Acoustic Simulation TOol

Book of Tutorials
v2.0

Umberto Iemma & Vincenzo Marchese

http://acousto.sourceforge.net
Contents

1 Scattering of spherical waves by a rigid sphere 4

1.1 Analytical solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3 Setting up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3.1 Using the built–in AcouSTO pre–processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3.2 Using Gmsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.4 Analysis of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.4.1 Influence of the reduced frequency, ka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.4.2 Symmetry management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.4.3 Primary field formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.4.4 Regularization at spurious eigenfrequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Scattering of a plane wave by an impedance sphere 13

2.1 Analytical solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.3 AcouSTO solution using the impedance body option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.4 AcouSTO solution using an impedance file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1
CONTENTS

2.5 AcouSTO solution using custom boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Engines’ shielding effect of an aircraft model in static conditions 20

3.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.3 How to use it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4 Frequency response of a E[ –tuned natural trumpet 26

4.1 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4.2 How to use it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.3.1 Input impedance of the instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5 A simple radiating box 30

5.1 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5.2 Geometry generation and simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6 Just a bit of room acoustics 35

6.1 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6.2 Response with sound–hard walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6.3 Analysis with one sound–absorbing wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6.3.1 Source strength definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6.3.2 Wall impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6.3.3 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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CONTENTS

7 Incompressible Potential Aerodynamics 43

7.1 Potential flow of an incompressible, inviscid fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

7.2 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7.3 Impermeable sphere in a uniform flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7.3.1 How to solve the problem with AcouSTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

 CHAPTER 1

Scattering of spherical waves by a

rigid sphere

A simple problem to learn about symmetries

4
1.1 Analytical solution

Aim of this first tutorial is to familiarize with the basic features of AcouSTO with the very
simple problem of the scattering of the field induced by a monopole due to a sound–hard
sphere of radius a = 1. An axially symmetric configuration is chosen to let the user verify
by himself the different options available to handle symmetries. In order to validate the
results, the analytical solution of the problem is provided at four different values of the
reduced frequency kR. The fictitious eigenfrequencies issue is also addressed with this
tutorial, along with the use of the CHIEF method to circumvent it.

1.1 Analytical solution

Let’s assume that a point source of unit amplitude is located close to a rigid sphere of
radius a. The monopole distance from the sphere center O is rs . The problem exhibits
axial symmetry w.r.t. the axis connecting the sphere center to the source location. Thus,
we can obtain the solution in the whole field from its knowledge onto a generic plane
passing through the symmetry axis. We can define the polar coordinates, (r, θ) depicted
in figure 1.1. The source is located at rs ≡ (rs , 0), whereas a generic point in the field is
indicated by r ≡ (r, θ). The acoustic potential in the field is the solution of
∂φ
∇2 φ + κ2 φ = δ(r − rs ), with = 0 for r = a. (1.1)
∂r
which reads (see, e.g., [2])
∞ 
ej kR j k X 1 jn0 (ka) hn (krs )

φ(r, θ) = φinc + φsc =− + n+ hn (kr) Pn (cosθ) (1.2)
4πR 2π 2 h0n (ka)
n=0

where hn and jn are the spherical Hankel and Bessel functions of the first kind, respectively,
Pn is the Legendre polynomial of order n, and R = kr − rs k. Equation 1.2 is used to

Figure 1.1: Polar coordinates system.

calculate the solution at a circle of microphones located at a distance of 1.5a from the centre
of the sphere, for ka = ω a/c = 1, 2, 4, π, with rs = 3. Note that ka = π represents the

5 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

1.2 Files

first eigenfrequency of the interior problem inside the sphere with homogeneous Dirichlet
boundary conditions (sound–soft), so the CHIEF regularization technique will be used.

1.2 Files

The files provided with this tutorial are under

acousto distribution path/tutorials/Sphere Monopole

and are listed below.

Name Content
sphere source.cfg Configuration file for AcouSTO built–in
pre–processor
sphere source gmsh.cfg Configuration file for Gmsh geometry
acousto.sources Monopole position and intensity file in
AcouSTO native format
acousto.mics1.5.mesh Circle of microphones at 1.5 m
acousto.chief.mesh CHIEF points coordinates
exact solutions at1.5 folder containing analytical solutions at
various ka
gmsh geom meshes folder containing Gmsh files
compare.gpl gnuplot script to compare solutions (just
change the variable jobname)

1.3 Setting up

In this section, the most relevant aspects of the configuration file setup are described. We
will first analyze the use of the simple AcouSTO built–in functionalities and then what an
be done with the Gmsh pre–processor.

1.3.1 Using the built–in AcouSTO pre–processor

The sphere is one of the simple geometries included in the AcouSTO geometry pre–processor.
The panels generated by AcouSTO on the spherical surface are built on the basis of a
parallels/meridians partition, and for this reason some care must be taken to make the
discrete geometry be compatible with the axial symmetry of the problem. The sections of
the configuration file sphere source.cfg where the geometry is defined are

modgeom={

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1.3 Setting up

active = 1;
geoms = ["sph"];
mics_file = "acousto.mics1.5.mesh";
nmics = 100;
chief_file = "acousto.chief.mesh";
nchief = 2;
};
sph={
type="sphere";
radius=1.0;
segments=12;
rings=12;
translation={x=0.0; y=0.0; z=0.0;};
rotation={x=0.0; y=-90.0; z=0.0;};
};

The geometry of the sphere is portioned into 12 meridians and 12 parallels and rotated
around the y axis of 90 degrees. The reason of the rotation is to align the polar axis of
the discrete geometry with the x axis, which is the one where the monopole is located.1
The panels mesh is really coarse ad cannot reproduce correctly the phenomenon only at
very low frequencies. Once that the user has familiarized with the problem we strongly
suggest to increase the number of elements significantly.

