Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Additive Manufacturing
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/addma

A review of multi-scale and multi-physics simulations of metal additive

manufacturing processes with focus on modeling strategies
Mohamad Bayat a, Wen Dong b, Jesper Thorborg a, Albert C. To b, Jesper H. Hattel a, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Building 425, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science, University of Pittsburgh, 508 Benedum Hall, 3700 O′ Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Numerical simulations have recently shown their potential as a robust, cheap and reliable tool for predicting the
MAM quality of components produced by metal additive manufacturing (MAM) processes. Despite the advantages of
Heat transfer the MAM processes over conventional manufacturing methods, there is still a lack of thorough understanding on
Fluid dynamics
how different defects can form and originate during MAM processing. In that respect, advanced numerical
Solid mechanics
Meso-scale
techniques recently developed have the ability to predict the occurrence of such defects. These techniques have
Part-scale paved the way to efficiently obtain the optimal processing window for targeted mechanical properties to satisfy
the end-use design requirements. The aim of this review paper is hence to present and classify numerical sim­
ulations of MAM, not solely based on their length-scale as often seen, but also based on the involved physics, as
well as the modeling strategies at both the meso-scale and part-scale. The paper is arranged in the following way:
First, literature describing purely conduction-based heat transfer simulations at meso-scale are presented. This is
followed by a review of fluid-based simulations of increasing complexity based on the treatment of free surface of
the melt pool at meso-scale. Finally, contributions based on different part-scale modeling approaches with a focus
on thermo-mechanical behavior are reviewed.

1. Introduction etc. [6–13]. Moreover, the MAM market has grown about 875% in the
period of 2013–2018 [14] and the number of sold L-PBF machines has
Additive manufacturing (AM), according to American Society for increased from 300 in 2013–1800 in 2017 [15], underlining the
Testing and Materials (ASTM), is one of the three major manufacturing increasing interest of manufacturers in MAM as a production technique.
techniques [1] (along with forming and subtractive manufacturing), and Despite the fact that MAM has the potential of becoming a superior
is used to produce metallic or non-metallic components from an input production method, when compared to existing manufacturing tech­
CAD file and via addition of feedstock material in a layer-by-layer niques, there are still several possible forms of defects that can impair
manner. AM is divided into 7 different groups where the Laser Powder the overall quality of the final samples. Fig. 1 shows such different
Bed Fusion (L-PBF), Directed Energy Deposition (DED), material extru­ possible defects that can form in the MAM samples either during the
sion and binder jetting processes fall into the branch of MAM. process itself or its post-processing steps.
MAM has a number of special characteristics such as low material These defects, which cover a wide range in both shape, type and size,
waste, short total end-to-end production time, superior mechanical primarily originate from our limited knowledge about this very complex
properties and above everything else, its capability of manufacturing process. Usually an experimental trial-and-error procedure is carried out
complex geometries like lattice structures and topology-optimized ge­ to find the optimal processing window to achieve a part with the desired
ometries [2–4]. These have made MAM a superior process in many as­ quality. These experimental methods cover a large number of tech­
pects compared to other conventional production techniques such as niques. For instance, Light Optical Microscopy (LOM) and Scanning
milling and casting. Due to these capabilities, many world-leading Electron Microscopy (SEM) are typically used for observing meso-scale
companies such as Boeing, Airbus and General Electric (GE), have features such as porosities and grain shapes [16–24], whereas the
become increasingly interested in MAM [5]. Furthermore, currently Fringe Projection (FP) method (a result of which is shown in Fig. 1(g)), is
MAM is being implemented for the production of metallic parts with mainly used for determining and quantifying macro-scale deformations
various applications such as medical, automotive, aerospace, energy, [25–27]. Other techniques, such as Electron Back-Scattered Diffraction

* Corresponding author.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102278
Received 25 March 2021; Accepted 6 May 2021
Available online 2 September 2021
2214-8604/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

(EBSD) or X-ray Computed Tomography (X-CT) are used for the visu­ within LLNL and on the dross formation at overhang features. In another
alization of grains and identification of porosities inside samples [16, work, Korner and Markl [37] introduced different modeling techniques
20–23,28,29]. for the L-PBF and Electron beam Powder Bed Fusion (E-PBF) processes in
These experimental techniques are primarily conducted, after the 2016. They instead focused on the research outputs from FAU (Frie­
part has been manufactured, and thus they are called ex-situ methods. drich-Alexander Universitat) and confined their discussions mainly to
Even though these ex-situ techniques can provide the manufacturers powder-scale models. Meier et al. [38] in 2017 came up with a new
with a large amount of information at both micro- and macro-scales, classification of models, that is purely based on their length-scales.
they do not reveal the mechanisms underlying the formation of these Meier et al. [38] accordingly introduced the three divisions of micro-,
defects. As a remedy, one can use in-situ monitoring techniques (such as meso- and macro- (part) scales. This categorization based on
infra-red thermal imaging and X-ray monitoring [30–32]) to acquire length-scale, is currently the most widely-accepted classification in this
more detailed information regarding the formation and evolution of field, thus in this work, we also adhere to this classification.
these defects, at the stage when the part is being manufactured. The mentioned review papers are becoming relatively old, especially
Nevertheless, these online monitoring techniques need lengthy since this specific field progresses very fast. Among more recent works,
preparation and a laborious calibration. Alternatively, applying nu­ is the review paper by Bartlett and Li [39] in 2018, which is focused on
merical models can provide a more cost-effective solution compared to the formation and evolution of residual stresses in MAM parts. The work
in-situ monitoring. Furthermore, as opposed to the experimental tech­ reviews both experimental and numerical methods for stress analysis.
niques that are solely aimed and designed for only a specific subject, the Luo and Zhao [40] in 2018, reviewed the existing thermo-mechanical
numerical models are much more flexible and can be readily modified models based on finite element (FEM) for the L-PBF process, and then
upon the application. Depending on their implemented physics, these summarized the pros and cons of these models. Bertini et al. [41] in
models can simulate phenomena at different length-scales, e.g. dendritic 2019, made a review of different modeling strategies for simulating the
growth [33], melt pool instabilities [34] at micro- and meso-level and residual stresses for L-PBF. In a more recent work in 2019, Cook et al.
stress formation and crack propagation [35] at macro-level (so-called [42], reviewed meso-scale computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models
part-scale), respectively. used for the L-PBF process. In their discussion part, they go through
Researchers have made numerous contributions in recent years in different simulation frameworks developed by well-known research
the field of MAM. This also goes for its modeling and simulation, where groups in the field. Zhang et al. [43] reviewed the most recent progress
there has been a large number of contributions spanning from dendritic in modeling of microstructural evolution for titanium alloys and at the
and grain growth models to pure thermal models, thermo-mechanical micro-scale. Debroy’s group has made two outstanding review papers in
models, high-fidelity and finally reduced-order ones. In this respect, as the field of MAM [44,45]. In their later work, Wei et al. [45] go through
the number of research output within MAM simulations, is steadily most of the existing models in the field of MAM up until 2020. In their
growing, many early-stage researchers and newcomers to the field might work, they start from the very basic modeling tools, such as moving
find it quite difficult to have a clear grasp of the current state-of-the-art point heat sources, all the way to complex CFD simulations implemented
and its relevant literature. In this way, review papers can be very for MAM modeling. However, they barely touch upon residual stress
helpful, as they collect and briefly describe hallmarks within a specific modeling, and by that they nearly do not enter the part-scale
field. simulations.
There has already been a number of review papers within the field of In this review paper, rather than going into details of a certain type of
MAM simulations. For instance, the review paper by King et al. [36] in model, or going through nearly all types of models without any clear
2014 from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), introduced classification, we aim to give an overview of possible modeling strate­
one of the earliest classification of MAM simulations and then divided gies at both meso-scale and part-scale simulations for MAM. In this
the models into three classes of microstructural models, powder models respect, the meso-scale and part-scale simulations of MAM are first
(ALE3D code) and effective medium models (Diablo code). Their review enumerated and are then classified based on their modeling strategies.
paper, in essence, was mostly oriented around the numerical works done The rest of this manuscript is organized as follows: in Section 2, DED and

Fig. 1. An overview of a number of possible types of defects that can form during the MAM process or its subsequent post-processing steps. (a) and (b) show lack-of-
fusion and keyhole porosity via LOM, X-CT and SEM analysis. (c) shows poor overhang structure. (d) shows the impact of overheating during the multilayer DED
process and also directional grain growth. (e) shows rough surface of a plate. (f) and (g) show the crack formation and unwanted deflection after cutting the samples
from the base plate. (h) shows poor adhesion of a track made by DED.

