University of Malta i

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets

Content

Experiment 1 Simple gravity pendulum ........................................................................ 1

Experiment 2 Using the Vernier calliper ....................................................................... 5
Experiment 3 Using the micrometer screw gauge ......................................................... 7
Experiment 4 The inverse square law ............................................................................ 9
Experiment 5 Moments ................................................................................................ 11
Experiment 6 Hooke’s law........................................................................................... 13
Experiment 7 The compound pendulum ...................................................................... 15
Experiment 8 The focal length of an optical lens ........................................................ 17
Experiment 9 The cantilever ........................................................................................ 19
Experiment 10 Discharging a capacitor ....................................................................... 21
Experiment 11 The mass-spring system ...................................................................... 23
Experiment 12 The refractive index of glass ............................................................... 25
Experiment 13 The refractive index of Perspex .......................................................... 27
Experiment 14 Mechanical equilibrium....................................................................... 29
Experiment 15 The metre bridge ................................................................................. 31
Experiment 16 The density of water ............................................................................ 33
Experiment 17 Properties of a vibrating string ............................................................ 35
Experiment 18 Alternative experimental methods ...................................................... 37
Experiment 19 The resistance of a light bulb .............................................................. 39
Experiment 20 An ohmic resistor ................................................................................ 41
Experiment 21 The internal electrical resistance ......................................................... 43
Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 1

Experiment 1 Simple gravity pendulum

1.1. Introduction
A gravity pendulum is a system that oscillates from a pivot due to a restoring force
induced by gravity. The most common example of their use in every day life is found
in clocks where their constant oscillating frequency is used to give accurate timing.

A simple pendulum consists of a mass called a bob attached to a very light string: By
simple we mean that it can be assumed that all the mass of the system is concentrated
at a point.

Even though they might seem simple, pendulums are very important. Apart from
being used to keep track of time, they are also employed to determine the acceleration
due to gravity g. In fact, even though you might think that there exist more
sophisticated instruments, pendulums still provide one of the most accurate methods
to determine g. In fact, in this experiment you are going to find the acceleration due to
gravity using a simple pendulum. If you don’t do too many mistakes in the readings,
you should expect to get a value of g correct two three significant figures, i.e.
9.81 m s −2 .

1.2. Apparatus and setup

You have been provided with a retort stand, a string, a bob, two small blocks of wood,
a metre rule and a stopwatch. The apparatus should be set up as shown below:

Wooden
blocks

String L
Retort
stand

Bob

1.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Set the distance L from the bottom of the wooden blocks to the upper part of
the bob to 30 cm. Record this distance.
3. Use the stopwatch to find the time taken by the pendulum to perform twenty
oscillations. Call this 20 t1.
4. Repeat Step 3 in order to have a repeated reading.
5. Repeat Steps 2 to 4 until you obtain five readings. Increasing the length L by
10 cm each time.

Experiment 1 Simple gravity pendulum

2 University of Malta

6. Determine the periodic time T for each length. The periodic time is the time
for one oscillation. This can be found by first determining the average time for
twenty oscillations 20 t (i.e. in this case add the two values and then divide by
two) and then dividing the result, i.e. 20 t , by the total number of oscillation,
in this case 20. (Note that you are expected to remember this for later use.)
7. Copy and complete the table shown below.

L/m t /s
20 1 20 2t /s 20 t /s T /s T 2 / s2

±0.001 ±0.1 ±0.1

8. Plot a graph of T 2 on the y-axis against L on the x-axis.

Important points:

- One oscillation consists of the motion of the bob from the extreme right hand
side to the extreme left hand side and back to the extreme right hand side.

- In order to improve the value of the timing you should position yourself in line
with the extreme left or right position. The extreme positions are easy to
identify and your position reduced the problem of misjudging the position
when the bob is at the maximum amplitude.

- Timing involves the human time reflex action error. In order to account for
this always take the reading up to one decimal place no matter how accurate
the time on the stop watch is.

- The periodic time T is the time for one oscillation. In this case you can find it
by first finding the average time for twenty oscillations 20 t and then divide
this by twenty.

- Overbars are generally used to indicate averages. However at times, when

averaging is understood we can decide not to write them. For example, we
could have written 20 t instead of 20 t as in this case it is easy to realise we are
referring to an averaged quantity.

- You are expected to do repeated readings. While in the above procedure you
are instructed to do so specifically, this might not always be the case.

- You are expected write down all the values you have measured together with
their uncertainty. In this case all the values that you need to write down
together with their uncertainty have been written down for you. However, this
will not always be the case.

- Uncertainties for calculated values should not be included. These have to be

calculated using special equations. However, you are not expected to know
these equations.

Experiment 1 Simple gravity pendulum

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 3

- You should keep in mind these points for use in other experiments.

1.4. Data analysis

The equation that represents the given simple gravitational pendulum is,

L+r
T = 2π .
g

where r is the radius of the bob. Set this equation in the form =
y mx + c and hence
determine a value for the acceleration due to gravity g. Comment on your result.

Tip: Before setting the given equation in the form =

y mx + c you will have to square
both sides.

Experiment 1 Simple gravity pendulum

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 5

Experiment 2 Using the Vernier calliper

2.1. Introduction
The Vernier calliper is a measuring instrument capable of measuring lengths smaller
than one millimetre. This is carried out using a specially designed scale known as a
Vernier scale. Such a scale is found on many measuring instruments including
spectrometers and travelling microscopes. Hence the knowledge of its use is quite
important.

This experiment is meant to train you on how to read such a scale using a Vernier
calliper. The laboratory demonstrator will give you a detailed tutorial on how to do it.
Please make sure to understand well how to use the scale and take any notes necessary
for you to remember how it works. In later experiments you will be asked to recall
what you need to do in order to make other measurements.

2.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a Vernier calliper, a metre rule, a rod of
brass (which is brownish in colour), two rods of aluminium, one of which has a hole
in it, a PVC tubing, and a mass balance. The apparatus does not need to be set up as
only measurements using the Vernier calliper will be made.

2.3. Experimental procedure

1. Use the metre rule to measure the length of each rod and tabulate them as
indicated below.

Aluminium Aluminium PVC tube Brass

cylinder cylinder cylinder
without hole with hole

l /m ±0.001

2. Measure the masses of each rod and tabulate the results with those of the
lengths. Note the uncertainty in the mass balance is 0.1 g. (Make sure you
learn how to find the uncertainty of each instrument.)
3. Ask your laboratory demonstrator on how to use the Vernier calliper. You
might need to wait for this as the laboratory demonstrator might need to help
other students before he can dedicate himself to you.
4. Determine the least count and hence the uncertainty in the Vernier calliper.
(Note that you will be expected to remember how to do this for later use.)
5. Measure the external diameter of each rod using the Vernier calliper. You
should do this at three different locations, each time taking two readings at
right angles to each other. Thus you need to have a set of six reading for each
object at the end.
6. Measure the inner diameter of the PVC tubing from both ends. You should
make at least two measurements at right angles to each other at each end.
7. Measure the inner diameter of the hole in one of the aluminium rods.
Remember to make at least two measurements.

