slow, thus, until
the engine warms up and this enrichment is stopped, CO and HC emissions are
high. At part load conditions, lean mixture can be used which will reduce HC
and CO emissions and moderate NOx level but deteriorates combustion
quality. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) method is used with stoichiometric
mixtures in many engines to reduce emission.

SI ENGINE EMISSION:

SI engine emissions are divided into three categories as

1. Exhaust emission
II. Evaporative emission
II1. Crank case emission.

Exhaust emission:
The relative amounts depend on engine design and operating conditions
but are of order, NOx -> 500-1000 ppm (20 gm/kg of fuel), CO -> 122%
(200gm/kg of fuel) and HC -> 43000 ppm (25 gm/kg of fuel). Fuel evaporation
from fuel tank and carburettor exists even after engine shut down and these
are unburned hydrocarbons. However in most modern engines, these non-
exhaust unburned HCR effectively controlled by returning the
blow by gases from the crank case to the engine. The petrol rarely contains
Sulphur therefore; SO2 is not a pollutant from SI engine exhaust. Petrol
contains lead in small percentages but its effect is more serious on human
health. Therefore Delhi govt has restricted the use of
petrol without lead. One of the most important variables in determining SI
emission is the fuel air equivalence ratio. The ST engine is always operated at
stoichiometric or slightly rich mixture. At the starting of the engine, very rich
mixture is supplied as vaporization is very slow. Thus, until the engine warms
up and this enrichment is stopped, CO and HC emissions are high. At part load
conditions, lean mixture can be used which will reduce HC and CO
emissions and moderate NOx emissions. Use of recycled exhaust to dilute the
engine intake mixture lowers the NOx level but deteriorates combustion
quality. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Method is used with stoichiometric
mixtures in many engines to reduce emissions.
The sources of pollution are mainly three as mentioned earlier, the engine
exhaust, (CO, NOx, and HC), the crankcase breather (HC) and direct
evaporation of petrol from carburettor and fuel tank particularly in hot
weather (HC).
Crankcase Emission:
The piston and its rings are designed to form a gas-tight seal between
the sliding piston and cylinder walls. However, in practice there will always be
some compressed charge and burnt fumes escape during compression and
power stroke to crankcase. These gases are usually un-burnt air-fuel mixture
hydrocarbons, or burnt (or partially burnt) products of combustion, CO2, H20
(steam) or CO. These products also contaminate the lubricating oils.

Evaporative Emission
: Evaporative emissions account for 15% to 25% of total hydrocarbon
emission from a gasoline engine. The following are two main sources of
evaporative emissions:
® The fuel tank
® The carburetor
Fuel Tank Losses: The main factors governing the tank emissions are fuel
volatility and the ambient temperature, but the tank design and location can
also influence the emissions as location affects the temperature. Insulation of
tank and vapour collection systems have all been explored with a view to
reduce the tank emission.
Carburetor Losses: Although most internally vented carburetors have an
external vent which opens at idle throttle position, the existing pressure forces
prevent outflow of vapours to the atmosphere. Internally vented carburetor
may enrich the mixture which in turn increases exhaust emission.

MECHANISM OF POLLUTANTS FORMATION:

Pollutants are produced by the incomplete burning of the air-fuel mixture in

the combustion chamber. The major pollutants emitted from the exhaust due
to incomplete combustion are: Carbon monoxide (CO) , Hydrocarbons (HC),
Oxides of nitrogen (NO).

Carbon Monoxide (CO) :

Carbon monoxide is colorless and odorless but a poisonous gas. It is generated
in an engine when it is operated with a fuel rich equivalence ratio. It is a
product of incomplete combustion and occurs when carbon in the fuel is
partially oxidized rather than fully oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO). Carbon
monoxide reduces the flow of oxygen in the blood stream and is particularly
dangerous to person with heart disease.