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M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

L-PBF processes are first briefly introduced and then the challenges 2.2. Physics and scales in MAM
arising from the multi-physics and multi-scale nature of the process are
described. This section also introduces the classification of the simula­ MAM is inherently a complex process due to two main reasons. First,
tions based on their modeling strategy. In Sections 3 and 4, the meso- its multi-physics nature as it involves complex interacting physical
scale models for MAM are reviewed and discussed, where in the phenomena and second, due to its multi-scale characteristics, meaning
former pure conduction models and their possible modeling strategies that these different phenomena occur at different length scales.
are considered and in the latter, different classes of CFD models are Furthermore, what makes modeling MAM even more challenging, is the
discussed. In Section 5, part-scale models and different multi-scaling fact that some of these physics occur in a very short time period in the
laws used for such simulations are elaborated and discussed. The final order of microseconds. Fig. 4 shows the temperature contour and the
section contains a conclusion on the described models. Furthermore, at velocity field vector from a meso-scale multi-physics simulation.
the end of each sub-section, a discussion of the pros and cons of the According to Fig. 4, the amount of energy is sufficiently high to melt
implemented modeling technique is given as well. the powder particles, despite the fact that a larger portion of the deliv­
ered energy is reflected rather than being absorbed by the powder
2. MAM processes and their underlying physics particles. Once the melt pool is formed, interfacial forces will gradually
appear on the surface of the melt pool and act as the main drivers for the
2.1. The L-PBF and DED processes fluid flow in the liquid domain. The origin of two of these forces, i.e.
surface tension effects and thermo-capillarity (the Marangoni effect),
Fig. 2(a)-(c) show different steps of the L-PBF process. According to are directly related to surface tension. The latter, at least for a typical
Fig. 2(a) in the first step, the powder table moves an increment of alloy without high concentration of surface active elements, leads to an
approximately one layer of powder upwards, while the build table outward flow within the melt pool and depends on local temperature
moves the same distance but downwards. Then, the coating tool adds a gradients. Meanwhile, the former acts perpendicularly to the melt pool
layer of powder particles on the build platform, see Fig. 2(b), and in the surface and increases with declining temperature. Similarly to the sur­
last step, the laser starts fusing discrete powder particles together, Fig. 2 face tension force, the third interfacial force is the recoil pressure that
(c). These steps repeat until the part is manufactured, with a time gap acts normal to the free surface and pushes the liquid downwards. This
denoted the cooling time at the end of each cycle. force, under some special conditions, leads to the formation of keyhole
The DED process, however, is more continuous than the L-PBF pro­ depression zones that might lead to porosities as well.
cess. In DED, a continuous flow of material, either in the form of powder Another major phenomenon in MAM is the formation and evolution
streams or wire, is delivered to the location which is being irradiated by of residual stresses. During the period in which the laser irradiates the
the laser beam. These powder particles are carried by the gas flow and metal, material melting and solidification cause thermal strains. As soon
the irradiation zone itself is constantly protected by a shielding gas flow as the laser leaves this location, solidification starts. During this very
during the course of the process, see Fig. 3. When the molten powder short time period when the material is near melting temperature, the
particles collide with the base plate, they form a track of metal, at the yield stress is very low, and since the melt pool in front of it expands, it
wake of the laser beam. yields in compression. Then, as the material behind it continues to cool,
it would experience a tensile stress and undergo yielding. Eventually,

Fig. 2. (a)-(c) schematics showing different steps of the L-PBF process.

3
M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Fig. 3. A schematic view of the DED process.

Fig. 4. Different physical phenomena occurring during MAM processes. This figure is taken from an unpublished simulation of the L-PBF process made by
the authors.

the solidified track would end up in a tensile stress state while the modeling approaches. However, in recent years, there has been some
already-built tracks nearby experience compressive stress. These resid­ contributions to couple an initial CFD simulation to a subsequent solid
ual stresses play an important role when the sample is cut and detached mechanical model, that receives its thermal input from the CFD model
from the base plate as they could lead to undesired deflections, thus [47,48]. However, due to very high computational requirements, these
compromising the part quality. This, nevertheless, can be avoided if a simulations were only carried out at meso-scale or melt pool level
stress relief is carried out right after the MAM process [46] whilst the including one or two tracks only. Two examples of this sort of modeling
parts are still attached to the build plate. method are shown in Fig. 5, for E-PBF and DED.
Currently, it is impossible to simulate all relevant physical phe­ When setting up a proper model, one must first specify the required
nomena including both the fluid flow and stress evolution at part-scale outputs and then the length-scale of the model. For instance, if the focus
level, given today’s computing capabilities and existing MAM is on predicting the keyhole porosity formation, a CFD model at the

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M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Fig. 5. Two examples showing the coupling of a CFD model that provides input to a subsequent mechanical (CSM) model for (a) E-PBF [47] and (b) DED [48].

meso-scale would be the solution; and if macroscopic deformation is the meso- and part-scales.
objective, a thermo-mechanical or mechanical model at part-scale is According to Fig. 6, heat transfer constitutes the core in any MAM
needed. On the other hand, if the impact of detailed scanning strategy on simulation and it can be inferred that this physics is the driver of other
residual stresses is the target, a thermo-mechanical model at meso-scale physical phenomena such as fluid flow, stress formation, etc. For
that can resolve the movement of the laser beam needs to be developed. instance, by coupling the heat transfer to fluid dynamics at meso-scale,
Fig. 6 shows some of the most common modeling strategies at both one can determine detailed thermo-fluid behavior within the melt pool.

Fig. 6. An overview of current possible modeling strategies for MAM at both meso- and part-scale. colors for the internal borders show a specific modeling method.

5
M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

This model can also be implemented for the prediction of porosity for­ Gaussian heat flux describing the heat input for L-PBF of IN718 and
mation during the process, which will be discussed later in Section 4 of 316-L, respectively and used these to identify optimal printing
the paper. Likewise, by coupling heat transfer to a mechanical solver, conditions.
one can simulate the thermo-mechanical conditions during the process.
Furthermore, some of these modeling strategies can be divided into two 3.1.1. Capabilities and limitations of conduction models
groups of meso- and part-scale simulations, as shown in Fig. 6. The pure heat conduction models imply very coarse assumptions
with respect to the real MAM process, because they do not take the fluid
3. Meso-scale models: conduction-based simulations dynamics into account, which is a major mechanism of heat transfer in
the melt pool. In this respect, this type of models can mainly be used for
3.1. Pure thermal models optimization studies in which mere sensitives are needed instead of
absolute values, and these models often need to be re-calibrated for new
A large portion of the scientific contributions related to MAM sim­ process parameters, effectively making them applicable to a limited
ulations is based on pure conduction models and largely up until 2018. process window, only. Table 2 lists some of the major contributions
In these models, the transient temperature field during the process is within pure thermal models of MAM, together with their highlights and
predicted via solving the partial differential equation arising from the modeling techniques.
energy balance, see Table 1, however, with the velocity vector put to As the laser rays can penetrate into the powder bed and this mainly is
zero. Aaccomd is the accommodation coefficient in Table 1 and patm (Pa) is due to multiple reflections, one can model the laser-material interaction
the reference pressure. using a moving volumetric heat source as well. For instance, For­
Most of these thermal models are developed based on FEM, although oozmehr et al. [60] came up with a cylindrical volumetric heat source
a handful of them are also FVM-based simulations, see Fig. 7(a) and (b). which has a Gaussian planar profile in essence. They changed the depth
In the conduction models for the L-PBF process, the powder layer is of the heat source as a way to calibrate their thermal model. Yin et al.
assumed to be a continuum with averaged thermo-physical properties e. [63] adopted an exponential-decaying function for their heat source
g. conductivity, specific heat capacity and density. distribution in the vertical direction, while having a Gaussian profile in
In this class of models, which corresponds very much to the thermal the horizontal plane. Nevertheless, Tran and Lo [61] did not model their
models used in computational welding mechanics, the laser-material heat source based on pre-existing functions and they ran a first-step
interaction is simulated via either a moving heat flux or volumetric Monte-Carlo ray-tracing method in a packed powder domain. They
heat source with a planar Gaussian profile. An example of such a found the absorption profile from this ray-tracing model and later
simulation is the work done by Li and Gu [50], who modeled the thermal implemented that in the volumetric heat source in their FEM thermal
conditions during L-PBF for commercially available pure titanium. In model. There are also two other well-known heat sources used for MAM
their work, a moving Gaussian heat flux was used to model the laser simulations, Goldak’s double-ellipsoid [64] and Gusarov’s heat source
interaction with the powder bed. They found that an increase in the laser [65]. The former is essentially inherited from the welding community.
power would lead to a significant increase in temperature gradients, Table 3 lists some of the heat sources that are typically used in MAM
while a decrease in the scanning speed causes a slight change in thermal simulations.
gradients. Liu, Zhang and Peng [51] developed a FEM thermal model to Bruno-Rosso, Demir and Previtali [62] developed an FEM-based
study the thermal-cycling due to repeated heating and cooling as sub­ thermal model and used Goldak’s double-ellipsoid heat source for
sequent layers are scanned for L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel. They re­ validation and then Gusarov’s heat source for parametric study. Vastola
ported bigger melt pools at subsequent tracks due to the residual heat et al. [67] used the heat source given in Table 3 and used that for
effect. This aligned well with findings of Roberts et al. [52] who had thermal modeling of the keyhole-mode melt pool during L-PBF, even
previously shown, via FEM modeling of multi-track-multi-layer L-PBF though their model was a pure conduction model without any
that, as a result of residual heat effect, the temperature in the surface-tracking technique.
previously-deposited tracks steadily rises while new tracks/layers are
being printed. Zhang et al. [53] developed an FEM-based thermal model 3.2. Thermo-metallurgical models
to simulate the L-PBF process of W-Ni-Fe powder. They used the model
to obtain optimal process parameters for printing. Although by 2015, Pure conduction models according to Kamara et al. [70], over­
most of the simulations were 3D, Criales, Arisoy and Ozel [54] did a 2D estimate the melt pool temperature, as they neglect the convective heat
thermal model of the L-PBF for Inconel 625 (IN625). They carried out a transfer from the fluid dynamics. Kamara et al. [70] suggest that, one
sensitivity analysis to understand the influence of variations in different can use a non-isotropic effective liquid conductivity in order to avoid the
process parameters and material properties on the melt pool’s temper­ overestimation of peak temperatures, and more importantly, to
ature. They found that among 8 parameters (spot size diameter, con­ compensate for their low fidelity. Such models with an effective liquid
ductivity, latent heat, power, scanning speed, specific heat, packing conductivity will be introduced later in this paper.
density and powder reflectivity), powder packing density can signifi­ Despite these limitations, pure conduction models are robust and
cantly affect the melt pool’s temperature [54]. Shi et al. [55] and Antony computationally cheap [71]. In this respect, these pure conduction
et al. [56] developed heat conduction models based on FEM with a models can be further exploited by coupling to other physics such as
metallurgical or mechanical models. Even in some cases, one can use
Table 1 these models to perform an optimization to obtain the optimal pro­
Partial differential equation of energy balance and its related boundary condi­ cessing condition to reduce final deformation, similar to the work by
tions and phase change equation. Mohanty and Hattel [72], based on a reduced-order pure conductive
Heat transfer ∂ ∂ ( ) ∂
[
∂T
( )]
′ ′′ model. In the thermo-metallurgical models, the two independent solid­
(ρ h) + ρ huj = k + Q̇V ification parameters, namely the solidification cooling rate and tem­
∂t ∂xj ∂xj bulk ∂xj
Phase change T − Tsol
fliq = , T ∈ [Tsol , Tliq ] perature gradient, are first calculated at the end and at the onset of
(linear) Tliq − Tsol
Thermal ∂T
solidification, respectively, see Fig. 8(a). When these parameters are
− k = qrad + qamb + qevap determined, the solidification growth speed R (m⋅s− 1) along with the
′ ′ ′
′ ′ ′
boundary ∂n ( )
qrad (radiation) εη T4 − T4surr morphology factor F (K⋅s⋅m− 2) can be obtained as well. According to
′′
conditions
qamb (convection) h(T − Tsurr ) Fig. 8(b), a higher morphology factor F, leads to columnar grain struc­
′
′
[ ( [ ])]
qevap
′
′
(evaporation) Aaccomd
̅ patm exp⁡
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
ΔHlv
1−
Tboil ture, while a low F value promotes equiaxed grains.
2πRv T Rv Tboil T Thermal models for this class of simulations are normally either