Experiment 2 Using the Vernier calliper

 6 University of Malta

8. Tabulate the results for the diameter as indicated below. Remember to

included the average diameter at the end of the table.

Aluminium Aluminium cylinder PVC tube

cylinder with hole Brass
without cylinder
hole Inner Outer Inner Outer
diameter diameter diameter diameter

d1 / 10−3 m ±0.05

d 2 / 10−3 m ±0.05

2.4. Data analysis

In this part you are going to determine the densities of the aluminium, brass and PVC.
Then you will be asked to find the length of the hole.

First determine the volume of the solid aluminium rod, the brass rod and the PVC
tube. For a solid circular rod the equation for the volume is,

Volume =Area × Height =π R 2l ,

where R is the radius and l is the length. In order to determine the volume of PVC
tubing you need to subtract the internal volume (obtained by the internal radius) from
that of the total volume (obtained from the external radius).

You can now determine the density from the equation,

Mass
Density = .
Volume

In order to present your results for the volume and the density in a nice way you
should use a table. Remember that you will have three materials for which to
determine the density, namely aluminium, brass and PVC.

In the last part you will be asked to find the length of the hole in the aluminium rod.
This you can carry out as follows:
- Use the density of aluminium calculated from the solid rod to find the volume
of aluminium in the aluminium rod with a hole.
- Determine the volume of the hole.
- Calculate the base area of the hole from the radius of the hole.
- Hence determine the length.
State any assumption you have used in working out this part. Do you think this
assumption will hold in practice?

Why do you think you had to read the diameter at different points and at each point
you had to take readings at right angle to each other?

Experiment 2 Using the Vernier calliper

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 7

Experiment 3 Using the micrometer screw gauge

3.1. Introduction
The micrometer screw gauge is an instrument that is used to measure lengths with
very high accuracy. In fact the least count of the instrument is just 10−5 m. Such
precision is attained by having a very cleverly deceived system of scales that work
together. Given that in physics we often have to measure lengths that are smaller than
one millimetre, such as in the case of wires, the use of such an instrument is very
important.

In this experiment you will learn how to use the micrometer screw gauge and how to
read its scale. The laboratory demonstrator will give you a detailed tutorial about how
to use the instrument. Please make sure to understand well how to use the scale and
take any notes necessary for you to remember how it works. In later experiments you
will be asked to recall what you need to do in order use the instrument.

3.2. Safety precautions

- Do not move your fingers on sharp edges as you can hurt yourselves.

3.3. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a micrometer screw gauge, a set of
aluminium disks of different height and an electronic balance. The apparatus does not
need to be set up.

3.4. Experimental procedure

1. Ask your laboratory demonstrator to explain how to use the micrometer screw
gauge. You might need to wait for this as the laboratory demonstrator might
need to help other students before he can dedicate himself to you.
2. Determine the least count and hence the uncertainty in the micrometer screw
gauge. (Note that you will be expected to remember how to do this for later
use.)
3. Measure the height of each disk using the micrometer screw gauge. You
should do this at four different locations. Thus, at the end, you need to have a
set of four reading for each disk.
4. Tabulate the results for the thickness t as indicated below.

t1 / 10−3 m t2 / 10−3 m t3 / 10−3 m t4 / 10−3 m t / 10−3 m

±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01

5. Determine the mass m of each disk using the electronic balance and tabulate
the results as indicated below.

Experiment 3 Using the micrometer screw gauge

8 University of Malta

t / 10−3 m m / 10−3 kg

±0.1

6. Plot a graph of m on the y-axis and t on the x-axis.

3.5. Data analysis

From the equation for the density ρ and the equation for the volume of a cylinder the
following equation can be derived,

π d 2ρ
m= t,
4

where d is the diameter of the disk which should be taken to be 5.075 cm.

Set the given equation in the form=

Y MX + C and hence determine a value for the
density of aluminium.

It is also possible to find the density of aluminium using just the dimensions of a
cylinder without plotting a graph. Do you think that such an experiment will give you
a better, a worse or an equivalent result to that obtained in this work? Explain your
reasoning.

Experiment 3 Using the micrometer screw gauge

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 9

Experiment 4 The inverse square law

4.1. Introduction
The inverse square law simply states that a quantity I is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance r from some fixed point. In physics there are many laws that
follow this relation including Newton’s law of gravitation and Coulomb’s law of
electrostatics. In this work we are going to investigate how this law applies to the
energy radiated from a lamp decreases with distance from the source.

4.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a retort stand, two metre rules, a lamp
together with a holder, a thermopile (that is used to measure heat) complete with
stand, a multimeter and a power supply. The apparatus should be set up as shown
below:

Retort
Stand Lamp
Thermopile with stand

To power
To multimeter
supply Metre rule

4.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Make sure that the thermopile
and the lamp are aligned.
2. Connect one of the terminals from the thermopile to the Common (COM)
socket in the multimeter and the other to the voltage. Then switch on the
multimeter and set it to read direct current with a maximum value of 200 mV.
Make sure you understand how to use a multimeter and if in doubt ask the
laboratory demonstrator. (Note that you are expected to remember how to do
this for later use.)
3. Switch on the lamp.
4. Set the distance between the lamp and the thermopile r to 2 m. Record this
distance.
5. Measure the maximum voltage recorded on the multimeter. You will have to
wait a couple of minutes before taking the reading. This will allow the
thermopile to reach thermal equilibrium.
6. Decrease r by 20 cm and repeat Steps 4 and 5. Make sure you only move the
thermopile as moving the lamp might break the filament.
7. Repeat Step 6 until you have a total of five readings.
8. Then repeat the whole procedure this time increasing the distance r by 20 cm.
9. Copy and complete the table below.

Experiment 4 The inverse square law

10 University of Malta

r1 / m V1 / 10−3 V r2 / m V2 / 10−3 V r /m V / 10−3 V 1

/ m −2
2
r

±0.001 ±0.1 ±0.001 ±0.1

10. Plot a graph of V on the y-axis against 1/ r 2 on the x-axis.

4.4. Data analysis

Theory indicates that the voltage registered should be inversely proportional to the
distance, i.e.,

1 k
V∝ ⇒ V= ,
r2 r2

where k is a constant. Set the above equation in the form =

y mx + c and hence find a
value for the constant k including its units. Use this value of k to determine the
intercept.

Given your results, is the inverse square law obeyed in this case? Explain your
reasoning.

Experiment 4 The inverse square law

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 11

Experiment 5 Moments
5.1. Introduction
Moments refer to the tendency of an object to rotate. If a system is in equilibrium, in
addition to having all the forces add up to zero, we also require that the total moment
is zero. If this is not the case the system would rotate, indicating that equilibrium has
not been reached.

In this experiment, we are going to investigate the equilibrium of moments using a

load and a rod. This will allow us to determine the ratio of the masses of the load and
the rod.