1.3.2 Using Gmsh

Using Gmsh as geometry pre-processor and mesh generator, the user must first generate the
the geometry and then produce the mesh according to the needs of the specific application.
The directory gmsh geom meshes contains two geometry files, for the sphere surface and
for the microphones located in the field. Note that the layer of microphones is not used
to validate the results against the analytic solution (the file acoustic.mics1.5.mesh is
supposed to be used for this), but only to produce the field visualization depicted at the
beginning of the present chapter.

Also with Gmsh , the user must pay particular attention in the generation of the geometry,
so as to ensure that the mesh would exhibit the same level of symmetry of the continuous
geometry. To do that the file sphere.geo is provided. It includes a parametric description
of a slice of sphere signed with the x axis. The header of the file is

// Gmsh project created on Fri Nov 29 18:46:23 2013

ksymmi = 48; // Number of slices
sec = 360/(2*ksymmi); // Slice amplitude in degrees
1
This choose depend on the need to compare the results with the analytical ones, calculated using
a different reference configuration. Obviously, a perfectly equivalent alternative is to leave the sphere
un–rotated an locate the source along the z axis.

7 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

1.3 Setting up

The user can set the desired level of symmetry, and Gmsh will automatically produce a
slice of the appropriate amplitude. Figure 1.3 shows the geometry obtained by setting
ksymmi=48 The mesh can be now generated according to the general instructions con-

Figure 1.2: Section of sphere geometry for ksymmi=48.

tained in the AcouSTO user manual and in the Gmsh documentation. Just be sure to set
a maximum element size compatible with the analysis do you intend to perform. Figure
1.3 depicts the mesh obtained by setting a maximum dimension equal to 0.05. The file

Figure 1.3: Mesh on the section of sphere geometry.

sphere source gmsh.cfg is ready to import the mesh produced with Gmsh . Be sure that
the value of ksymmi matches the one used in the mesh generation, and to point to the
right file

runinfo={

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1.4 Analysis of results

active = 1;
title = "JobName";
owner = "umby";
ksymmi=48;
krow =-1;
vsound =343.0;
};

modgeom={
active = 1;
geoms = ["gmsphere"];
chief_file="acousto.chief.mesh";
nchief=0;
mics_file = "acousto.mics1.5.mesh";
nmics=100;
};

gmsphere={
type="gmsh";
filename= "./gmsh_geom_meshes/sphere.msh";
symvec={x=1.0;y=0.0;z=0.0;};
refpoint={x=0.0;y=0.0;z=0.0;};
};

The geometry generated by AcouSTO starting from the above example is shown in Figure
1.4, where can be seen how the collocation points are disposed only on the basic slice of
the surface.

Figure 1.4: Axially-symmetric geometry as generated by AcouSTO from Gmsh input files.
The collocation points (blue) are located only along the basic slice of the sphere, sym-
metrized by AcouSTO around the x–axis.

1.4 Analysis of results

The results of the analysis are presented in this section, using polar plots to represent the
total filed at the circle of microphones located at 1.5 radii from the where center. The
analytic solution is always represented by a continuous line, whereas markers are used for
the AcouSTO results. Results are ordered in subsections, where the detailed description of
each specific case is given in the figures’ captions.

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1.4 Analysis of results

1.4.1 Influence of the reduced frequency, ka

Figure 1.5: Polar plot of the velocity potential amplitude at r = 1.5, for ka = 1, 2, 4.
AcouSTO results (markers) obtained with the built–in geometry pre–processor are com-
pared with the analytical solution (continuos line).

Figure 1.6: Polar plot of the velocity potential amplitude at r = 1.5, for ka = 1, 2, 4.
AcouSTO results (markers) obtained with the Gmsh mesh are compared with the analytical
solution (continuos line).

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1.4 Analysis of results

1.4.2 Symmetry management

Figure 1.7: Polar plot of the velocity potential amplitude at r = 1.5, for ka = 2. Assess-
ment of AcouSTO symmetry management for ksymmi=0,1,2,3,24.

1.4.3 Primary field formulation

Figure 1.8: Polar plot of the velocity potential amplitude at r = 1.5, for ka = 2. Assess-
ment of AcouSTO formulations A and B (knw=1 or knw=2, respectively).

11 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

1.4 Analysis of results

1.4.4 Regularization at spurious eigenfrequencies

Figure 1.9: Polar plot of the velocity potential amplitude at r = 1.5, for ka = π.
CHIEF regularization at a singular frequency with the AcouSTO built–in pre–processor.
NCHIEF=2, xch1 ≡ (0.0, 0.0, 0.0), xch2 ≡ (0.41, 0.2, 0.1).

Figure 1.10: Polar plot of the velocity potential amplitude at r = 1.5, for ka = π. Effect
of the use of the CHIEF technique with the Gmsh mesh. NCHIEF=2, xch1 ≡ (0.0, 0.0, 0.0),
xch2 ≡ (0.41, 0.2, 0.1).

12 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

 CHAPTER 2

Scattering of a plane wave by an

impedance sphere

The effect of impedance

13
2.1 Analytical solution

Here, the primary field is that produced by an incoming plane wave, moving from the
negative side of the x axis. The sphere is impinged onto one of its poles, to keep the
discrete problem axially symmetric.

The attention is focused on impedance boundary conditions. The solution is computed for
different values of the complex surface impedance Z of the sphere, using all the possible
approaches available in AcouSTO . Solution is validated against the analytical one.

2.1 Analytical solution

Referring to the same geometry and coordinates convention used in Section 1.1, the total
pressure field induced by a plane wave of unit amplitude,scattered by a sphere of radius
a, is (see, e.g., [3])
∞
jkrcosθ
X jn0 (ka) + j βjn (ka)
p(r, θ) = pinc + psc = e − (2n + 1) j n Pn (cosθ) hn (kr) (2.1)
h0n (ka) + h βjn (ka)
n=0

where hn and jn are the spherical Hankel and Bessel functions of the first kind, respectively,
Pn is the Legendre polynomial of order n, and β = % c0 /Z. Equation 2.1 is used to calculate
the solution at a circle of microphones located at a distance of 1.5a from the centre of the
sphere, for ka = ω a/c = 1, 2, 4, and Z = 100.0 + j 0.0 and Z = 1.0 + j 0.0.