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M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Fig. 7. Results of thermal simulation for the L-PBF process using (a) FVM [49] and (b) FEM frameworks.

Table 2
A brief overview of some of the most important pure conduction models used for thermal simulations.
Topic and highlights Authors Coupling Software Reference

3D thermal model of the L-PBF process Yin et al. 2012 None ANSYS [57]
2D thermal model of L-PBF + comprehensive parametric study on the impact of 8 process Criales, Arısoy, and Özel 2016 None In-house code with [54]
condition on the thermal field within the melt pool Matlab
3D thermal model of L-PBF of W-Ni-Fe D. Q. Zhang et al. 2010 None ANSYS [53]
3D thermal model of L-PBF of commercially pure titanium Yali Li and Gu 2014 None ANSYS [50]
3D thermal modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel + modeling of the thermal cycling Y. Liu, Zhang, and Pang 2018 None ANSYS [51]
effect
Investigation of the residual heat propagation in multilayer L-PBF of Ti6Al4V Roberts et al. 2009 None ANSYS [52]
Finding the optimal process parameters for achieving a dense morphology for L-PBF of Shi et al. 2016 None ANSYS [55]
IN718
Finding optimal process parameters for manufacturing defect-free tracks made of 316-L Antony, Arivazhagan, and None ANSYS [56]
stainless steel Senthilkumaran 2014
3D thermal modeling of L-PBF of Al-6061 + considering the evaporation and shrinkage Loh et al. 2015 None COMSOL Multi- [58]
physics
3D thermal modeling of L-PBF of Al-6061 + vapor/liquid/solid phase indicator Yingli Li et al. 2017 None – [59]
3D thermal modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel via implementing the optical Foroozmehr et al. 2016 None ANSYS [60]
penetration depth method
3D thermal modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel + developing a volumetric heat Tran and Lo 2018 None COMSOL Multi- [61]
source based on a Monte-Carlo ray-tracing method physics
3D thermal modeling of multi-track L-PBF process + validation with high-speed imaging Bruna-Rosso, Demir, and Previtali None In-house code [62]
2018
3D thermal modeling using a volumetric heat source with an exponential decay Yin et al. 2016 None ANSYS [63]
distribution along the depth of the powder layer

analytical or based on FEM or FVM. For instance, Bontha et al. [76] used in the simulated grain morphology for laser welding in Fig. 8(c) and can
Rosenthal’s analytical solution for a moving point source to simulate be seen that the grain morphology is columnar on the edges of the melt
thermal conditions during MAM for Ti6Al4V. In their work, it was pool and equiaxed at the center line due to improved nucleation. They
concluded that an increase in the input laser power or a decrease in the also investigated the influence of four major input process parameters,
scanning speed can both lead to coarser grain sizes and at the same time namely beam size, spot-on time, pre-heat temperature and beam cur­
promote equiaxed grain formation, see Fig. 8(d), since the lower the G/R rent, on the grain morphology. They showed via both numerical
ratio, the higher will be the chance of nucleation of equiaxed grains. modeling and experimental investigation (using EBSD analysis) that the
Plotkowski et al. [78] also used an analytical solution to a moving pre-heat temperature has the strongest impact on the grain morphol­
ring-shaped heat source in a semi-infinite domain to calculate the tem­ ogies. Yin et al. [77] developed a thermo-metallurgical model for
perature field. In their study, they managed to study the metallurgical studying the evolution of the grain growth angle during the L-PBF
evolution of an entire layer. They specifically noted that a higher contact process of Ti6Al4V. They showed that the grain growth angle converges
time of 0.25 s can remarkably affect the grain morphology and makes it to a steady state value, after printing 4 – 5 layers, see Fig. 7(e). Man­
predominantly equiaxed, as opposed to a spot time of 0.10 s, which vatkar et al. [80] developed an FVM-based thermo-metallurgical model
would lead to a noticeable columnar grain. for DED of 316-L stainless steel. They found that the cooling rate de­
Raghavan et al. [74] developed an FEM-based thermal model based creases at higher layers, leading to larger dendritic arms spacing. It is
on Truchas code [79] and coupled it to a metallurgical model for E-PBF worth to mention that apart from the mentioned spatially-resolved
of IN718. They showed that at the onset of solidification, grain metallurgical models that solve the geometrical shape and size of indi­
morphology is mainly columnar, while at the end, the grain morphology vidual grain structures, there is also another group of metallurgical
transitions into equiaxed, see Fig. 8(c). This is also clearly demonstrated models that predicts the phase fraction of different phases within the