5.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a rod, a load, a screwdriver, a piece of
chalk, a metre rule and a pivot. The apparatus should be set up as shown below:

P l
Rod of mass m G y x

Load of mass M
Pivot
mg Mg

5.3. Experimental procedure

1. Determine the position of the centre of mass (i.e. the place where it can be
considered that all the mass acts) of the rod. This can be carried out by simply
balancing the rod on the pivot. If in doubt you should consult the laboratory
demonstrator. (Note that this procedure will be used in other experiments.)
Centre of mass
Rod perfectly horizontal

2. Mark this position using a piece of chalk.

3. Place the mass at one end of the rod and tighten the screw so that it cannot
slide.
4. Balance the rod on the pivot as shown above.
5. Measure the distance y from the pivot P to the centre of mass G and the
distance of the pivot from the mass.
6. Change the position of the mass and repeat steps 4 and 5.
7. Repeat 6 until you have a total of five readings.
8. Copy and complete the table below.

Experiment 5 Moments
12 University of Malta

x1 / m y1 / m x2 / m y2 / m x/m y/m

±0.001 ±0.001 ±0.001 ±0.001

9. Plot a graph of y on the y-axis against x on the x-axis.

5.4. Data analysis

Equilibrium of moments dictates that the lengths y and x are related by the equation,

M
=y ( x + 12 l )
m

where m is the mass the rod, M is the mass of the load and l its length. Set the above
equation in the form= Y KX + C and hence find a value for the ratio of M / m and
the length of the load.

Is the rod heavier than the load? Explain.

Experiment 5 Moments
 Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 13

Experiment 6 Hooke’s law

6.1. Introduction
Hooke’s law states that the extension of a system is directly proportional to the
applied force up to some limit (called the proportionally limit). Most systems,
especially metals and springs, behave in this way. Hence Hooke’s law forms the basis
of the study of how objects stretch when placed under tension.

6.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a retort stand, a rule, a spring, a holder
for the spring, a hanger and a set of 20 g loads. The apparatus should be set up as
shown below:

Retort
Stand

Spring Extension equals

Position 1 Position 2 minus
Hanger Position 1
Rule Load
Position 2

6.3. Experimental procedure

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure above on the left.
2. With no weights on the hanger determine the initial position. Call this x0 .
3. Place the first load and determine the new position x.
4. Repeat Step 3 until you have a total of five readings of x.
5. Now repeat the whole procedure for unloading.
6. Copy and complete the table below.

Loading Unloading

x0 / m ±0.001

7. Determine the average initial position x0 .

8. Hence complete the table below. Note that m is the mass of the applied load.

m / kg W = mg / N xLoading / m xUnloading / m x/m s= x − x0 / m

±0.001 ±0.001

Experiment 6 Hooke’s law

 14 University of Malta

Ignore the error for the mass as this requires the factory speciation for the load; the
extension s is found by the equation,

s= x − x0 .

Take the acceleration due to gravity g = 10 m s −2 .

9. Plot a graph of the weight W on the y-axis against the extension s on the x-
axis.

6.4. Data analysis

Hooke’s law gives that,

W ∝s ⇒ W =
ks,

where k is the constant called the spring constant. Set the above equation in the form
=
Y MX + C and hence find a value for k including its units.

Now the elastic limit is the limit up till which an object can be stretched and when the
force is removed the object returns to its original dimensions. From your results, has
the elastic limit been exceeded? Explain your reasoning.

Experiment 6 Hooke’s law

 Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 15

Experiment 7 The compound pendulum

7.1. Introduction
In Experiment 1 you have investigated the properties of a simple gravitational
pendulum. By this it is meant that all the mass of the pendulum is concentrated at a
point at the maximum distance from the pivot. Such assumption is reasonable for the
setup used in that experiment. However, this is not the case of an extended object such
as a bar.

For extended objects the equations have to consider the distribution of the mass. This
will complicated the equations needed to describe its motion. In this experiment you
will be investigating how the behaviour of the system changes when a bar, made from
a metre rule, is used.

7.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a retort stand, a metre rule, two types of
pivots, a piece of chalk and a stopwatch. The apparatus should be set up as shown
below:

Pivot Pivoting
point

h
Retort Compound
stand pendulum Centre of
gravity

7.3. Experimental procedure

1. Determine the position of the centre of mass by balancing the metre rule on
the pivot provided. Mark this position with a piece of chalk. (Note the method
to do this is found in Experiment 5 on Moments.)
2. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram. The pivot point should be chosen
such that it is between 40 cm to 45 cm away from the centre of mass.
3. Measure and record the distance h of the pivot point from the centre of mass.
The measurement should be taken from the centre of the pivot.
4. Measure and record the time taken for twenty oscillations 20 t1 twice.
Remember that the angle of oscillation has to be small, not more than 5°, as in
the case of the simple pendulum.
5. Decrease the distance h by about 5 cm and measure again the time for twenty
oscillations.

Experiment 7 The compound pendulum

16 University of Malta

6. Repeat Step 5 until you have a total of five readings.

7. Calculate the periodic time T. (Note that the method is found in Experiment 1
about the Simple Gravitational Pendulum.)
8. Copy and complete the table below.

h/m t /s
20 1 t /s
20 2
T /s h2 / m2 T 2h / s2 m

±0.001 ±0.1 ±0.1

9. Plot a graph of T 2 h on the y-axis against h 2 on the x-axis.

7.4. Data analysis

Theory indicates that for the system under consideration the periodic time is related to
the height h by the equation,

k 2 + h2
T = 2π ,
hg

where k is a constant called the radius of gyration and g is the acceleration due to
gravity. Set the above equation in a straight line form. (Note that this equation has
already been covered in the initial worksheet and hence you can refer to it.) Determine
a value for the acceleration due to gravity and the radius of gyration. Remember to
include the units.

What can you say about the value obtained for g?

Experiment 7 The compound pendulum

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 17

Experiment 8 The focal length of an optical lens

8.1. Introduction
Lenses are devices that can bend rays in particular ways. In this experiment you will
be investigating the properties of a converging lens. This optical instrument converges
light parallel to the principal axis to a single point called the focal point as shown in
the diagram below.
Convex Focal Plane
Lens

Optical
centre Principal
axis
F
f
Principal
Focal length focus

The distance between the optical centre and the focal point or principal focus is called
the focal length. This distance is very important as it characterises the properties of
the lens. In this experiment you will investigate how this can be determined using a
graphical method.

8.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with an object hole with cross wires, a
screen, a lens complete with holder, a bulb, a retort stand, a divider calliper, a metre
rule and a power supply. The apparatus should be set up as shown below:

Object hole Sharp

with cross-wires image

Lens Screen

D
Bulb B

A
C

u v

8.3. Experimental procedure

1. The apparatus is set up as shown. The length l should be around 80 cm.
2. Measure the object height AB using the divider calliper. Call this h0 and
record its value.
3. Move the lens to and fro until a sharp image of the object hole is obtained on
the screen.
4. Measure the image distance v using the metre rule.