2.2 Files

The files provided with this tutorial are under

acousto distribution path/tutorials/Imped Sphere PlaneWave

and are listed below.

It is worth noting that the multiple lambda–files are required because a wall impedance
constant with frequency corresponds to a frequency-dependent Λ matrix.

2.3 AcouSTO solution using the impedance body option

When the surface of the scatterer is characterized by a uniform wall impedance, the option
of impedance body can be used. This is the simpler way to perform a single–frequency run
in such a case. Indeed, it sufficient to provide a negative value for nimped in the config
file, and AcouSTO automatically associates the value of Z to al the boundary panels. The
relevant section of the config file would appear as

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2.4 AcouSTO solution using an impedance file

Name Content
sphere pw.cfg Configuration file for AcouSTO built–in
pre–processor
acousto.planw Plane wave definition file in AcouSTO na-
tive format
acousto.mics1.5.mesh Circle of microphones at 1.5 m
impedXXX.panels files containing the definition of panel
impedance
lambda kaX.panels custom boundary conditions λ files for
various frequencies
gamma.panels custom boundary conditions γ file
exact sol at1.5 folder containing analytical solutions at
various ka and Z

modsol={
active=1;
nimped=-1;
impedance_real=100.0;
impedance_imag=0.0;
...
...

Figure 2.1 shows the solution obtained using this approach at different values of the
frequency for Z = 100.0 + j0.0. It is important to notice that no regularization is required
at ka = π because of the impedance boundary conditions (see [5] for details). The effect
of the value of Z is shown in Figure 2.2.

2.4 AcouSTO solution using an impedance file

Although not strictly necessary in this case, because of the uniform properties of the
entire boundary, impedance boundary conditions can be given also through an impedance
file containing the value of the complex impedance for each boundary element. The files
impedXXX.panels contain 48 lines (one for each element of the base slice of the sphere).
The content of the imped100.panels file looks like

1 100.0 0.0
2 100.0 0.0
...
48 100.0 0.0

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2.4 AcouSTO solution using an impedance file

Figure 2.1: Directivity pattern of the total field at a 1.5a from the sphere center. Markers
indicates the AcouSTO solution for ka = 1, 2, 4, π. Continuos black lines depict the analyt-
ical solution obtained with Eq. 2.1. Input provided with the impedance body option.

Figure 2.2: Directivity pattern of the total field at a 1.5a from the sphere center. Markers
indicates the AcouSTO solution for Re(Z) = 100 and Re(Z) = 1. Continuos black lines
depict the analytical solution obtained with Eq. 2.1. Input provided with the impedance
body option.

The corresponding portion of the config file is

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2.5 AcouSTO solution using custom boundary conditions

modsol={
active=1;
imped_file = "imped100.panels";
nimped=48;
...
...

The solution obtains with this approach is presented in Figure 2.3. Obviously, the solution
obtained is exactly equivalent to that observed in the previous Section.

Figure 2.3: Directivity pattern of the total field at a 1.5a from the sphere center. Mark-
ers indicates the AcouSTO solution for ka = 1, 2, 4, π. Continuos black lines depict the
analytical solution obtained with Eq. 2.1. Input through impedance file.

2.5 AcouSTO solution using custom boundary conditions

The third approach available in AcouSTO to define the boundary conditions is what we
call custom bounder condition. It is the most general approach allowing the user to define
any kind of boundary conditions from the general form

∂ ϕ̃(x, κ)
γ(x, κ) ϕ̃(x, κ) + λ(x, κ) = f˜(x, κ) + g̃(κ) · n(x), for x ∈ ∂V (2.2)
∂n
In case of an impedance boundary, the values of the complex coefficients appearing in Eq.
6.12 can be obtained from the definition of point impedance (the surface is assumed to be

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2.5 AcouSTO solution using custom boundary conditions

locally reacting)
p̃
Z= (2.3)
v · n̂ in
where nin is the unit vector pointing into the boundary. To derive their specific form, e
need to give a physical interpretation to the function ϕ̃. In Section 2.5 of the User Manual,
we assumed that ϕ̃ is the acoustic velocity potential. On the contrary, we here write
the same equation for the acoustic pressure perturbation (dropping the ∼ for notational
simplicity)
∂p
γp+λ = f˜ + g̃ · n (2.4)
∂n
Recalling the linearized Bernoulli theorem and the orientation of the domain boundary, it
an be easily seen that
∂ϕ 1 ∂p
v · n̂ in = −v · n̂ = −∇ϕ · n̂ = − = (2.5)
∂n j % ω ∂n
Substituting into Eq. 2.3 and comparing with 2.6, we obtain, on each panel,
Z
f = 0, g ≡ (0, 0, 0), γ = 1, λ = (2.6)
j %ω
As a consequence, the Λ matrix depends on frequency. The content of the config file is

Figure 2.4: Directivity pattern of the total field at a 1.5a from the sphere center. Mark-
ers indicates the AcouSTO solution for ka = 1, 2, 4, π. Continuos black lines depict the
analytical solution obtained with Eq. 2.1. Custom boundary conditions.

modsol={
active=1;

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2.5 AcouSTO solution using custom boundary conditions

custombc=1;
bc_gamma_file="gamma.panels";
bc_lambda_file="lambda_ka2.panels";
bc_func_file="func.panels";
bc_g_file="g.panels";
planw_file="acousto.planw";
nplanw=1;
knw=2;
rho=1.21;
minsig=0.0;
maxsig=0.0;
nsig=1;
minfreq=109.18;
maxfreq=218.36;
nome = 1;
...
...