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M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Table 3
List of a number of volumetric heat sources used for MAM thermal modeling. OPD stands for optical penetration depth.
Name Expression Reference
( ( ))
Conico-Gaussian 2 x 2 + y2 [66]
2ηP z
−
r2b
e ∙(1 − )
OPD∙πr2b ( ( ) ) H
Cylindrical 2 x +y 2 2 [60]
2ηP
−
r2b
e
OPD∙πr2b ( ( ))
Decay-function 2 x 2 + y2 (z) [63]
2ηP
−
r2b −
e ∙e d
OPD∙πr2b ( ) ( 2 )
Goldak x 2
y 2
z 2
√̅̅̅ x y2 z2 [64]
3(
√̅̅̅
6 3Pη
3( + 2 + 2) 6 3 P η −
a2
+ 2 + 2)
b c
af b c
−
2
√̅̅̅e √̅̅̅e r
af bcπ π ar bcπ π
Gusarov Q0 ρ h a ( [ ] [ ] ) 3(1 − ρh )(e− ζ − ρh eζ− 2λ
) [65]
1 − ρ2 e− λ (1 − a)e− 2aζ +(1 +a)e2aζ − [3 +ρe− (2λ) ][(1 +a − ρh (1 − a) )e2a(λ− ζ)
+(1 − a − ρh (1 +a) )e2a(ζ− λ)
] −
(4ρh − ( 3)D( )) 4ρh − 3
Vastola 3 x 2 + y2 [67]
6f2 Q − rc2 mz + rv
e ∙( )
πr2c h mh ( + 2rv )
Papadakis-Louizo x2 + y2 [68]
− ( (z) )2
3ηP re + (ri − re )
e H
πH(re + re ri + ri ) ⎛
2 2
⎞
Bag-Trivedi-De ( 2 2
) [69]
⎜9 x +y ⎟
− ⎝
H ⎠
9ηP R2 log⁡( )
e z
H∙πR2 (1 − e− 3 )

computational domain. These models are labeled as assumed bilinear-hardening for their material model and used
spatially-homogenized metallurgical models in literature [81–84]. temperature-dependent data for their simulations. Furthermore, they
Table 4 gives an overview of some of the important contributions to simulated irreversible powder-to-bulk transition in their model,
thermo-metallurgical simulations for MAM processes. assuming very low conductivity in the order of 0.1 W m− 1 K− 1 for the
powder bed. Finally, they concluded that residual stresses parallel to the
3.3. Thermo-mechanical models scanning pattern are much higher than the ones in the transverse di­
rection, see Fig. 9(a).
As for the thermo-metallurgical models, meso-scale thermo-me­ As opposed to Parry et al. [93] and Cheng, Shrestha and Chou [92],
chanical models typically also apply a pure conduction simulation to who ignored the impact of phase transformation, Tan et al. [95]
obtain the temperature field which is subsequently used as input for developed a more advanced thermo-metallurgical-mechanical model
calculating thermal loads in the mechanical model. The governing that incorporated the solid state phase transformation in a multi-layer
equations for these models are summarized in Table 5 and by solving the L-PBF process of Ti6Al4V. Tan et al. [95] also assumed a
static equilibrium equation using a proper material model, the bilinear-hardening material model and they noticed that accounting for
displacement as well as stress/strain fields can be determined. Super­ solid state phase transformation causes higher compressive stresses
scripts ()el, ()pl, ()tr, ()th in Table 5 stand for elastic, plastic, phase locally, compared to a case where this effect is neglected, see Fig. 9(c).
transformation and thermal strains, respectively. Chen et al. [96] studied the impact of different overlapping distances
An example of such a model, is the work by Hussein et al. [88], who and scanning widths on the final residual stresses, see Fig. 9(d). They
simulated the meso-scale thermo-mechanical behavior of 316-L steel also ignored the influence of phase transformation in their work and
during a 5-track L-PBF process and reported high magnitudes of von finally recommended an overlapping distance of 25–50%, as it causes
Mises stress due to cyclic cooling/heating. Gu and He [89] simulated the sufficient re-melting. Table 6 lists some of the most important
stress evolution during the L-PBF process of a Ni-Ti shape memory alloy. meso-scale thermo-mechanical works in literature.
They found relatively higher residual stress magnitudes at the edges of
the printed samples. Farahmand et al. [90] developed a 3.3.1. Capabilities and limitations of thermo-mechanical models
thermo-mechanical model for DED of H13 and A36 steels and studied As previously mentioned, meso-scale thermo-mechanical models
the impact of scanning velocity on the residual stresses. They reported resolve the movement of the laser beam, and hence they can be used as a
higher magnitudes of transverse and longitudinal stresses at lower tool to study the effect of scanning pattern on residual stress. However,
scanning speeds, where the melt pool was also found to be larger. Li these models can only be applied to a small domain, involving few tracks
et al. [91] modeled the thermo-mechanical conditions during a and layers. It should be mentioned that a number of researchers such as
multi-layer L-PBF process and noted significant vertical residual stresses Denlinger et al. [94] managed to simulate the thermo-elasto-plastic
as more layers were built. Cheng, Shrestha and Chou [92] developed a evolution during L-PBF for up to 38 layers for a cube, via an element
meso-scale thermo-mechanical model to investigate the influence of coarsening strategy, see Fig. 9(b). At the moment, it is still not possible
scanning patterns on the magnitude of residual stresses during a 3-layer to model the deformation or stress distribution of a large part with di­
L-PBF process of IN718. They simulated the laser beam via a volumetric mensions in the order of centimeters, while at the same time being able
heat source that had a Gaussian planar profile and a parabolic distri­ to resolve the movement of the laser beam. Olleak and Xi [102] and
bution along the depth of the part. Moran, Warner and Phan [103] managed to simulate the meso-scale
Their simulations revealed that the 45-degree scanning pattern has melt pool movement in functional structural parts, using adaptive
the lowest residual stress magnitude in both longitudinal and normal re-meshing and the principal of superposition, respectively. Neverthe­
directions, while the out-in pattern, led to the highest residual stresses. less, they only simulated the thermal behavior and did not model the
Parry et al. [93] studied the evolution of residual stresses in a entire thermo-mechanical conditions for those functional parts. In this
single-layer multi-track L-PBF process for Ti6Al4V. They used Goldak’s respect, multi-scaling can be pursued for part-scale thermo-mechanical
double-ellipsoid to simulate the laser beam’s heating effect. They modeling, which will be discussed in Section 5.

8
M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Fig. 8. (a) metallurgical variables at the melt pool border. (b) G - R curve schematically showing possible grain morphologies [73]. (c) calculated grain morphology
by Raghavan et al. [74] (the simulated grain morphology is taken from [75]) and (d) Bontha et al. [76], for IN718 and Ti6Al4V, respectively. (e) predicted grain
growth angle by Yin et al. [77].
All figures are reproduced from their original samples in their respective papers.

Table 4
An overview of some of the major thermo-metallurgical simulations of MAM.
Topic and highlights Authors Coupling Software Reference

Thermo-metallurgical modeling of MAM of Ti6Al4V Gockel, Beuth, and Metallurgical ABAQUS [85]
Taminger 2014
Thermo-metallurgical modeling of MAM of IN718 + simulation of dendrite’s growth and Nie, Ojo, and Li 2014 Metallurgical ABAQUS [86]
nucleation /microstructural
Investigation of the effect of involved process conditions on the metallurgical conditions Raghavan et al. 2016 Metallurgical Truchas code [74]
of IN718 parts made with E-PBF
Simulating the grain growth direction in multi-layer L-PBF of Ti6Al4V Yin et al. 2018 Metallurgical Coded in Matlab [77]
Multilayer simulation of MAM of 316-L stainless steel + study the effect of heat Manvatkar et al. 2011 Metallurgical FVM-based in- [80]
accumulation on the dendrite sizes house code
Thermo-metallurgical modeling of MAM of Ti6Al4V using analytical solution Bontha et al. 2009 Metallurgical In-house code [76]
with Matlab
Thermo-metallurgical modeling of L-PBF of IN718 + parametric study on the role of Plotkowski, Kirka, and Metallurgical In-house code [78]
process conditions on the columnar-to-equiaxed grain transition Babu 2017
Thermo-metallurgical modeling of DED of 316-L stainless steel using semi-analytical Huang et al. 2019 Metallurgical In-house code [87]
solution