Experiment 8 The focal length of an optical lens

18 University of Malta

5. Measure also the image height CD. Call this hI .

6. Calculate the magnification m from the equation, m = hI / h0 .
7. Change the distance between the object and the screen and repeat Steps 3 to 6.
8. Repeat Step 7 until you have a total of five sets of readings.
9. Copy and complete the table below.

v1 / m h /m
1 I v2 / m 2 hI / m v/m hI / m m

±0.001 ±0.001 ±0.001 ±0.001

10. Plot a graph of m on the y-axis against v on the x-axis.

8.4. Data analysis

The equation that links the magnification m to the image distance v is

v
m= − 1,
f

where f is the focal length. Set the above equation in the form of a straight line and
hence determine a value for f.

From the properties of a converging lens it follows that if a very far away object is set
into focus the distance of the lens from the screen will be equal to the focal length as
shown below.
Screen

Rays from
a distant object Image
e.g. a window
f
Focal length

Set into focus one of the windows in the room on the screen provided and use this fact
to determine another value for the focal length.

Which of the two values, the one obtained from the graph or the one obtained from
focusing the window, would give a better estimate of the value of the focal length?
Explain your reasoning.

Experiment 8 The focal length of an optical lens

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 19

Experiment 9 The cantilever

9.1. Introduction
A cantilever is a beam that is fixed at one end but is able to move at the other end.
Such structures are widely found especially in the buildings. A simple example is a
skyscraper. Apart from this it is used in balconies and bridges. Referring to
aeroplanes, the wings and the tail can be modelled as cantilevers.

Given its wide usage, it is important to investigate its properties. In this experiment
the behaviour of a wooden beam that is anchored at one end will be investigated. The
work will consider how much the beam bends for a given load. This will lead to the
determination of the Young’s modulus, a very important parameter in elasticity that
gives an idea of how stiff the material is. (Stiffness refers to how difficult it is to
deform – change the shape of – an object.)

9.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a retort stand, a metre rule, a
micrometer screw gauge, a Vernier calliper, two wooden blocks, a G-clamp, a hook, a
hanger and a number of 20 g loads. The apparatus should be set up as shown below:

Depression
d
G-clamp

l
Table

Cantilever

Wooden
block Retort
stand
Loads

Metre
rule

9.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Make sure that the metre rule is
vertical.
2. Set the length of the cantilever l to half a metre.
3. Record the initial position of the cantilever without loads (but with the hook
and the hanger attached). Call this x0 .
4. Place a load of 20 g on the hanger and record the new position x.
5. Repeat Step 4 until you have obtained a total of five sets of readings.
6. Repeat the procedure for unloading.
7. Copy and complete the table given below.

Experiment 9 The cantilever

20 University of Malta

Loading Unloading

x0 / m

8. Determine the average initial position x0 .

9. Hence complete the table below. Note that m is the mass of the applied load.

m / kg xLoading / m xUnloading / m x/m d= x − x0 / m

Ignore the error for the mass but remember to include the uncertainties in the
extension x. (Hint: Look up other tables where readings made with a rule were
made.)

The depression d is found by the equation,

d= x − x0 .

10. Measure the thickness t of the cantilever at three points using the micrometer
screw gauge and tabulate your results including the uncertainty. Remember to
calculate the average value.
11. Measure the width w of the cantilever at three points using the Vernier calliper
and tabulate your results including the uncertainty. Remember to calculate the
average value.
12. Plot a graph of the depression d on the y-axis against the mass m on the x-axis.

9.4. Data analysis

Elasticity theory gives that the depression is related to the applied mass by the
equation,

4mgl 3
d= ,
Ewt 3

where g is the acceleration due to gravity that should be taken equal to 10 m s −2 while
E is a constant called the Young’s constant. Set the above equation in a straight line
form and hence calculate the value for E including the appropriate units.

Consider the equation obtained for the Young’s modulus E in this experiment, which
measurements do you think contributes most to the error in the final results? Justify
your reasoning. (It is recommended that you discuss this with your laboratory
demonstrator.)

Explain also why you have been asked to make sure that the metre rule is vertical.

Experiment 9 The cantilever

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 21

Experiment 10 Discharging a capacitor

10.1. Introduction
A capacitor is a device that can store charge. Due to depletion of charge the rate at
which a capacitor discharges changes with time. In fact it can be shown that the
process follows an exponential decay.

A very important aspect in such a problem is the time taken for discharging to take
place. Given that the process occurs through an exponential decay, we can anticipate
that it will take a very long time for the capacitor to be fully discharged. Since a very
large number is not practical to use, we have defined the time constants T as the time
taken for the voltage, current or charge to fall to 1/ e ( ≈ 37 % ) of their initial value
and use it as the representative quantity in defining how long the discharge process
takes.

In this experiment we are going to use the measurements made during a discharge
process and the definition of the time constant to determine its value.

10.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a power supply or battery, a capacitor,
a two way switch, a voltmeter, a known resistance and a stop watch. The apparatus
should be set up as shown below:
Power supply

Capacitor of
Capacitance C
Two way
switch

V
Voltmeter

R
Resistance

10.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram:
Note I: To connect the apparatus you can follow these steps:
- Start by connect the upper part of the circuit, i.e. the capacitor to the
battery and the two way switch.
- Then connect the resistor to the capacitor and the two way switch, i.e.
complete the bottom part of the circuit.
- Finally connect the voltmeter (multimeter) to the capacitor.
Note II: The multimeter has to be connected by inserting one pin into the
“common” and another pin where there is “V”. Then set the multimeter to read
up till 20 V direct current by rotating the function/range selector.

Experiment 10 Discharging a capacitor

22 University of Malta

Note III: Before charging the capacitor make sure you have connected the
positive terminal of the capacitor with the positive terminal of the battery and
the negative terminal of the capacitor with the negative terminal of the battery.
2. Charge the capacitor by turning the two way switch upwards.
3. Note the maximum voltage across the capacitor.
4. Start discharging the capacitor by turning the two way switch downwards and
at the same time start the stop watch.
5. Note the readings on the voltmeter at intervals of 20 seconds until the voltage
stops changing significantly (say until it is about 1 V or less).
6. Repeat the whole procedure again to obtain repeated readings.
7. Copy and complete the table below.

t1 / s V1 / V t2 / s V2 / V t /s V /V

Remember to include the error for measured quantities as well as the voltage
when t = 0 s.

8. Plot a graph of V on the y-axis against t on the x-axis.

10.4. Data analysis

The graph obtained should show the voltage decaying exponentially with time. Use
this graph to determine the time constant. This can be done using the definition of
time constant that is graphically illustrated below. (Refer to the notes provided for the
appropriate labelling of the graph when finding the coordinates of a point. Ask the
demonstrator if in doubt.)
V /V

VInitial

=
T tFinal − tInitial

V=
Final 0.37 × VInitial
T
t /s
tInitial tFinal

Theory indicates that the time constant T is related to the resistance R and capacitance
C through the equation,
T = RC.