Mechanism of Formation of CO:

CO is intermediate product of combustion remains in
exhaust if the oxidation of CO to C02 is not complete. Theoretically, it can be
said that petrol engine exhaust is free of CO if the air fuel ratio is 15. However,
some CO is always present in the exhaust even at lean mixture and can be as
high as 1%. CO is generally formed when the mixture is rich in fuel. The
amount of CO formed increases the mixture becomes more
and more rich in fuel. A small amount of CO will come out of the exhaust even
when the mixture is slightly lean in fuel. This is due to the fact that equilibrium
is not established when the products pass to the exhaust. At the high
temperature developed during the combustion, the products formed are
unstable, and the following reactions take place before the equilibrium is
established.
2H20+ 02— 2(1-y) H20 + 2yH2 + yO2 where, y is the fraction of H20
dissociated.
C+02 —»C0O2 — + (1-x)CO2 +x CO + x/2 02
As the products cool down to exhaust temperature, major part of CO reacts
with oxygen form CO2 However, a relatively small amount of CO will remain in
exhaust, its concentration creasing with rich mixtures.

Hydrocarbons (HC):

The unburnt hydrocarbons emission is the direct result of incomplete

combustion. The emission amount of hydrocarbon is closely related to design
variables and combustion chamber design and operating variables such as A:F
ratio, speed, load and mode of operation as idling, running or accelerating.
Surface to volume ratio and wall quenching greatly affects in formation of HC.
Hydrocarbons, derived from unburnt fuel emitted, by exhausts, engine
crankcase fumes and vapour escaping from the carburetor are also harmful to
health.
Mechanism of Formation of HC:
Due to existence of local very rich mixture pockets at
much lower temperatures than combustion chambers, unburnt hydrocarbons
may appear in the exhaust. The hydrocarbons also appear due to flame
quenching near the metallic walls. A significant portion of this unburnt
hydrocarbon may burn during expansion and exhaust strokes if the oxygen
concentration and exhaust temperature is suitable for complete oxidation
Otherwise a large amount of hydrocarbon will go out with the exhaust gases.

Oxides Of Nitrogen (NOx):

Oxides of N2 generally occur mainly in the form of NO and NO2 . These are
generally formed at high temperature. Hence high temperature and availability
of O2 are the main reason for the formation of NO and NO2 .Many other
oxides like N204, N20, N203 ,N205 are also formed in low concentration but
they decompose spontaneously at ambient conditions of NO2. The maximum
NOXx levels are observed with A:F ratios of about 10%
above stoichiometric. Oxides of nitrogen and other obnoxious substances are
produced in very small quantities and, in certain environments, can cause
pollution, while prolonged exposure is dangerous to health.

Mechanism of Formation of Nitric Oxide (NOX):

At high combustion temperatures, the following chemical reactions take place
behind the flame: N2+ O2 =2NO N2+ 2H2 O=2NO+2H2
Chemical equilibrium calculations show that a significant amount of NO will be
formed the end of combustion. The majority of NO formed will however
decompose at the low temperature of exhaust. But due to very low reaction
rate at the exhaust temperature a part of NO formed remains in exhaust. It is
far in excess of the equilibrium composition at that temperature as t formation
of NO freezes at low exhaust temperatures. The NO formation will be less in
rich mixtures than in lean mixtures.

Smoke or Particulate:

Solid particles are usually formed by dehydrogenation, polymerization and

agglomeration. In the combustion process of different hydrocarbons, acetylene
(C2H2) is formed as intermediate product. These acetylene molecules after
simultaneous polymerization dehydration produce carbon particles, which are
the main constituent of the particulate.
Aldehydes:

Due to very slow chemical reaction during delay period in the diesel engines,
aldehydes are formed as intermediate products. In some parts of the spray the
aldehydes will be left after the initial reactions. These aldehydes may be
oxidized in the later part of the cycle, if the mixture temperature is high, and if
there is sufficient oxygen. At heavy loads, due to lack of oxygen, an increase in
aldehyde emission in the exhaust is observed.

EFFECT OF ENGINE EMISSION ON HUMAN HEALTH:

The major pollutants emitted including CO, NOx, sulphur oxides, (SO), HC, lead
(Pb) and suspended particulate matter (SPM), have damaging effects on both
human health and ecology. The human health effects of air pollution vary in
the degree of severity, covering a range of minor effects to serious illness, as
well as premature death in certain cases. Most of the,pollutants are believed
to directly affect the respiratory and cardio- vascular systems. In
particular, high levels of SO2 and SPM are associated with increased mortality,
morbidity and impaired pulmonary function. Lead prevents hemoglobin
synthesis in red blood cells in bone marrow, impairs liver and kidney function
and causes neurological damage. Generally speaking, Susceptibility to the
effects of exhaust emissions is greatest amongst infants and the
elderly. Those with chronic diseases of lungs or heart are thought to be at
great risk.