9
M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Table 5 powder bed is assumed to be a continuum with effective

Governing partial differential equations for mechanical models. thermo-physical properties.
Static equilibrium ∂σij He, Fuerschbach and Debroy [110] developed a 3D CFD model for
= 0,
∂xj laser spot welding of 304 stainless steel. In their model, they assumed a
flat surface for the melt pool and accounted for the Marangoni effect and
[ ]
Hooke’s general law E 1( ) v
σij = δik δjl +δil δjk + δij δkl εelkl
1+v 2 1 − 2v buoyancy. They found, via a dimensionless analysis, that buoyancy
Strain decomposition ε̇total = ε̇elij + ε̇pl th tr
ij
[
ij + ε̇ij + ε̇ij
] plays a minimal role on the fluid flow inside the melt pool, compared to
J2 flow theory 9 1 1 skl σ̇kl
pl
ε̇ij = − s the Marangoni effect. Manvatkar, De and Debroy [111] developed a very
4 Et E σ2e ij
Strain-displacement relationship 1 ∂ui ∂uj similar model to their previous model in [110] and simulated
εij = [ + ]
2 ∂xj ∂xi multi-layer DED of 316-L stainless steel. As expected, they found that at
the subsequent layers, cooling rate declines, leading to coarsening of the
4. Meso-scale models: flow-based simulations dendrites. Wei, Mazumder and Debroy [112] re-implemented this model
to investigate the effect of different scanning directions on the metal­
In the meso-scale flow-based simulations of MAM processes, as per lurgical conditions during MAM of IN718. They found that unidirec­
their name, fluid-related variables such as pressure and velocity vectors tional and back-and-forth scanning patterns cause the grains to grow
are also calculated besides temperature, meaning that at least four more with 60º and 45º angles with respect to the horizon, respectively. From
unknowns need to be solved for. This notably increases the required the same research group, Mukherjee et al. [113] presented a modified
computational time and resources. CFD models for MAM processes can version of the mentioned model and for the L-PBF process. Mukherjee
be subdivided into three general types, based on how they treat the free et al. [114] then applied this model to investigate the effect of input
surface of the melt pool, i.e.: (1) assume a flat surface for the melt pool, parameters on metallurgical variables for four alloys. They noted that
(2) capture small deformations of the melt pool and (3) capture large the cooling rate increases when the laser beam moves to a subsequent
melt pool deformations and porosities. The last one basically resolves track, while this rate decreases with increasing number of layers. In
the shape of every individual powder particle explicitly and is typically another work, Mukherjee et al. [115] studied the formation of the
referred to as multi-physics simulation in MAM literature. These three lack-of-fusion porosities using this model. They came up with a
types of simulations are discussed in the three following subsections. dimensionless number that was used to give an indication of the for­
Table 7 lists the main governing equations and boundary conditions for mation of lack-of-fusion porosity. However, it must be underlined that
CFD models of MAM processes. Ap (Pa) in Table 7 stands for the recoil lack-of-fusion porosities cannot be realistically described, solely by
pressure coefficient and γ (N m− 1 K− 1) is the temperature sensitivity of means of a flat-surface CFD model, since much of the porosity is
surface tension. essentially caused by powder denudation and the powder particles’
overall size distribution. This necessitates development of a more com­
plex model which includes the powder size distribution.
4.1. CFD models with flat surface assumption Zhang et al. [116] developed an FEM-based CFD model for the L-PBF
process of IN718. They studied the relative strength of convection and
In this first type, neither recoil pressure nor surface tension effect are conduction in heat transfer during the process and found that the con­
accounted for, as the free surface is flat and does not have any curvature vection heat flux is about 10 times higher than the one for conduction.
that can lead to any surface tension forces. Nevertheless, the Marangoni Bayat et al. [66] modeled the thermo-fluid-metallurgical conditions
effect is still taken into account in these models, since this is one of the during the L-PBF process of Ti6Al4V, using an FEM-based CFD model.
main fluid dynamics forces in MAM and similar fusion-based processes They carried out a parametric study to analyze the impact of the scan­
[107–109]. It is worth mentioning that in this type of simulations, the ning speed and beam size on the melt pool’s thermo-fluid-metallurgical

Fig. 9. (a) comparison between normal longitudinal and transverse residual stresses [93]. (b) temperature field at the 37th layer using an element coarsening method
[94]. (c) comparison between equivalent residual stresses without and with the inclusion of phase transformation stresses [95]. The impact of overlapping distance of
5% and 50% on the final residual stresses [96].

10
 M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

conditions and found that, increasing the scanning speed leads to a

Reference
significant rise in the solidification cooling rate, see Fig. 10(a).
Le and Lo [117] made an FVM-based CFD model to study the impact

[100]

[101]
[91]
[97]

[93]

[95]
[96]

[90]

[88]
[98]
[89]
[94]
[99]
of different laser powers on the melt pool dimensions. They simulated
the thermo-fluid conditions for a stainless steel with high sulfur content
that leads to the inverse Marangoni effect, see Fig. 10(b). They noted

ABAQUS AM module
that the model overestimates the melt pool depth in stable melt pool
conditions, but underestimates it in the keyhole melt pool regime. The
main reason for the overestimation is the fact that the recoil pressure,

Pan Solver
Software

ABAQUS

ABAQUS

ABAQUS
which leads to deep depressions, is not taken into account in their
ANSYS

ANSYS
ANSYS

ANSYS

ANSYS

ANSYS

ANSYS
Diablo
simulation. Jiang et al. [118] modeled the DED process of a Ni-based
powder on Q235 steel with a flat surface assumption for the melt
pool, although in reality, a bead is manufactured in the DED process, due
to deposition of material. In their work, they found that the Marangoni
Mechanical/Metallurgical

effect leads to widening of the melt pool during the process. Table 8 lists
some of the most important CFD works with flat surface assumption.
Mechanical
Mechanical

Mechanical

Mechanical

Mechanical

Mechanical
Mechanical
Mechanical
Mechanical
Mechanical
Mechanical

Mechanical

4.2. CFD models with small surface deformation

Coupling

In this branch of CFD models, a surface-tracking technique is

implemented that can predict small surface deformations. In this
respect, as the free surface of the melt pool can have a curvature, the
J. Wu, Wang, and An 2017
Farahmand and Kovacevic

surface tension effect can be accounted for. Moreover, in these models,

the recoil pressure can also be modeled. However, these surface-tracking
Denlinger et al. 2017
Cheng, Shrestha, and

Parry, Ashcroft, and

Yingli Li et al. 2018

Hussein et al. 2013

C. Chen et al. 2019

techniques do not explicitly capture the shape of individual powder

Hodge et al. 2014
P. Tan et al. 2019

Conti et al. 2018

Gu and He 2016

Song et al. 2020

Wildman 2016

particles, especially for the L-PBF process, where a continuum approach

Chou 2016

is used instead. Most of the examples of this type of CFD models, can be
Authors

found for the DED process, where the surface-tracking method predicts
2014

the bead shape, as the track is being manufactured.

Gan et al. [121] developed a CFD model to predict the melt pool
shape and its fluid dynamics conditions during the DED process of a
Thermo-mechanical modeling of the DED and L-PBF processes of IN718 + simulation of thin wall sample for DED and overhangs

cobalt-based alloy on steel. They used a moving mesh method for

Thermo-elasto-plastic simulation of the L-PBF process of IN718 + simulation of 38 layers via an element coarsening strategy.

Thermo-mechanical modeling of L-PBF for 316-L stainless steel + sensitivity analysis for conductivity, specific heat capacity
Thermo-mechanical modeling of L-PBF of AlSi10Mg + study on the impact of spot-on time on the residual stress magnitude

tracking the free surface of the melt pool using the Arbitrary Lagrangian
Eulerian (ALE) technique. They also defined two velocities for express­
Thermo-mechanical modeling of DED of 316-L stainless steel and mild steel + study the impact of process parameters

ing the melt pool dynamics, an internal flow velocity and a moving
Thermo-mechanical modeling of 3-layer L-PBF of IN718 + study on the influence of different scanning patterns on

Thermo-metallurgical-mechanical modeling of L-PBF of Ti6Al4V + accounting for solid state phase transformation
Thermo-mechanical modeling of L-PBF of Ti6Al4V + study on the effect of different overlapping distances on the

boundary velocity due to the deposition of material. A snapshot of this

model is shown in Fig. 11(a). In a subsequent work, Gan et al. [122]
made a relatively similar model to simulate the melt pool evolution
during DED of a nickel-based powder on cast iron. They approximated
the free surface of the melt pool via solving an analytical force balance
equation on the surface of the melt pool. They also reported larger
dendrite sizes due to reduced cooling rates at the subsequent tracks. Gan
et al. [123] re-implemented this model and applied it to study the effect
of process parameters on the dilution and re-deposition of sulfur during
Modeling of thermo-elsto-plastic conditions in overhang areas in L-PBF of 316-L

DED. They showed that higher mass flow rate leads to sulfur dilution,
Thermo-mechanical modeling of a single-layer multi-track L-PBF of Ti6Al4V

which in turn causes an outward flow of liquid due to normal Marangoni

Highlights of a number of thermo-mechanical simulations for MAM.