Given that the resistance R = 2 MΩ obtain a value for the capacitance having SI units
of Farads F. The factory value of the capacitor is C = 1.5 μF. Which one, the
graphical or the given value, should be considered the best result? Explain.

Mention another process that involves an exponentially decaying quantity.

Experiment 10 Discharging a capacitor

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 23

Experiment 11 The mass-spring system

11.1. Introduction
So far we have investigated simple harmonic motion using pendulums (Experiment 1
and Experiment 7). However, this is not the only type of oscillating system that exists.
In actual fact, there is a very large variety of systems that move in simple harmonic
motion. As an example of a different type of oscillating system we will investigate the
mass-spring system. This consists of load attached to a spring that vibrates along a
single line.

Note that even though the setup might appear different from that used in previous
investigations on the same topic, the basic principles involved will stay the same. In
fact you should find similarity between the error and precautions involved as well as
in the manner the data is measured, tabulated and analysed.

11.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a stopwatch, a retort stand, a spring, a
holder for the spring, a hanger equipped with a load of 100 g and a set of 20 g loads.
The apparatus should be set up as shown below:

Retort
Stand

Spring

Hanger

Load

11.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Note that the hanger has a 100 g
mass attached to it.
2. Place one 20 g mass on the hanger.
3. Set the system into small vertical oscillations.
4. Determine the time for twenty oscillations. Call this 20 t.
5. Repeat the procedure each time increasing the mass by 20 g until you obtain a
total of five readings.
6. Determine the periodic time T. (Tip: See Experiment 1.)
7. Tabulate the results in an appropriate manner. (Tip: You should consult
Experiment 1 or Experiment 7.)
8. Plot a graph of T 2 on the y-axis against m on the x-axis.

Experiment 11 The mass-spring system

24 University of Malta

11.4. Data analysis

Using Newton’s laws of motion and Hooke’s law it is possible to show that the
periodic time T is linked to the load m and the stiffness constant of the spring through
the equation,

m
T = 2π .
k

Set the above equation in the form= Y MX + C and hence determine a value for the
stiffness constant. Remember to include the units.

Determine also the value of the intercept (including its units). The above equation
suggests that the intercept is zero. Did you confirm this from the results? If not, can
you explain the difference?

Experiment 11 The mass-spring system

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 25

Experiment 12 The refractive index of glass

12.1. Introduction
When light travels from one medium to another it can undergo a change in speed. In
order to measure by how much the speed has changes we use the refractive index η
that is defined as the ratio of the speed in the first medium to the speed in the second
medium. For practical reasons, we usually take the first medium to be vacuum (or air)
in which case we have the absolute refractive index given by,

Speed of light in vacuum (air)

η= .
Speed of light in medium

As a result of the change in speed, the light can also change the direction. It can be
shown that the reflective index can also be determined from,

Sine of angle in vacuum (air)

η= ,
Sine of angle in medium

where the angle is measured from the line at right angles to the surface called the
normal.

In this experiment you will be determining the refractive index of a glass block using
the no-parallax method.

12.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a sheet of white paper, a cardboard, a
rectangular block of glass, four pins and a protractor. The apparatus should be set up
as shown below:

Pin
P2
Pin Normal
P1
θ
1 1
A X B

θ
1 2 Normal

2 θ2

C Y θ D
2 1
Pin
Pin P4
P3

Experiment 12 The refractive index of glass

26 University of Malta

12.3. Experimental procedure

1. Place the white sheet of paper at the centre of the cardboard.
2. Place the rectangular block of glass at the centre of the white sheet of paper
and trace its outline using a sharp pencil. (This is indicated as ABCD in the
diagram above.)
3. Remove the glass block and mark a point X at a distance of about 3.5 cm from
the point A along the line AB.
4. Use the protractor to draw the normal at X, i.e. a line at 90° to the line AB.
Make sure to extend the normal both above and below the line AB.
5. Use again the protractor to draw a line at an angle of 20° to the normal at X.
6. Place two pins on the line drawn in Step 5. One of the pins P1 should be
almost touching the line AB while the other one P2 should be around 5 cm
away.
7. Place the glass block inside the trace.
8. Look through side CD and move your head until P1 and P2 are seen to be
aligned (no-parallax).
9. Place two other pins along this line as shown in the diagram with P3 being
very close to CD while P4 about 5 cm away.
10. Mark the positions of P3 and P4 with a pencil.
11. Remove all pins and the glass block from the paper.
12. Join the points given by P3 and P4 to X, Y, P1 and P2 .
13. Measure the angles θ1 and θ 2 at both X and Y. Hence calculate their average.
14. Carry out the procedure again each time increasing the angle of the line at X
by 10°.
15. Copy and complete the following table.

θ /°
1 1 θ /°
1 2 θ /°
2 1 2 θ2 / ° θ1 / ° θ2 / ° sin (θ1 ) sin (θ 2 )

Remember to include the uncertainty (i.e. the least count) in the case of
measured quantities.

16. Plot a graph of sin (θ 2 ) on the y-axis against sin (θ1 ) on the x-axis.

12.4. Data analysis

From the previous discussion about the refractive index we get,

sin (θ1 )
sin (θ 2 ) = .
η

Use this equation together with the graph to determine the refractive index of glass.

Explain why you have been asked to find θ1 and θ 2 at both X and Y.

Experiment 12 The refractive index of glass

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 27

Experiment 13 The refractive index of Perspex

13.1. Introduction
As discussed in Experiment 12 the refractive index tells us by how much the speed of
light changes on travelling from one medium to another. In this experiment, we are
going to determine the refractive index of another material, namely Perspex.

In order to do so, we are going to use the D-bock, which is nothing more than a
semicircle made of the material as indicated in the diagram below. The experiment
makes use of the fact that light that is incident on a boundary along the normal does
not change direction. Such a thing is made to occur along the curved surface by
position the ray box such that the beam of light passes through the radius of the
semicircle. However, when it exits along the straight edge it will be bent.

13.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a sheet of white paper, a protractor,
raybox, a power supply and a D-block. The apparatus should be set up as shown
below:
Ray box

Incident C
ray

D-shaped
glass block
O i

A r B

Refracted
D ray

13.3. Experimental procedure

1. Place the D-block at the centre of a white sheet of paper and trace its outline.
2. Remove the D-block and mark the midpoint O of the straight edge AB.
3. Use the protractor to draw the normal at O extending it both above and below
AB.
4. Use again the protractor to draw a line making an angle of 10° to the normal
at O. Record this value as the angle of incidence i.
5. Place the D-block back on its outline.
6. Switch on the power supply and the raybox. Make sure that the voltage does
not exceed 12 V. Consult with your instructor on how to do this.
7. Move the raybox and place it in such a way that the ray moves along the line
drawn in Step 4.
8. Use the pencil to mark the path of the refracted ray using two points.
9. Remove the D-block again and trace the path of the refracted ray DO.
10. Use the protractor to measure and record the angle of reflection r.