Be sure to provide the value of the frequency corresponding to the Λ matrix chosen (in
this case, ka = 2 ⇒ 109.18 Hz. The results are depicted in Fig. 2.4. Also in this case the
solution is in perfect agreement with the analytical one.

19 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

 CHAPTER 3

Engines’ shielding effect of an air-

craft model in static conditions

How bodies mask noise

20
3.1 Description

3.1 Description

This tutorial deals with the evaluation of the scattering effect produced by an aircraft
model on the field generated by two monopoles. This analysis can be seen as a rough
simplification of the effect on noise propagation of an unconventional over–the–wing in-
stallation of the engines.

It is clearly only an exercise, because the strong directivity of the actual noise sources is
not taken into account at all. Nevertheless, with a careful choice of the location of the
monopoles and of their intensity, such an analysis can be used to derive digital filters to
be applied to a real spectrum to estimate the installation loss.

The analysis does not take into account the aircraft speed. This possibility is currently
available in an unreleased version of AcouSTO , and will be release to the public most likely
with AcouSTO v2.0.

3.2 Files

The files provided with the tutorial are listed below

Name Content
aircraft.cfg Configuration file
aircraft 15345N 15028E.nodes File of the aircraft geometry produced
with an in–house developed external tool
in native AcouSTO nodes format.
Geometry is made of 15345 nodes and
15028 quadrilateral elements.
The size of the aircraft is scaled down by
the factor 0.2.
aircarft.sources Monopoles file in AcouSTO native format.
microphones.geo Gmsh geometry description file to produce
a planar layer of microphones.
microphones sphere.geo Gmsh geometry description file to produce
a spherical layer of microphones.
microphones size0.4 z10.msh Gmsh microphones planar mesh obtained
with the .geo file, located 10 meters below
the aircraft
microphones size0.4 sphere.msh Gmsh microphones spherical mesh ob-
tained with the .geo file, 10 meters ra-
dius.

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3.3 How to use it

3.3 How to use it

This tutorial comes with a fixed geometry of the scatterer, so the user has no possibility
to modify it.1

The figure use in the first page of the present chapter has been obtained using the settings
included in the provided files. Note that the mesh of the aircraft is quite coarse, and the
analysis at frequencies higher than 350 Hz cannot be considered accurate.

The Gmsh .geo files can be used to modify the shape, the extent and the position of the
layer of microphones used to monitor the field. The header of the two files include self–
explanatory parameters that can be modified by the user. The procedure to produce a
miss mesh compatible with AcouSTO is the following

1. Load the file of interest into Gmsh using the File>Open menu.

2. Select the Edit file options in the left menu and modify the initial parameters as
desired. Save the file and select the Reload file option from the same menu.

3. Open the Tools>Options menu and the Mesh>General submenu in the opened win-
dow. decide a maximum size for the element. As a rule–of–thumb to have a nice
visualization of the field you can use one fifth of the wavelength. Note that this
choice does not affect the accuracy of the solution (which is related to the
boundary mesh size), but only the quality of the field visualization.

4. Select the Mesh>1D option in the left menu to build the partition of the surface edges.

5. Select the Mesh>2D option in the left menu to build the surface mesh.

6. Save the mesh in Gmsh format, .msh.

In the distribution, one spherical mesh and one planar mesh are included. Both have a
maximum element size of 0.4 m.

Now you can modify the config file with the name of the mics mesh produced and run the
code with the command

mpiexec -np N /path to acousto/acousto -f aircraft.cfg

where N is the number of processes. On a MacPro equipped with 2 × 2.26 GHz, Quad-Core
Xeon, the run takes 110 seconds to be completed, with N = 16 (hyper–threading).
1
Actually, one could import the AcouSTO output in wrl or vtk format and try to hack the geometry in
some way using Blender or any othe 3D modeler capable to import those formats. But this is another
story, we are not interested in ...

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3.4 Results

The user can play with the config settings to see what are the effects on the solution. A
possible list of tests is the following.

• Being the sources two simple monopoles, the two formulations for the primary field
treatment can be used, switching knw from 1 to 2.

• Changing the position of the sources can give an idea of the effect of installation on
the noise propagation.

• Also the frequency can be changed to see how deeply the scattering pattern is af-
fected.

3.4 Results

The results obtained with the mesh provided with the AcouSTO distribution are summa-
rized in this section. Specifically, Figures 3.1 to 3.4 show the SPL at the microphones
hemisphere for four frequencies, from 150 to 750 Hz. The effect of frequency on the mask-
ing effect is evident. The lowest frequency analyzed corresponds to a wavelenght of 2.82
meters, which is comparable to the dimensions of the aircarft model. In this condition,
the scattering of the incident wave is dominant. The interaction of the fields induced by
the two sources yields a strip of increased noise along the symmetry line with a limited
shielding effect ahead of the fuselage nose. As the frequency increases the shadow pro-
duced by wings and fuselage on the monitoring hemisphere becomes clear, as an effect of
the reduced wave scattering for shorter wavelenghts and the increase upward reflection of
the wings. In addition, the reflection induced by the fuselage enhances the effect of noise
amplification on the aircarft plane. The difference between maximum and minimum noise
levels increases from roughly 15 dB at 350 Hz to about 25 dB at 750 hz.

It is important to emphasize that this execercise doesn’t take into account the effect of
motion of sources and aircraft. This effect may significantly modify the directivity of prop-
agation and yields to completely different noise patterns on the observation hemisphere.
The effect of moving sources and boundaries is currently available only in an internal
version of the code and will be released in one of the future versions.

23 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

3.4 Results

Figure 3.1: Real part of the total field on the aircraft surface and SPL on the microphones
hemisphere at 150 Hz.

Figure 3.2: Real part of the total field on the aircraft surface and SPL on the microphones
hemisphere at 350 Hz.

24 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

3.4 Results

Figure 3.3: Real part of the total field on the aircraft surface and SPL on the microphones
hemisphere at 550 Hz.

Figure 3.4: Real part of the total field on the aircraft surface and SPL on the microphones
hemisphere at 750 Hz.