Thermo-mechanical modeling of multi-layer L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel

flow. However, they showed that at lower mass flow rates, the sulfur
for L-PBF + validation w.r.t residual stress measurements from XRD
Thermo-mechanical modeling of 5-track L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel

Thermo-mechanical modeling of L-PBF of Ni-Ti shape memory alloy

concertation remains high in the melt pool, causing an inward flow due
to inverse Marangoni flow. Kumar and Roy [124] developed an
FVM-based CFD model of the DED process and expressed the shape of
the melt pool’s free surface using a dimensionless force balance equation
on the surface. They also studied the impact of main input parameters on
the thermo-fluid conditions of the melt pool via a dimensionless anal­
ysis. Zhao et al. [125] developed a CFD model of the DED process of
high-speed steel on carbon steel, where they implemented a combined
level-set volume of fluid method for predicting the free surface of the
melt pool.
on the residual stress formation

In most of the CFD simulations of the DED process, the addition of

the final residual stresses

powder particles is simulated via a moving Gaussian-shape mass flux.

residual stress formation

and Young’s modulus

The mass flux distribution, however, can be very different from the
Topic and highlights

idealized Gaussian shape, if the nozzle is not perfectly focused on the

build plate [128]. Some researchers managed to develop two separate
models, one for simulating the powder injection and the other for
simulating the melt pool thermal conditions [129,130]. However, it
Table 6

should be mentioned that Bayat et al. [126] managed to combine the

two, such that the simulation of DED with explicit representation of

11
M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Table 7 a number of major input process parameters on the surface quality of

List of governing equations for thermo-fluid CFD models implemented for MAM E-PBF-made vertical walls. They mentioned that one can improve the
simulations [104–106]. quality of these walls via using a higher scanning speed and a smaller
Continuity ∂(ρui ) layer thickness. Bauereiß et al. [135] implemented this model to study
=0
∂xi the porosity formation during the E-PBF process. They investigated the
Navier-Stokes ∂p
[ (
∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂uk
)]
∂
(ρu ) +
∂ ( )
ρui uj = − +
∂
μ + − δ − impact of two input powers of 90 W and 180 W and noted that the
∂t i ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 3 ij ∂xk
( )2 former leads to channel-like defects that in their case started from layer
KC 1 − fl 4 and continued all the way to layer 10. Markl et al. [136] went one step
∙ui
CK + f 3l
Surface- ∂ ∂ ( ) further and applied the 3D version of this model to the E-PBF process.
Fuj = 0
tracking ∂t
(F) +
∂x j They found that at a constant linear energy density, increasing the
Interfacial Recoil pressure Precoil =
[ ( ( ))] power and speed leads to deeper melt pools that in turn results in a
forces Tboil
Ap Patm exp⁡
ΔHlv
1− , significantly low porosity.
R∙Tboil T
The Marangoni τMarangoni = γ[∇T − n(∇T∙n)] Khairallah and Anderson [137] developed an FEM-based CFD model
effect for the L-PBF process of 316-L stainless steel using ALE3D (an Arbitrary
Surface tension Pcapillary = (σ0 + γ[T − Tl ])κ Lagrangian Eulerian code developed at Lawrence Livermore National
effect
Laboratory). They studied the track uniformity at different scanning
speeds and found out that at high scanning speeds, tracks will be dis­
powder particles was achieved, see Fig. 11(b). Furthermore, it must be cretized into separate spheres due to the Plateau-Rayleigh effect [138,
noted that spattering of powder particles can affect the mass flow rate 139]. Shrestha and Chou [140] developed an FVM-based CFD model for
and this is usually compensated for via introducing a powder catchment the L-PBF process of IN718 and in the same way as Khairallah and
efficiency in the simulations [131]. Anderson [137], neglected the recoil pressure and thermo-capillarity.
Chen et al. [132] developed an FEM-based model for simulating the Leitz et al. [141] also developed a similar model based on FEM and
thermo-fluid conditions during the L-PBF process of ceramic material. studied the track uniformity during the L-PBF process of molybdenum.
They used the level set method to track the free surface of the melt pool Yu et al. [142] developed an FVM-based CFD model for L-PBF of
and similar to the models with flat free surfaces, they assumed a con­ aluminum and modeled the laser-material interaction via a moving
tinuum layer with reduced material properties for modeling the powder volumetric heat source. They reported that both high and low linear
layer. Queva et al. [127] modified this model and applied it to the L-PBF energy densities can lead to rough surface finish, which is caused by the
process of IN718 and Ti6Al4V, see Fig. 11(c). They also assumed a self-balling effect and lack of sintering. Xia et al. [143] studied the
reduced-order continuum layer to represent the powder layer. The impact of linear energy density on the porosity formation during L-PBF
compressible Navier-Stokes equations were solved in the powder layer of IN718. They developed an FVM-based model for their study and
domain, taking the powder-to-liquid volume change of the layer into accounted for the recoil pressure and the Marangoni effect. A volumetric
account. The same authors also found that neglecting evaporation can heat source model was used in their simulations for simulating the
lead to wider and at the same time hotter melt pools. An overview of laser-heating effect. Furthermore, they reported that a scanning speed of
some of the most important contributions within this class of CFD 200 mm⋅s− 1 would lead to a smooth surface finish, without any notable
models is given in Table 9. porosity, while a higher scanning speed of 500 mm s− 1 results in open
porosities on the surface of the sample. Nonetheless, it must be
emphasized that in these works [142–144], the powder layer is assumed
4.3. Multi-physics CFD models
to be comprised of one layer of neatly-arranged single-sized powder
particles, see Fig. 12(a). Whereas in reality, powder particles are
The surface-tracking algorithm implemented for this class of CFD
randomly-stacked upon each other and have a relatively wide size dis­
models, enables explicit representation of individual powder particles
tribution, see Fig. 12(b).
and mainly for the L-PBF process. In this respect, as opposed to the
Khairallah et al. [148] developed a multi-physics CFD simulation of
previous models, the powder layer material properties will be identical
the L-PBF process of 316-L stainless steel using the ALE3D code dis­
to those of the bulk material. In this respect, this type of models is ideal
cussed earlier. This work is basically a modification of the LLNL’s pre­
for tracking lack-of-fusion and keyhole porosities forming during the
vious work [137] and the recoil pressure and Marangoni effect were
process. Moreover, advanced laser-material interaction models such as
implemented in the model as well as an evaporation model. Lee and
ray-tracing, can be incorporated in these models as well.
Zhang [149] developed a CFD model with comparable complexity as in
Körner et al. [133] were among the first researchers in this field to
[148] and simulated the melt pool’s heat and fluid flow and metallur­
develop a CFD model while being able to resolve the geometry of the
gical conditions based on a combined CFD-DEM simulation for L-PBF of
individual powder particles. They used the Lattice Boltzmann Method
IN718 and based on FVM. They also calculated the cooling rates to
(LBM) in their CFD simulations. In their work, they accounted for sur­
obtain the dendrite arm spacing during solidification. Wu et al. [150]
face tension effects, wetting angles and phase transition and neglected
developed an FVM-based simulation of the L-PBF process of H13 steel
other interfacial forces. Körner et al. [134] investigated the influence of

Fig. 10. Two examples of melt pool simulations with flat free surface: (a) Bayat et al. [66] and (b) Le and Lo. [117].