Experiment 13 The refractive index of Perspex

28 University of Malta

11. Repeat Steps 4 to 10 four more times each time increasing the angle with the
normal by 5°.
12. Repeat Steps 4 to 11 this time by taking the angles on the other side of the
normal and tabulate all the results as shown below.

i1 / ° r1 / ° i2 / ° r2 / ° i/° r/° sin ( i ) sin ( r )

Remember to include the uncertainty (i.e. the least count) in the case of
measured quantities.

13. Plot a graph of sin ( r ) on the y-axis against sin ( i ) on the x-axis.

13.4. Data analysis

Simple optics theory gives the following relation between the angle of incidence and
the angle of refraction,
sin ( r ) = η sin ( i ) ,

where η is the refractive index. Use this equation together with the graph that you
have plotted to determine a value for the refractive index of Perspex.

Another method to determine the refractive index using this same setup is to use the
critical angle, c, i.e. the incident angle at which the refracted ray moves along the
boundary as shown below.

Position 2 Ray box

Position 1

Incident C
ray

D-shaped
Refracted glass block
ray c c

A O B

Move the raybox to Position 1 when the angle of incidence is the critical angle and
mark the path of the ray. Repeat for the other side (Position 2). Hence determine a
value for the critical angle.

Use the equation,

1
η= ,
sin ( c )

to determine a second value for the refractive index. Which of the two values, the one
obtain using the critical angle or the one obtained using the graph, is expected to
provide the best result? Explain.

Experiment 13 The refractive index of Perspex

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 29

Experiment 14 Mechanical equilibrium

14.1. Introduction
Mechanical equilibrium is a term used to indicate that the total sum of the forces as
well as the total sum of the torques is zero. This means that the system undergoes no
linear or circular acceleration and hence it will retain its state of motion. Such a fact is
often used in mechanics to determine unknown forces or torques from some other
known forces and torques. In fact this is what we are going to do in this experiment.

14.2. Apparatus and setup

The apparatus provided should be set up as shown below:

Spring
balance
Wire F
Retort l0 Retort
stand stand
l Metre rule

Hook

Weight of Weight of
unknown mass metre rule
W W0

14.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram. The wire and the spring balance
should be placed at about 5 cm from the edge of the metre rule.
2. Record the value of l0 .
3. Set l to be around 10 cm. Record its value.
4. Move the hands of the retort stands up and down until the metre rule is
horizontal and the wire and the spring balance are vertical. The spirit level
should be used to make sure the metre rule is as horizontal as possible.
5. Record the force F indicated on the spring balance.
6. Increase the length l and repeat Steps 4 and 5. Make sure not to change the
distance l0 .
7. Repeat Step 6 until you obtain a total of five readings.
8. Copy and complete the table below.

l1 / m F1 / N l2 / m F2 / N l /m F /N

Experiment 14 Mechanical equilibrium

30 University of Malta

Remember to include the errors associated with measured quantities.

9. Plot a graph of F on the y-axis against l on the x-axis.

14.4. Data analysis

The fact that we have equilibrium allows us to take the clockwise moments equal to
the anticlockwise moments. This leads us to the following equation,

Wl
=
F 1
2 W0 + ,
l0

where W0 is the weight of the metre rule while W is the weight of the unknown mass.
Set the above equation in the form = y mx + c and hence find a value W and W0 .
Remember to include the units.

Explain why it is important to ensure that the spring balance is vertical before reading
the value of F.

Experiment 14 Mechanical equilibrium

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 31

Experiment 15 The metre bridge

15.1. Introduction
A metre bridge is an instrument that can be used to determine the value of an
unknown resistance. The basic idea behind the instrument is that if two points are at
the same potential, then no current will flow between those two points. Thus during
the experiment one has to determine the position of a jockey such that no current
flows.

The results obtained from such a setup can in principle be better than those obtained
by measuring the current passing through the component as well as the voltage across
it. This stems from the fact that the ammeter and the voltmeter, used to determine
respectively the current and the voltage, have internal resistances that affect the final
result. However, such limitations are not found in the metre bridge and the only error
lies in the accuracy of the known resistances used in the setup.

15.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a metre bridge, a galvanometer, a
jockey, a set of known resistances, an unknown resistance and a power supply. The
apparatus should be set up as shown below:
Known resistance Unknown resistance
R X

Galvanometer
G

Resistance wire Jockey

l 50 – l

Power supply
Switch

15.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram. (Actually you only need to
connect the known resistance R as the remainder of the circuit has been set up
for you.)
2. Connect three 1 Ω resistors (or some equivalent combination) to obtain a 3 Ω
resistor. Set this as the known resistance R.
3. Set the power supply to 1V and then turn the switch on. Ensure that this value
of the supply voltage is not exceeded so as not to overload the galvanometer.
Ask your laboratory demonstrator for guidance.
4. Determine and record the length l at which the galvanometer has no deflection.
Avoid sliding or pressing hard the jockey on the resistance wire.

Experiment 15 The metre bridge

32 University of Malta

5. Repeat the procedure for R equal to 5 Ω, 8 Ω, 10 Ω, 12 Ω and 15 Ω.

6. Copy and complete the table below.

l
R/Ω l1 / cm l2 / cm l / cm 50 − l / cm
50 − l

Remember to fill in the errors for l1 and l2 . Note that these are measured in
centimetres not metres.

l
7. Plot a graph of R on the y-axis against on the x-axis.
50 − l

15.4. Data analysis

In order for the galvanometer to have zero deflection we require the following
equality in the ratio of the resistances in the circuit,

R l l
= ⇒=
R X ,
X 50 − l 50 − l

where X is the unknown resistance. Set the above equation in the form =
y mx + c and
hence find a value for the unknown resistance.

Explain why you should avoid sliding and pressing hard the jockey on the resistance
wire.

Experiment 15 The metre bridge

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 33

Experiment 16 The density of water

16.1. Introduction
In this experiment we are going to determine the density of water using Archimedes
principle. This states that an object that is immersed partially or wholly in a fluid will
experience and upward force that is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
Archimedes discovered this principle when he was stepping in a bath and noticed that
the water level rose by an amount that depended on the volume of his body that was
submerged. It appears that he was so eager to communicate his discovery that he
jumped from the bath tub and ran off through the streets of Syracuse shouting the
work “eureka” without bothering to put back on his cloths!

16.2. Apparatus and setup

The apparatus provided should be set up as shown below:

Test-tube

Water

Beaker
Masses

Lead
shots

16.3. Experimental procedure

1. Fill the beaker up to around three quarters with water. To fill the larger beaker
you should use the smaller beaker provided.
2. Place the test-tube in the water and fill it with lead shots until it floats
vertically.
3. Note the position of the water level on the scale placed inside the test-tube.
Call this x0 .
4. Place one of the masses m in the test tube and determine the new position x of
the water level. Note that each load provided has a mass of 0.2 g.
5. Repeat Step 4 for all the masses provided. Do not allow the test-tube to touch
the bottom of the large beaker. If needed add water, making sure no water
enters the test-tube.
6. Obtain a second set of readings by first removing the masses from the test-
tube.
7. Copy and complete the table below.