25 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

 CHAPTER 4

Frequency response of a E[–tuned

natural trumpet

Learn about frequency response with some

music

26
4.1 Files

This tutorial is dedicated to the multi-frequency analysis, typically used to simulate the
frequency response of an acoustic device. The application chosen to describe this kind of
jobs is the evaluation of the acoustic response of a natural trumpet.

Specifically, the spectrum of the acoustic pressure at three microphones located close to
the output section of the instrument flare is evaluated in the frequency range 0 ≤ f ≤ 1000
Hz.The acoustic field is induced by a uniform radiation of the panels corresponding to the
input section of the mouthpiece. The radiation of the input section has complex amplitude
f˜ = 1 in the whole frequency range considered.

4.1 Files

The files provided with this tutorial are under

acousto distribution path/tutorials/Brass FreqResponse

and are listed below.

Name Content
brass fresp.cfg Configuration file
acousto.mics.dat Microphones in the field
Brass.nodes geometry of the trumpet in AcouSTO nodes
format
acousto.custombc.XXXX.dat Files containing custom boundary condi-
tions
equal temp freqs Frequencies of the equal tempered scale,
for comparison and validation of results.

4.2 How to use it

The files provided with the tutorial are ready to be used in AcouSTO . The user with a
working AcouSTO installation should be able to run the test with the standard command.

In this Section, we summarize the specific issues that the user should be aware of when
performing frequency response analysis.

1. Considering that the number of frequencies analyzed could be very high (512 in the
example, but often much more are needed) the number of file produced could be also
very high. Remember to activate only the output format you really need.

27 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

4.3 Results

2. In this kind of analysis it is extremely convenient to adopt the pre–calculation of

integral coefficients by setting
pre calculated coefs=1;
or by omitting the entry from the config file (the variable defaults to 1, for backward
compatibility). Indeed, the integration over the boundary panels does not depend
on frequency and thus is calculated only once. Anyway, be sure that your system has
enough memory to store them. Remember also to activate the coefficients evaluation
modules

modcoefac = {
active = 1;
};
modcoemic = {
active = 1;
};

3. The frequency response of the trumpet is obtained assuming that at the mouthpiece
input section the condition is given by
∂ϕ
= 1.0, for fmin ≤ f ≤ fmax (4.1)
∂n
This boundary condition is imposed using the custom declaration with (see AcouSTO User
Manual)
f˜ = 1.0, λ = 1.0, γ = 0.0, g ≡ (0.0, 0.0, 0.0) (4.2)
The geometry was built using a single panel for the input section, so, only one record
is included in the custom b.c. files.

4. The frequency response is written on files only for the collocation points and micro-
phones indicated in the modsol section of the config file.

4.3 Results

The results of the analysis performed in the range 40-1000 Hz is presented in Figure 4.3
for the three microphones closest to the trumpet output section. The response exhibits
7 peaks in the frequency range analyzed, corresponding to the equal tempered pitches
indicated along the abscissae. As can be seen, the fourth peak corresponds to E[4 , which
represents the tuning of the instrument.

4.3.1 Input impedance of the instrument

An important property of a musical pipe is the complex input impedance, defined as

p̃in (ω)
Zin (ω) = (4.3)
ũin (ω)

28 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

4.3 Results

where ũin and p̃in represent the pressure and the flow at the input section of the pipe,
respectively. Interpreting the AcouSTO analysis performed in terms of acoustic velocity
potential, the boundary condition yields
∂ϕ
ũin = ∇ϕ̃ · nin = = 1, for x ∈ Sin (4.4)
∂n
Thus, recalling the Bernoulli theorem, the input impedance spectrum can be computed
from the solution ϕ̃ as

Zin (ω) = −j ω ρ ϕ̃in (ω) (4.5)

The input impedance spectrum can be easily obtained with AcouSTO setting
freq resp cnt = [1];

in the modsol section of the config file.

29 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

 CHAPTER 5

A simple radiating box

Learn how to handle multiple geometries

30
5.1 Files

Here, we familiarize with the use of multiple geometries with AcouSTO . Specifically, a
simple rectangular box is built using the built–in module plate. Six plates are specified
to form each face of the box by translation and rotation. One of box’s faces radiates
uniformly. On all the others sound–hard conditions are applied. The field is reconstructed
on two planes of microphones, orthogonal to the radiating wall.

5.1 Files

The files provided with this tutorial are under

acousto distribution path/tutorials/Radiating Box

and are listed below.

Name Content
box.cfg Configuration file
mics.geo Microphones layer geometry (Gmsh geo
file)
mics.msh Microphones mesh (Gmsh msh file)
radiant.panels list of radiating panels

5.2 Geometry generation and simulation

The box dimensions are 1 × 1.5 × 2 and one of its 1 × 1.5 faces radiates uniformly. The
geometry of the boundary is entirely generated using the AcouSTO built–in module plate.
Six geometry blocks of type plate are used, each one suitably translated and rotated to
produce eventually a closed box. The geometry section of the config file is

modgeom={
active = 1;
geoms = ["pl1","pl2","pl3","pl1b","pl2b","pl3b"];
mics_file = "mics.msh";
};

pl1={
type="plate";
l1=1.0;
l2=2.0;
n1=10;
n2=10;
translation={x=0.0; y=0.0; z=0.75;};
rotation={x=0.0; y=0.0; z=0.0;};
};

pl2={
type="plate";
l1=1.5;
l2=2.0;
n1=20;
n2=20;
translation={x=0.5; y=0.0; z=0.0;};
rotation={x=0.0; y=90.0; z=0.0;};

31 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

5.2 Geometry generation and simulation

};

pl3={
type="plate";
l1=1.0;
l2=1.5;
n1=10;
n2=10;
translation={x=0.0; y=-1.0; z=0.0;};
rotation={x=90.0; y=00.0; z=0.0;};
};

pl1b={
type="plate";
l1=1.0;
l2=2.0;
n1=10;
n2=10;
translation={x=0.0; y=0.0; z=-0.75;};
rotation={x=0.0; y=180.0; z=0.0;};
};

pl2b={
type="plate";
l1=1.5;
l2=2.0;
n1=20;
n2=20;
translation={x=-0.5; y=0.0; z=0.0;};
rotation={x=0.0; y=-90.0; z=0.0;};
};

pl3b={
type="plate";
l1=1.0;
l2=1.5;
n1=10;
n2=10;
translation={x=0.0; y=+1.0; z=0.0;};
rotation={x=-90.0; y=00.0; z=0.0;};
};

Figure 5.1: Final geometry with normal vectors at panels.