Control of Emission from SI Engines:

To reduce atmospheric pollution, two different approaches are followed:

1. To reduce the formation of pollutants in the emission by redesigning the
engine system, fuel system, cooling system and ignition system.
2. By destroying the pollutants after these have been formed.

METHODS OF SI ENGINE EMISSION CONTROL:

The main methods, among various methods, for S.I. engine emission control
are:
* Modification in the engine design and operating parameters.
Treatment of exhaust products of combustion.
* Modification of the fuels.

Modification in the Engine Design and Operating Parameters:

Modification of combustion chamber involves avoiding flame quenching zone
where combustion might otherwise be incomplete and resulting in high HC
emission. This includes: Reduction of surface to volume (SAT) ratio, Reduced
space around piston ring.
Lower Compression Ratio:
Lower compression ratio reduces the quenching effect by
reducing the quenching area, thus reducing HC. Lower compression ratio also
reduces NO emissions due to lower maximum temperature. Lower
compression, however, reduces thermal efficiency and increases fuel
consumption. Treatment of exhaust products of combustion. The exhaust gas
coming out of exhaust manifold is treated to reduce HC and CO
emissions. The devices used to accomplish are after burner, Exhaust manifold
reactor and Catalytic converter. After-burner is a burner where air is supplied
to the exhaust gases and mixture is burnt with the help of ignition system. The
HC and CO which are formed in the engine combustion
because of inadequate O2 and inadequate time to burn are further brunets by
providing air in a separate box, known as after-burner.
Exhaust manifold reactor is a further development of after-burner where the
design is changed so as to minimize the heat loss and to provide sufficient time
for mixing of Exhaust and secondary air.

Catalytic converter is a device which is placed in the vehicle exhaust system to

reduce HC, and CO by oxidizing catalyst and NO by reducing catalyst.
Modification of the Fuels: The ability of a fuel to burn in mixtures leaner
than stoichiometric ratio is a rough indication of its potential emission reducing
characteristics and reduced fuel consumption. If gasoline is changed to
propane as engine fuel CO emission can substantially be reduced with reduced
HC and NO and in changing from propane to methane the CO as well HC
emission touch zero level and only the NO remains as a significant factor.
From pollution point of view both methane and steam reformed hexane are
very attractive fuels but we are unable to use at present for want of
technological progress.

FUTURE SCOPE OF STUDY:

Investigation on IC engine is a vast thing and lot of research work is needed in

the future for the below field.
a. Changing the compression ratio, analysis the performance of the engine can
be carried out.
b. Each and every case emission level of different graded fuel can be
calculated.
c. Failure analysis of different engine can be carried out.
CONCLUSION:

It has been investigated through the project work for measuring engine
performance and
emission have been successfully established. This procedure will be utilized to
further obtain
the main objectives of the investigation. The performance and emission level
of different fuel
RON grades and fuel brands will give some indication of which fuel brand is the
best and
which RON grades is better for engine performance as well low emissions level.
Analyzing
RON 91 and RON 97 grade fuel we obtained some important characteristics of
these fuels.
CJRON 97 having more brake thermal efficiency.
1 RON 97 gives much volumetric efficiency.
1 RON 97 creates less noise during engine running condition.
Therefore RON 97 should be favorable fuel for our daily use. But for RON 97
there having
some difficulties as it is not available in the market and also costly. To get less
pollutant from
engine combustion of appropriate fuel and design modification of engine is
needed. Design
modification is very complex but during engine testing we found some useful
points
T1Alcohols up to 20% can be added to pure petrol in engines giving better
performances in
increasing the B.P., thermal efficiency and also resulting in a significant
decrease in pollution
like CO and HC.
[There has been no requirement to make the basic engine design change when
alcohols are
mixed with the petrol up to 20% addition of alcohol.