Experiment 16 The density of water

34 University of Malta

x0 / cm

Remember to include the average value for x0 . You should also consult with
your laboratory demonstrator about the most appropriate error to use in the
case of this measurement.

m1 / g x1 / cm m2 / g x2 / cm m/g x / cm h / cm

Note that h= x − x0 and that x1 and x2 have errors that should be included.

8. Use the Vernier calliper to determine the diameter d of the test-tube at two
different points.
9. Tabulate the values of the diameter. (Hint: the table and layout you should use
is very similar to that for x0 . )
10. Plot a graph of m on the y-axis against h on the x-axis.

16.4. Data analysis

From Archimedes principle we can obtain the following relation between the extra
mass added and the length of the tube that is submerged.

π d 2ρh
m= ,
4

where ρ is the density of water. Use the above equation and the graph you have
plotted to determine a value for ρ giving your answer in kg m −3 .

When measuring the diameter, you should have obtained two readings from each
point used. Explain clearly how the two readings were obtained.

Explain how you would go about to determine the volume of an object that does not
have a regular shape. (It was the study of this problem that led Archimedes to
discover the principle that carries his name.)

Experiment 16 The density of water

 Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 35

Experiment 17 Properties of a vibrating string

17.1. Introduction
In order to investigate the properties of a vibrating string, we are going to use a
sonometer. This consists of a string that is placed in tension in some way. Two
bridges are introduced along the length of the sonometer restricting the length of the
vibrating string to the distance between them.

The investigation will also use resonance, which occurs when the frequency of the
driver equals the natural frequency of the driven. An example would be a parent (the
driver) pushing a child on a swing (the driven). In our case the driver will be a tuning
fork, i.e. a musical instrument that vibrates at a specific frequency. This will be placed
on one of the bridges of the sonometer to make the wire vibrate. When resonance
occurs the string will oscillate with large amplitude.

Since the vibrations are not quite visible, we will use a paper rider. This consists of a
very thin piece of paper that is placed on the wire. When the wire vibrates with large
amplitude, the paper rider will fall off.

17.2. Apparatus and setup

The apparatus provided should be set up as shown below:
Tension x
screw Spring
Wire balance
Bridge Bridge
Screw
lock
Sonometer

17.3. Experimental procedure

1. Measure the diameter of the wire using the micrometer screw gauge. You
should do this at two different positions each time taking readings at right
angles to each other.
2. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
3. Tighten up the tension screw so that the wire is under a tension T of 15 N.
4. Lock the tension screw in position using the screw lock.
5. Place a small paper rider on the wire. Consult with the laboratory demonstrator
on the best way to do this.
6. Set the tuning fork in vibration by hitting it against the rubber provided. Do
not use the workbench or anything else since this might break the tuning fork.
7. Place the vibrating tuning fork on one of the bridges and move the other
slowly until the paper rider falls off. At this point resonance has occurred.
8. Measure the distance x between the bridges.
9. Repeat the whole procedure again, each time increasing the tension by 5 N,
until you obtain a total of five set of readings.
10. Copy and complete the tables below.

Experiment 17 Properties of a vibrating string

36 University of Malta

d / 10−3 m

T /N x1 / m x2 / m x/m x2 / m2

Note that you should include the errors for the d, T, x1 and x2 . In the case of
d, x1 and x2 you can consult past practicals. Else you can determine it by
finding the least count on the instrument as you should do for T.

11. Plot a graph of x 2 on the y-axis against the tension T on the x-axis.

17.4. Data analysis

Theory give that the length x is related to the applied tension through the equation,

T
x2 = ,
4π r 2 ρ f 2

where ρ is the density of the material and f is the vibrating frequency. Given that the
density of the wire is 8 400 kg m −3 determine the frequency f of the tuning fork.

Apart from the situations described in the worksheet, can you think of another
commonly occurring instance where resonance takes place? Provide a brief
description.

Experiment 17 Properties of a vibrating string

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 37

Experiment 18 Alternative experimental methods

18.1. Introduction
In the initial lectures we have mentioned that experiments can have systematic errors
that shift the value of the results. Such errors are very difficult to identify as they are
inbuilt in the setup or experimental procedure. Hence they recur each time the
experiment is preformed with the same bias.

To address this type of problems it is useful to determine the value one wants using an
alternative setup or procedure. In order to illustrate this point, the focal length of a
lens will be determined using a different procedure than the one adopted in
Experiment 8. You will note that some of the errors encountered in that experiment
will no longer be present. This does not necessary mean that this experiment is more
accurate than the previous as other errors will replace the ones that have been
removed.

18.2. Apparatus and setup

The apparatus provided should be set up as shown below:

Object hole Sharp

with cross-wires image

Lens Screen

D
Bulb B

A
C

u v

18.3. Experimental procedure

1. The apparatus is set up as shown. The length l should be around 80 cm.
2. Move the lens to and fro until a sharp image of the object hole is obtained on
the screen.
3. Measure the image distances u and v using the metre rule.
4. Change the distance between the object and the screen and repeat Steps 2 and
3.
5. Repeat Step 4 until you obtain a total of five readings.
6. Copy and complete the table below.

u1 / m v1 / m u2 / m v2 / m u/m v/m 1 1
/ m −1 / m −1
u v

Experiment 18 Alternative experimental methods

38 University of Malta

Remember to include the uncertainty in the case of measured quantities.

7. Plot a graph of v −1 on the y-axis against u −1 on the x-axis.

18.4. Data analysis

The lens formula and the real is positive convention give us the following equation,

1 1 1
+ =,
u v f

where f is the focal length. Use the graph and the above equation to determine a value
for the focal length. Remember to include its units.

Suggest a common daily use of lenses.

Experiment 18 Alternative experimental methods

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 39

Experiment 19 The resistance of a light bulb

19.1. Introduction
Electric current consists of a net flow of charge, most usually made up of electrons, in
a specific direction. As the charge carriers move along their path they encounter
obstacles that impede their motion. This hindering of the motion is referred to as the
electrical resistance, denoted by R. Quantitatively the electrical resistance is defined
as the voltage V divided by the resistance I, i.e.

V
R= .
I

In this experiment we are going to investigate how we can determine the resistance at
different current and voltage values.