There two aspects that must be taken into account when building complex geometries

32 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

5.2 Geometry generation and simulation

using the built–in blocks

1. the procedure that AcouSTO uses to transform the geometries is the following

(a) scaling
(b) rotation around x axis
(c) rotation around y axis
(d) rotation around z axis
(e) translation

Keep in mind the transformation sequence when building the config file.

2. When a closed geom is built assembling open surfaces (such in this case) the rotation
sign controls the direction of the normal vectors at the boundary elements. Always
check the unit normal sign using the vtk file. Figure 5.1 shows how the correct
geometry would look like.

The simulation results are shown in Figures 5.2 and 5.3 as the real part and absolute value
of the acoustic pressure, respectively.

Figure 5.2: Real part of the acoustic field on the box and in the surrounding field.

33 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

5.2 Geometry generation and simulation

Figure 5.3: Absolute value of the acoustic field on the box and in the surrounding field.

34 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

 CHAPTER 6

Just a bit of room acoustics

Learn how to handle noise in enclosures

35
6.1 Files

AcouSTO can also do interior (or room) acoustics. Obviously, when the domain of propa-
gation is finite, part of the advantages of the BEM with respect to FEM and other field
methods is lost. Nevertheless, in some case it remains a reliable, simple and fast tool of
analysis. In the present tutorial, we address the setup of a simple problem of interior
acoustics using the same box of the previous chapter, but with reversed orientation of the
boundary. A simple point source is located inside, and the frequency response is evalu-
ated at a monitoring point. First, we analyse the frequency response of the cavity with
sound–hard walls using the same approach used for the brass in Chapter 4: the frequency
range of interest is spanned with a monopole source of unit amplitude (real), and the
absolute value of the total filed is plotted at the monitoring microphone. The response
peaks corresponding to the eigenfrequency of the cavity are compared to their analytical
values, and some of the related eigenmodes are plotted on a layer of microphones.

Then, one of the walls is assumed to be covered with a layer of sound absorbing material
with a known, frequency–independent absorption coefficient, and a source with a given
power output is assumed to be placed inside the room. The values of the complex wall
impedance and source amplitude are derived, and the simulation is performed using all
the options available in AcouSTO .

6.1 Files

The files provided with this tutorial are under

acousto distribution path/tutorials/Room Acoustics

and are listed below.

Name Content
room.cfg Configuration file
acousto.sources Source location and amplitude
monitor.mic Internal microphone for frequency re-
sponse evaluation
mics.geo, mics.msh Gmsh file for internal layers of microphones
(single frequency analysis)
imped.panels Impedance panels for imped file direc-
tive
gamma.panels, lambda.panels Boundary condition files for custombc in-
put scheme

36 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

6.2 Response with sound–hard walls

6.2 Response with sound–hard walls

The acoustic response of a rectangular room with sound–hard walls can be analysed in
terms of fundamental modes of vibrations. They can be easily calculated analytically for
this simple test case. The eigenfunctions of a rectangular cavity with dimensions Lx , Ly , Lz
are given by      
iπx jπy kπz
Ψijk (x) = A cos cos cos (6.1)
Lx Ly Lz
where the indices 0 ≤ i, j, k ≤ ∞ (not all zero simultaneously) and A is an arbitrary
constant. The corresponding eigenfrequencies in Hz are given by

Figure 6.1: Frequency response at the monitoring mic. in the range 50 ≤ f ≤ 150 Hz.

s 2  2  
c0 i j k
fijk = + + (6.2)
2 Lx Ly Lz

Figures 6.1 and 6.2 show the results for Lx = 1.0, Ly = 2.0, Lz = 1.5 for two different
frequency ranges. The analytical values of the eigenfrequencies lying in the range are
shown, to verify the accuracy of the AcouSTO solution.1 It is important to notice that
the modal density increases significantly with frequency. At higher frequencies, the reso-
lution required to have a discernible sequence of peaks is not affordable. The numerical
identification of the fundamental modes of vibration at high frequencies is not a trivial
task, which cannot be addressed effectively with BEM or FEM. Figure 6.3 shows the fun-
damental modes corresponding to the eigenfrequencies identified in the frequency range
1
An interesting exercise could be a rigorous convergence analysis of the values of the eigenfrequencies
captured by AcouSTO as a function of the number of boundary elements.

37 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

6.3 Analysis with one sound–absorbing wall

Figure 6.2: Frequency response at the monitoring mic. in the range 300 ≤ f ≤ 350 Hz.

analysed. The real part of the total field is depicted on the room’s walls. The user can
compare the solution by activating the simple text output (printout=1;) and plotting
the data against the solution in Eq. 6.2.

6.3 Analysis with one sound–absorbing wall

6.3.1 Source strength definition

In AcouSTO , the incident field generated at x by a generic point source located in xs is

calculated as
e−jω |x−xs |/c0
ϕ̃(x, ω) = Ã (6.3)
4 π |x − xs |
where c0 is the reference speed of sound. The complex amplitude à is the quantity given
in input in the source file pointed by the config file, and formatted according to the
AcouSTO input convention. It is worth spending few word about this point.