12
M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Table 8 Table 8 (continued )

List of CFD simulations for MAM with the flat surface assumption. FS stands for Topic and highlights Authors Physics Software Reference
the flat surface assumption and Mar for Marangoni.
FEM + metallurgical-
Topic and highlights Authors Physics Software Reference microstructural
3D thermo-fluid He, FS/ Mar In-house [110] analysis
modeling of spot Fuerschbach, code - 3D simulation of thermo- Kao et al. FS/ Mar LBM [120]
welding of 304 stainless and DebRoy FVM electric-magneto- 2020
steel using in-house 2003 hydrodynamic
FVM-based code conditions for L-PBF of
3D thermo-fluid- V. Manvatkar, FS/ Mar In-house [111] Al10Si
metallurgical De, and code -
simulation of multi- Debroy 2014 FVM
layer DED of 316-L and studied the influence of evaporation and recoil pressure on the melt
stainless steel + study pool. They found that neglecting evaporation not only causes higher
the role of residual heat peak temperatures, but also leads to a wider melt pool.
on the dendrite spacing
Thermo-fluid- Wei, FS/ Mar In-house [112]
Bayat et al. [145] looked into a different aspect of MAM and
metallurgical modeling Mazumdar code - managed to simulate the lack-of-fusion porosity in a
of grain growth and Debroy FVM multi-track/multi-layer L-PBF process for IN718, using a combined
evolution in MAM of 2015 CFD-DEM approach. They found that elongated lack-of-fusion porosities
IN718 with
form at the two sides of the tracks, due to lack of proper heating from the
unidirectional and bi-
derctional scanning laser beam at those locations. There are a number of modeling tech­
directions niques that are typically used for simulating the powder-spreading step
3D thermo-fluid Mukherjee FS/ Mar In-house [113] such as DEM [150], the rain drop method [135] and regular distribution
modeling of L-PBF of et al. 2018a code - [142]. As shown by Cao [151], the morphology of the powder layer can
316-L, AlSi10Mg, FVM
Ti6Al4V and IN718
highly influence the track uniformity and shape. DEM is currently the
using OPD (optical most frequently-implemented method that accounts for mutual inter­
penetration depth)- action between powder particles where usually Hertz and Voigt models
based volumetric heat are used for determining the normal and tangential forces between
source
particles, respectively. Gu et al. [152] used a similar CFD-DEM tech­
3D thermo-fluid- Mukherjee FS/ Mar In-house [114]
metallurgical modeling et al. 2018b code - nique as that of Bayat et al. [145] and simulated the
of L-PBF of 316-L, FVM multi-track/multi-layer melt pool behavior for a multi-material powder
AlSi10Mg, Ti6Al4V and consisting of 316-L steel and Cu10Sn. Most of the CFD models used to
IN718 + study of the simulate MAM concern metals/alloys that exhibit a normal (outward)
evolution of dendritic
arm spacing in the
Marangoni behavior. However, Bayat et al. [146] did a CFD simulation
subsequent tracks to understand the impact of different strengths of both normal and in­
3D thermo-fluid Mukherjee FS/ Mar In-house [115] verse Marangoni effects on the melt pools formed during L-PBF. They
modeling of L-PBF of and DebRoy code – concluded that under the inverse Marangoni effect, the melt pool’s
316-L, AlSi10Mg, 2018 FVM
width/depth ratio becomes small, see Fig. 12(d). They also found that
Ti6Al4V and
IN718 + study on the regardless of the direction of the Marangoni effect, an increase in the
formation of the lack- strength of this interfacial force leads to a pronounced decrease in the
of-fusion porosity melt pool temperature, mainly caused by improved heat transfer via
3D thermo-fluid D. Zhang et al. FS/ Mar COMSOL [116] convection. Bayat et al. [147] developed another FVM-based CFD model
modeling of L-PBF of 2018 Multi-
IN718 + comparison physics
for simulating the keyhole formation during L-PBF, see Fig. 12(e). They
between the showed that when the keyhole forms, a large number of laser rays will be
conduction and entrapped in the keyhole depression walls, leading to multiple re­
convection heat flux flections that in turn significantly promote the heat transfer from the
magnitudes within the
laser beam. They also simulated the porosity formation in a keyhole melt
melt pool
3D thermo-fluid T. N. Le and FS/ Mar ANSYS [117] pool regime and validated their results with X-CT data from experi­
modeling of L-PBF of Lo 2019 Fluent ments. Tang, Tan and Wong [153] also studied the keyhole porosity
CL20ES formation for the L-PBF process with an FVM solver. They noticed that
powder + investigation the previous track morphology can affect the track shape in the new
of the impact of the
layer.
process parameters on
the melt pool shape Yan et al. [154] studied the track uniformity during E-PBF of
3D thermo-fluid Jiang et al. FS/ Mar ANSYS [118] Ti6Al4V using an FVM-based model. They suggested that a low layer
modeling of DED of 2020 Fluent thickness and a high laser power are beneficial for obtaining good track
NiNbZrCo powder on
uniformity. In a later work, Yan et al. [155] implemented this model to
Q235 mild steel
3D thermo-fluid- Bayat et al. FS/ Mar COMSOL [66] investigate how different scanning patterns can lead to porosities. They
metallurgical 2019 Multi- found that the layer-wise interlace scanning pattern leads to low
simulation of L-PBF of physics porosity during the E-PBF process. Tang, Le and Wong [156] modeled
Ti6Al4V using the humping formation during L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel. They
FEM + conico-
showed via numerical simulation and experiments that, at a constant
Gaussian volumetric
heat source energy density, a higher laser power leads to more pronounced humps.
3D thermo-fluid- De Baere 2018 FS/ Mar COMSOL [119] Cao [151] used an FVM-based CFD model to investigate the impact of
metallurgical Multi- layer thickness, packing density and powder particles size distribution
simulation of L-PBF of physics
on track quality. Shi et al. [157] simulated the effect of different beam
Ti6Al4V using
shapes on the heat and fluid flow and metallurgical conditions during
L-PBF. They used two distinct beam shapes of longitudinal-elliptical and

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M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Fig. 11. (a) DED simulation using Gaussian mass flux as mass input by Gan et al. [121]. (b) CFD simulation of DED with explicit powder representation by Bayat
et al. [126]. (c) the melt pool shape for L-PBF of IN718 without the inclusion of evaporation from Queva et al. [127].

transverse-elliptical and showed that the latter leads to a wide and

Table 9
shallow melt pool, while the former exhibits the opposite behavior. They
List of CFD simulations with small surface deformation assumption for MAM
also noticed that a longitudinal-elliptical beam leads to a columnar grain
processes. SSD (small surface deformation), Mar (Marangoni), Cap (surface
structure whereas the transverse-elliptical beam promotes nucleation of
tension effects) and Recoil (recoil pressure).
equiaxed grains. There is also a group of multi-physics models which
Topic and highlights Authors Physics Software Reference
does not require a surface-tracking scheme and instead relies on a
3D dimensionless thermo- Kumar SSD/ In-house [124] Lagrangian description of the melt pool free surface. Smoothed Particles
fluid modeling of the and Roy Mar, Cap code - FVM Hydrodynamics (SPH) is such a Lagrangian discretization method which
DED process 2009
3D thermo-fluid modeling Gan, Liu, SSD/ In-house [122]
is frequently used for predicting the free surface of the melt pool during
of DED of nickel-based et al. Mar, Cap code MAM processes [158–161].
alloy on cast iron 2017
3D thermo-fluid- Gan, Yu, SSD/ In-house [121] 4.3.1. Capabilities and limitations of multi-physics models
metallurgical modeling et al. Mar, Cap code
It is well accepted that meso-scale CFD models are very useful for
of DED of cobalt-based 2017a
alloy on steel predicting detailed thermo-fluid behavior of the melt pool. As also
plate + analysis of shown earlier, these models are capable of predicting porosity formation
dendritic arm spacing in and track the metallurgical evolution during the process. However,
the multi-layer process current multi-physics models have a number of limitations. For instance,
3D thermo-fluid modeling Gan, Yu, SSD/ COMSOL [123]
of DED of sulfur-cobalt et al. Mar, Cap Multi-
the majority of these models neglect denudation. This phenomenon
and sulfur-iron 2017b physics leads to dispersion of powder particles and consequently causes a non-
alloys + study the effect homogenous surface finish in the as-built parts [162,163]. In the CFD
of different mass flow models that are aimed at simulating high-energy L-PBF processes, this
rates on the
effect can be neglected, to some extent. However, for simulations
redistribution of sulfur
3D thermo-fluid- J. Zhao SSD/ n. a. [125] addressing the final surface of a layer, neglecting this phenomenon can
metallurgical modeling et al. Mar, Cap lead to large error. The second major issue for these models is their high
of DED of T15 and T16/ 2020 computational expense. As shown earlier, the computational domains
CeO2 powders on low for these simulations are fairly small and usually cover a few tracks or
carbon plate using
layers. This can lead to severe overestimation or underestimation of the
combined level set
volume of fluid method melt pool temperature, when neglecting the global location of the
3D thermo-fluid modeling Chen SSD/ In-house [132] considered computation domain in the part. For instance, if the model is
of L-PBF of ceramic et al. Mar, Cap code – FEM supposed to simulate the melt pool conditions at the last layers of a
material using level set 2018
centimeter-size sample, the residual heat from the previous layers must
3D thermo-fluid modeling Queva SSD/ In-house [127]
of L-PBF of Ti6Al4V and et al. Mar, Cap, code – FEM be accounted for, either via an updated boundary condition or initial
IN718 using level 2020 Recoil temperature of the domain. Table 10 gives an overview of some of the
set + study the impact of recent meso-scale CFD models for MAM that explicitly model the indi­
the recoil pressure on the vidual powder particles.
melt pool

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M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Fig. 12. (a) arranged single-sized powder layer CFD simulation from Xia et al. [144]. (b) randomly-packed powder layer from a DEM simulation. (c)
multi-track-multi-layer simulation of the L-PBF process by Bayat et al. [145]. (d) comparison between the inverse and normal thermo-capillarity via CFD modeling
[146]. (e) high-fidelity keyhole simulation of L-PBF of Ti6Al4V by Bayat et al. [147].