19.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a power supply or a battery, a light bulb
a switch a variable resistor, an ammeter and a voltmeter. The apparatus should be set
up as shown below:

Power supply
Switch

Variable
resistor Ammeter A
Bulb

V
Voltmeter

19.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram with the ammeter set to read up
to 200 mA.
Note I: The multimeter has to be connected by inserting one pin into the
“common” and another pin where there is “mA”. Then set the multimeter to
read up till 200 mA direct current by rotating the function/range selector. Ask
your demonstrator if in doubt.
Note II: Make sure to connect the positive (red) side of the voltmeter with the
positive side of the bulb (which is connected to the positive side of the battery
through the ammeter or the variable resistor). Repeat for the negative (black)
side.
Note III: Use the lower scale of the Voltmeter that has a maximum deflection
of 3 V.

Experiment 19 The resistance of a light bulb

40 University of Malta

Note IV: Ask your demonstrator to check the circuit before you switch it on.
2. Adjust the variable resistor until the voltmeter reads 0.1 V.
3. Record the value of the ammeter.
4. Repeat Steps 2 and 3 each time increasing the reading on the voltmeter by
0.1 V until you reach the maximum voltage.
5. Copy and complete the table below.

I1 / mA V1 / V I 2 / mA V2 / V I / mA V /V

Remember to include the uncertainties in the case of measured quantities.

6. Plot a graph of V on the y-axis against I on the x-axis starting from the origin.
You can assume that when the voltage V = 0 V the current I = 0 mA, so as to
include this point on your graph.

Note the graph will be a curve. You can either draw the curve by hand or help
yourself with a flexicurve.

19.4. Data analysis

Determine the resistance when the voltage is 0.2 V, 0.5 V and 1 V. (Remember that
by definition the resistance R = V / I , i.e. the resistance is not defined as a gradient.)

You will have noticed that as the voltage increases the wire gets warmer until it is so
hot that it starts glowing. By considering this physical process, explain why the
resistance increases as the voltage increases.

Experiment 19 The resistance of a light bulb

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 41

Experiment 20 An ohmic resistor

20.1. Introduction
In Experiment 19 we have started looking at the resistance by considering that present
in a bulb. For that case we have seen that the variation of the voltage with the current
was a curve. As a matter of fact the variation of the voltage with applied current can
take any shape. However, the case when the two vary in a linear manner is of special
importance as for such cases the resistance is a constant. Components where this
occurs are called ohmic conductors. Their name follows from Ohm’s law which states
that the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage.

This experiment deals with the determination of the resistance of an ohmic conductor.
We will see that in this case it is possible to obtain the resistance using the gradient of
the graph rather than a point on the graph.

20.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a power supply or a battery, an ohmic
resistance, a switch a variable resistor, an ammeter and a voltmeter. The apparatus
should be set up as shown below:
Power supply
Switch

Variable
resistor Ammeter A
Ohmic
resistance

V
Voltmeter

20.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram with the ammeter set to read up
to 20 mA.
Note I: The multimeter has to be connected by inserting one pin into the
“common” and another pin where there is “mA”. Then set the multimeter to
read up till 20 mA direct current by rotating the function/range selector. Ask
your demonstrator if in doubt.
Note II: Make sure to connect the positive (red) side of the voltmeter with the
positive side of the bulb (which is connected to the positive side of the battery
through the ammeter or the variable resistor). Repeat for the negative (black)
side.
Note III: Use the lower scale of the Voltmeter that has a maximum deflection
of 3 V.

Experiment 20 An ohmic resistor

42 University of Malta

Note IV: Ask your demonstrator to check the circuit before you switch it on.
2. Adjust the variable resistor until the voltmeter reads 0.2 V. Record this value.
3. Record the corresponding value of the current.
4. Repeat Steps 2 and 3 each time increasing the reading on the voltmeter by
0.2 V until you have a total of five readings.
5. Copy and complete the table below.

I1 / mA V1 / V I 2 / mA V2 / V I / mA V /V

Remember to include the uncertainties in the case of measured quantities.

6. Plot a graph of V on the y-axis against I on the x-axis.

20.4. Data analysis

From Ohm’s law we get,

V ∝I ⇒ V =
IR.

Set the above equation in the form =

y mx + c and hence find a value for the
resistance R.

The resistance of a component can be found either by the method used in this
experiment or by a null deflection method (see Experiment 15). In your opinion which
experimental procedure in principle would provide the most accurate result? Why?

Experiment 20 An ohmic resistor

Foundation Practicals Laboratory Sheets 43

Experiment 21 The internal electrical resistance

21.1. Introduction
When we consider a power supply usually we only think of it in terms of the voltage it
supplies. However, no power supply is ideal, converting all input energy to output
voltage. In practice some energy is lost in the conversion. To model this loss we think
of the power supply as having some internal resistance across which we have a
voltage drop (which is equivalent to a loss of energy). This allows us to think of the
real power supply as being made up of an ideal voltage supply placed in series with an
ideal resistor.

In this experiment we are going to explore how we can determine the internal
resistance of a battery. Such resistance is usually very small and hence in principle
would require an advanced setup. The use of such setup would be beyond the scope of
this course.

21.2. Apparatus and setup

For this experiment you will be provided with a battery having an internal resistance,
a resistance box, an ammeter (in the form of multimeter) and a switch. The apparatus
should be set up as shown below:

Battery

E.m.f. Switch
r

Resistance Internal resistance A Ammeter

box of battery

21.3. Experimental procedure

1. Setup the apparatus as shown in the diagram with the resistance R of the
resistance box set to 10 Ω and the ammeter to read up till 200 mA.
Note I: The multimeter has to be connected by inserting one pin into the
“common” and another pin where there is “mA”. Then set the multimeter to
read up till 200 mA direct current by rotating the function/range selector.
Note II: Connect the resistance box by placing the pins where there is the
symbol for variable resistor. Rotate the resistance selectors to obtain the
desired resistance. Remember to multiply the value chosen by the factor given
above the resistance selector. Ask your demonstrator if in doubt.
Note III: Ask your demonstrator to check the circuit before you switch it on.
2. Close the switch.
3. Determine the current flowing through the ammeter.

Experiment 21 The internal electrical resistance

44 University of Malta

4. Increase the resistance of the resistance box by 10 Ω and record the value of
the current on the ammeter.
5. Repeat Step 4 until the resistance box has a resistance of 90 Ω.
6. Repeat the procedure this time decreasing the resistance on the resistance box
by 10 Ω each time.
7. Copy and complete the table below.

R/Ω I1 / mA I 2 / mA I / mA 1
/ A −1
I

Remember to include the uncertainty in the case of measured quantities.

8. Plot a graph of 1/ I on the y-axis against R on the x-axis.

21.4. Data analysis

Simple circuitry theory gives that the electro motive force (e.m.f.) of the system is
related to the resistances and the current through the equation,

= I ( R + r ).
E.m.f.

Rearrange the equation so that it represents the graph that you have plotted and hence
set it in the form of =
y mx + c. Use the graph to determine a value for the e.m.f. and
the internal resistance.

Derive the equation that gives the maximum current from a non-ideal power supply
(i.e. one that has internal resistance). What is its value in this case? Hint: Consider
that in order to obtain the maximum current we have to use the smallest possible
resistance.

Experiment 21 The internal electrical resistance