The acoustic field generated by a point source can be represented both inn terms of
pressure p or acoustic velocity potential φ. So, the physical meaning of the source itself
depends on the interpretation of the unknown function ϕ̃. If the function ϕ̃ represents the
acoustic pressure p̃, then the primary field due to the point source in xs is

e−jω |x−xs |/c0

p̃(x, ω) = S̃ (6.4)
4 π |x − xs |

38 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

6.3 Analysis with one sound–absorbing wall

Figure 6.3: Fundamental modes Ψ010 , Ψ001 , Ψ011 , Ψ130 , Ψ131 , Ψ003 . Room size Lx = 1.0,
Ly = 2.0, Lz = 1.5.

and its physical meaning of 6.3 is that of a source of momentum. On the other hand, if
the function ϕ̃ represents the acoustic velocity potential φ, the physical meaning is that
of a source of mass and the expression of the primary field can be written as

e−jω |x−xs |/c0

φ̃(x, ω) = −Q̃ (6.5)
4 π |x − xs |

39 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

6.3 Analysis with one sound–absorbing wall

where
4 π S̃
Q̃ = − (6.6)
jω%
Now, the fields induced by Eqs. 6.4 and 6.11 are solutions of the non–homogeneous
Helmholtz equation
∇2 p̃ + κ2 p̃ = 4π S̃δ(x − xs ) (6.7)
As a consequence, the value of the complex amplitude à to be given as input in AcouSTO is
related to the physical point source strength as follows:
à = 4π S̃ if ϕ̃ ≡ p̃ (6.8)
4π S̃
à = Q̃ = − if ϕ̃ ≡ φ̃ (6.9)
jω%
Having said this, in real applications the source magnitude is often given in terms of
time–averaged power output, which can be written as
2 π|S̃|2
P= (6.10)
c0 %
Obviously, if the signal produced by the source is not monochromatic, then the contribu-
tion of each frequency band must be taken into account. Nevertheless, the small amplitude
of the acoustic perturbations, and the fact that the time average of the product of har-
monic functions at two different frequencies is zero, allow us to write for Nb frequency
bands (see e.g., [1])
Nb
X
P= Pk (6.11)
k=1

6.3.2 Wall impedance

The physical properties of a boundary can be specified in AcouSTO through appropriate

conditions assuming that, at the boundary (or a portion of it), the unknown function and
its normal derivative satisfy the equation
∂ ϕ̃(x, κ)
γ(x, κ) ϕ̃(x, κ) + λ(x, κ) = f˜(x, κ) + g̃(κ) · n(x), for x ∈ ∂V (6.12)
∂n
where the complex coefficients λ, γ, the scalar function f˜, and the vector g have a physical
meaning depending on ϕ̃. Equation 6.12 represents a so–called locally reacting surface.

Most likely, the properties of a generic sound–absorbing material are given in terms of
the real absorbing coefficient α. It is thus necessary to derive an appropriate value of the
complex quantities in 6.12.

For a single–frequency perturbation normally imping on the absorbing wall () having the
form
pI (t) = Re(p̃I ejωt ) (6.13)

40 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

6.3 Analysis with one sound–absorbing wall

the reflected wave compatible with the locally reacting surface assumption is

pR (t) = Re R(ω) p̃I ejωt

(6.14)

where R(ω) is the pressure–amplitude complex reflection coefficient. It is related to the

local impedance of the wall, Z, by the relationship

1 + R(ω)
Z(ω) = %c0 (6.15)
1 − R(ω)

whose real part is related to the absorption coefficient by

 
Re(Z(ω)) = %c0 1 − |R(ω)|2 = %c0 α(ω) (6.16)

It is important to notice that from the knowledge of the real number α it is possible to
derive only the real part of Z (the resistive part). If the imaginary part is important to the
analysis (the reactive part), then it must be known explicitly. Nevertheless, the reactive
part represents the pressure which is in phase opposition with the particle motion, and
thus is not relevant in this specific application, since it does not produce work and does
not dissipate energy.

Once that Z is known, the coefficients in Eq. 6.12 can be derived. Recalling that from
the linearized Bernoulli theorem follows that p̃ = −j ω% φ̃, independently on the physical
meaning of ϕ̃, we obtain

λ = 1+j0 (6.17)
ω%
γ = 0−j (6.18)
Z

6.3.3 Application

One of the walls of the room analysed in Section 6.2 is now covered with a sound–absorbing
material with α = 0.25 (many types of wood have a similar coefficients in a wide frequency
range). A monopole source is placed in the same location as in the previous analysis, but
now it is amplified so as to have an average power output P = 1 W. If the source excites
the filed at 325 Hz, according to Sections 6.3.1 and 6.3.2, it follows

Impedance Z (Rayls) 103.76 + j 0.0

λ 1+j0
γ 0 − j 23.813
Source amplitude S̃ 102.16 + j 0.0

The analysis can be performed either by providing an impedance file using the directive
imped file="filename", or by providing the values of λ and γ, setting custombc =1

41 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

6.3 Analysis with one sound–absorbing wall

Figure 6.4: Acoustic field calculated on one layer of microphones, in presence of absorbing
material on the xz–wall at y > 0. Directive imped file was used on the left, whereas the
custombc approach on the right.

in the configuration files. Both options are provided with the tutorial. The solution is
presented in Fig. 6.4 for the two approaches. The fields obtained are absolutely identical.
The user could verify the accuracy of the solution by comparing it with the results of
other simulation tools. Figure 6.5 shows the qualitative comparison of the SPL obtained
with AcouSTO with that obtained with a commercial FEM software. The agreement is
qualitatively very good, even if some difference could be noticed, primarily due to the not
identical color scale used, and to the higher resolution of the AcouSTO layer of microphones.

Figure 6.5: Comparison of AcouSTO results (left) with FEM analysis using a commercial
software.

42 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

 CHAPTER 7

Incompressible Potential Aerody-

namics

Steady flow around blunt bodies

(... This is tricky. Handle with care ...)

43
7.1 Potential flow of an incompressible, inviscid fluid

In this last tutorial, we take advantage of the flexibility of the custom boundary conditions
to use AcouSTO for the solution of the limit form of the Kirchhoff-Helmholtz BIE for ω → 0.
What we are going to obtain is the solution of the Laplace equation for the specific case of
an incompressible potential flow, but the same approach can be applied, in principle, to
any stationary physical problem governed by the Laplace or Poisson equations. The user
must be aware of the fact that this use of the code is somehow “borderline” and one must
not expect to be able to solve any kind of potential problem. For instance, the presence
of surfaces of discontinuity for the function ϕ̃ cannot be treated, and thus the analysis of
lifting bodies (wings or propeller blades) is not possible.

7.1 Potential flow of an incompressible, inviscid fluid

Consider the flow of an inviscid, incompressible fluid such that, at a certain instant in time,
the velocity field v is irrotational, i.e., ∇ × v = 0 everywhere. Under this hypothesis, and
assuming that no source of vorticity are present in the field, Kelvin’s theorem ensures
that the flow remains irrotational at all times, and thus it exists the aerodynamic velocity
potential φ such that v = ∇φ. The continuity equation for such a flow is ∇ · v = 0, which,
in terms of φ, reduces to the Laplace equation
∇2 φ = 0, x∈V (7.1)
where V indicates the domain occupied by the flow. It can be easily demonstrated that
such a problem can be recast in the integral form
‹  
∂φ ∂G0
E(y)φ(y) = G0 −φ dS (7.2)
∂V ∂n ∂n
where the domain function E = 1, 0.5, 0 if y ∈ V, y ∈ ∂V or y ∈
/ V, respectively, and
where
−1
G0 (x, y) = (7.3)
4π |x − y|
is the solution of
∇2 G0 = δ(x − y), x∈V (7.4)
with φ → 0 for x → ∞ (7.5)
i.e., the free–space Green’s function of the Laplacian

Equations 7.1, 7.3, and 7.2 can be seen as the stationary limits of the wave equation, its
fundamental solution, and the corresponding BIE formulation, respectively. Or, equiva-
lently, the they can be obtained as the limit for the frequency tending to 0 of the Helmholtz
equation, its fundamental solution, and the Kirchhoff–Helmholtz BIE.

Specifically, this second interpretation can be easily verified by taking the limit for ω → 0
of the equation presented in the theoretical introduction of the AcouSTO manual. In the
following sections we will see how AcouSTO can be used to solve a problem governed by
such equations.

44 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

7.2 Files

7.2 Files

The files provided with this tutorial are under

acousto distribution path/tutorials/Potential Aerodynamics

and are listed below.

Name Content
potaero.cfg Configuration file
g.file custom boundary conditions g file
mics.geo Gmsh file for the layer of microphones

7.3 Impermeable sphere in a uniform flow

Consider an impermeable sphere of radius a immersed within an inviscid flow whit undis-
turbed velocity V0 . The presence of the sphere induces a perturbation of velocity field,
and local velocity u can be seen as the superposition of the undisturbed velocity, and the
perturbation v induced by presence of the body, u(x) = V0 + v(x). The velocity potential
of such a flow can be obtained analytically by superposition of the potential of a uniform
stream and that of a mass point source located in the center of the sphere. Assuming the
undisturbed stream aligned with the x–axis, the exact solution is given by
" #
a3
Φ = V0 x 1 + (7.6)
2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
where Φ0 = V0 x is the potential of the undisturbed stream, whereas the remaining part
is the perturbation potential φ such that ∇φ = v.

7.3.1 How to solve the problem with AcouSTO

The solution of the problem with AcouSTO can be addressed through an appropriate defini-
tion of the boundary conditions. The impermeability of the body implies that the velocity
of the fluid particles in contact with the sphere boundary cannot have a normal component
different from zero. Thus, indicating with n the unit normal to the sphere surface pointing
into the fluid, impermeability implies that
∂φ
u·n=0 ⇒ v · n = ∇φ · n = −V0 · n ⇒ = −V0 · n (7.7)
∂n
Recalling Eq. 6.12, it follows that the conditions 7.7 can be applied by setting

λ = 1, γ = 0, f˜ = 0, g̃ ≡ −V0 (7.8)

45 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

7.3 Impermeable sphere in a uniform flow

Obviously, the angular frequency must be set to 0 in the configuration file. The result
obtained with V0 = 1 m/s is presented in Figure 7.1. Specifically, the density plot of
the perturbation potential around the sphere is depicted, with the streamlines of the
flow superimposed as black continuous curves. Figure 7.2 shows the comparison of the
numerical results with the exact solution of Eq. 7.6 along two straight lines, revealing a
remarkable agreement in both cases.

Figure 7.1: Perturbation velocity potential distribution around a sphere within a main
stream with undisturbed velocity V0 aligned with the x–axis. Streamlines are represented
by black continuous lines.

46 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

7.3 Impermeable sphere in a uniform flow

Figure 7.2: Comparison of AcouSTO results with the analytical solution along two sections
of the domain at constant z (left) and constant x (right).

47 c U. Iemma & V. Marchese

Bibliography
[1] A. D. Pierce, Acoustics - An Introduction. Its Physical Principles and Applications,
Acoustical Society of America, New York, 1989.

[2] Crighton, D.G., Dowling , A.P., Ffowcs Williams, J.E., Heckl, M., Leppington, F.G.,
Modern Methods in Analytical Acoustics - Lecture Notes, Springer-Verlag, London,
1992.

[3] Morse, P.M.C. and Ingard, K.U., Theoretical Acoustics, International series in pure
and applied physics, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1968.

[4] Umberto Iemma and Vincenzo Marchese, AcouSTO User Manual v1.6,
http://acousto.sourceforge.net, 2013.

[5] David L. Colton and Rainer Kress, Integral equations methods in scattering theory,
Pure and Applied Mathematics Series, Krieger Publishing Company, 1992.

48