5. Part-scale models strains, while the implementation follows a layer-by-layer deposition

manner.
As mentioned earlier, meso-scale simulations that capture the In general, calculation of the inherent strain strains used in MAM can
movement of the laser during the printing process, are standalone, quite be classified into three methods: analytical, numerical, and empirical.
time-consuming, as they need to solve for a large number of unknowns The analytical method tries to find inherent strains from the material’s
over a relatively small domain, potentially not covering more than a few strain evolution during the MAM process. Yaghi et al. [179] used an
tracks or layers. Furthermore, employing a meso-scale model for a real- isotropic compressive inherent strain vector to evaluate the distortion of
size part would entail a sufficiently fine mesh size and a small time step, a double cantilever beam fabricated by the L-PBF after cutting the
to fulfill the convergence criteria. This would then increase the total support structure. The magnitude of the inherent strain is equal to the
computational time that would itself require huge computational re­ ratio of the yield strength to the Young’s modulus (at room tempera­
sources for running such jobs. In this respect, to lower the computational ture). Two FE models were studied when applying inherent strains. One
requirements and shorten the runtimes, different part-scale modeling has elastic material behavior, and the other has elastoplastic behavior.
techniques have been developed that allow for an accurate simulation of Although the elastic model was more computationally efficient than the
the thermo-mechanical conditions of a real-size part within an accept­ elastoplastic model, the latter was able to provide more accurate
able time. These methods are described in the two following sub- distortion and residual stress predictions. The elastic model could
sections. Inherent strain-based methods are covered in the first sub- roughly predict the distortion but overestimated the peak stress. Alvarez
section and other part-scale techniques are introduced in the second et al. [180] investigated the so-called inherent shrinkage method, where
part. the thermal shrinkage strains are applied layer-by-layer in a elasto­
plastic FE model to predict the distortion for the L-PBF process. The
thermal shrinkage strain for each layer is equal to the material’s
5.1. Modified inherent strain method equivalent thermal expansion coefficient multiplied by the temperature
difference between the melting point and the initial value of that layer.
The original inherent strain (IS) method was proposed in the 1970 s The equivalent thermal expansion coefficient is calculated based on the
and was primarily applied to the welding field for residual distortion and actual thermal expansion coefficient and is also related to the laser
stress prediction [177,178]. The key idea of the IS method is to replace scanning strategy.
the transient thermomechanical analysis involved in modeling the MAM The numerical method usually involves hierarchical simulations
process with a quasi-static mechanical analysis to reduce computational where inherent strains are first determined in small representative
expense. This is made possible by modeling the local thermomechanical models and then applied to simulate the actual part. Keller and Ploshi­
deformation induced by the heat source as the so-called “inherent khin [181] developed a multi-scale simulation framework to achieve the
strain”, which is applied to the quasi-static analysis model as initial fast prediction of distortion for MAM parts. The framework includes
strain. Considering that the MAM and conventional welding process three models at different scales. First, the heat input is calibrated
have some common features (material deposition, melting and solidifi­ through a micro-scale heat source model. Then, the heat input is
cation, and intensive heat source), it is natural to apply the IS method to transferred into a meso-scale hatching model to calculate the inherent
the MAM process. However, the original IS method shows poor perfor­ strains. Afterward, the inherent strains are applied to a macro-scale layer
mance when applied to the MAM process because the multi-track and model to predict the distortion of the part. This framework has been
multi-layer characteristics in MAM result in more complicated strain experimentally validated using a stainless steel 316 L cantilever beam
and stress evolution of the material. Therefore, different models and specimen. Liang et al. [182,183] and Chen et al. [184] developed a
modifications have been proposed to improve the accuracy of the IS modified inherent strain (MIS) method for the DED and L-PBF processes,
method. Most of the modifications focus on the calculation of inherent

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M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Table 10
An overview of a number of recent meso-scale CFD simulations of MAM. LSD stands for large surface deformation. Mar, Cap and Recoil, stand for Marangoni, surface
tension effects and the recoil pressure. LBM and SPH stand for Lattice Boltzmann and smoothed particle hydrodynamics.
Topic and highlights Authors Physics Software Reference

2D thermo-fluid modeling of multi-layer E-PBF of Ti6Al4V Korner et al. 2011 LSD/, Cap In-house code – [133]
LBM
Prediction of the quality of vertical walls made by E-PBF via LBM simulation Korner et al. 2013 LSD/, Cap In-house code – [134]
LBM
Simulation of intra-layer-track porosity formation during E-PBF of Ti6AL4V Bauereiß et al. 2014 LSD/, Cap In-house code – [135]
LBM
3D simulation of porosity formation and evolution during E-PBF of Ti6Al4V Markl et al. 2015 LSD/, Cap In-house code – [136]
LBM
3D thermo-fluid modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel + study on the balling effect and Khairallah and Anderson LSD/Cap ALE3D – FEM [137]
the Plateau-Rayleigh instability 2014
3D thermo-fluid modeling of L-PBF of IN718 Shrestha and Chou 2018 LSD/Cap ANSYS Fluent [140]
3D thermo-fluid modeling of L-PBF of Molybdenum + study the impact of powder packing Leitz et al. 2018 LSD/ - COMSOL Multi- [141]
density on single tracks physics
3D thermo-fluid modeling of L-PBF of IN718 + investigation of the evolution of surface Xia et al. 2017 LSD/Mar, Cap, ANSYS Fluent [143,144,
porosity Xia et al. 2016 Recoil 164]
Yu, Shi, et al. 2016
3D thermo-fluid modeling of L-PBF of aluminum alloy + investigation of the evolution of the Yu, Gu, et al. 2016 LSD/Mar, Cap ANSYS Fluent [142]
surface morphology
3D thermo-fluid modeling of L-PBF of Ti6Al4V powder + comparison between the melting Wang and Zou 2019 LSD/Mar, Cap Flow-3D [165]
modes of conduction and keyhole conditions
3D multi-physics modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel + inclusion of a simplified version Khairallah et al. 2016 LSD/Mar, Cap, ALE3D – FEM [148]
of multiple reflections Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of L-PBF of IN718 + determining the dendritic arm spacing via a Lee and Zhang 2016 LSD/Mar, Cap, Flow-3D [149]
metallurgical model + DEM simulation of the powder layer Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of L-PBF of H13 steel + study on the impact of the evaporation on Y. C. Wu et al. 2018 LSD/Mar, Cap, Flow-3D [150]
the melt pool conditions + DEM simulation of the powder layer Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of E-PBF of Ti6Al4V + study on the balling effect Yan et al. 2017 LSD/Mar, Cap Flow-3D [154]
3D multi-physics modeling of multi-layer E-PBF of Ti6Al4V + study on the formation of lack- Yan et al. 2018 LSD/Mar, Cap Flow-3D [155]
of-fusion porosities
3D thermo-fluid modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel + comparison of keyhole and Tan, Tang, and Wong LSD/Mar, Cap, Open FOAM [166–168]
conduction regimes 2018b Recoil
Tan, Tang and Wong 2018
Tan, Tang, and Wong
2018a
3D multi-physics modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel + analysis of the keyhole regime Tang, Tan, and Wong 2018 LSD/Mar, Cap, Open FOAM [153]
and keyhole-induced porosities Recoil
3D modeling of the formation of lack-of-fusion porosity during multi-layer L-PBF of IN718 Bayat et al. 2019 a LSD/Mar, Cap, Flow-3D [145]
Recoil
3D modeling of the keyhole-porosity formation and evolution during L-PBF of Ti6Al4V Bayat et al. 2019 b LSD/Mar, Cap, Flow-3D [147]
Recoil
3D CFD simulation of the impact of different strengths of normal and inverse Marangoni on the Bayat et al. 2021 LSD/Mar, Cap, Flow-3D [146]
heat and fluid flow conditions of the melt pool Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel + analysis of humping formation Tang, Le, and Wong 2020 LSD/Mar, Cap, Open FOAM [156]
Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel + analysis and comparison of K. Q. Le, Tang, and Wong LSD/Mar, Cap, Open FOAM [169]
different keyhole regimes 2019 Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel + study on the influence of powder Cao 2019 LSD/Mar, Cap, Open FOAM [151]
packing density and size distribution on the tracks Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of beam-shaping during the L-PBF of 316-L using ALE3D Shi et al. LSD/Mar, Cap, ALE3D – FEM [157]
Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of spatter formation and surface porosity during L-PBF of Ti6Al4V Qiu et al. 2015; LSD/Mar, Cap, Open FOAM [170,171]
Panwisawas et al. 2015 Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of melt pool stability during the L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel W. Yuan et al. 2020 LSD/Mar, Cap, ANSYS Fluent [172]
Recoil
3D multi-physics modeling of keyhole formation at different laser speeds during L-PBF of 304 Kouraytem et al. 2019 LSD/Mar, Cap, FEM-based code [173]
stainless steel using level set Recoil [105]
3D multi-physics modeling of defect formation and evolution during L-PBF of 316-L stainless Zheng et al. 2019 a LSD/Mar, Cap, In-house code – [174]
steel Recoil LBM
3D multi-physics modeling of melt pool during pulsed L-PBF of 316-L stainless steel Zheng et al. 2019 b LSD/Mar, Cap, In-house code – [175]
Recoil LBM
2D thermo-fluid model of L-PBF of 304 stainless steel Shibai Liu et al. 2019 LSD/Mar, Cap In-house code – [176]
SPH

see Fig. 13 for a schematic illustration. The MIS method includes two IN718, see Fig. 14. The method can provide more accurate predictions
main steps: 1) a meso-scale detailed process simulation (based on a than the original IS method when applied to the MAM process. The MIS
transient thermomechanical model using a moving pointwise heat method has been applied to optimize the L-PBF process such as support
source model) is employed to extract the inherent strain values through structure design for crack prevention [35,185], support structure opti­
the MIS model from the strain history of the material; 2) a layer-by-layer mization [186], build orientation optimization [187], and scanning path
quasi-static analysis using the inherent strains extracted in the previous optimization [188].
step to predict residual stress and distortions for the entire part. This MIS An overview of the most important contributions using the IS method
method has been experimentally validated by thin-walled structures, is given in Table 11.
double cantilever beams, and canonical parts made of Ti6Al4V and

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M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

5.2. Multi-scaling methods showed that the predicted temperature at the depth of the samples is in a
good agreement with the data from thermocouples. It must be noted that
Flash heating (FH) is a part-scale multi-scaling technique and is such an extended on-time period does not lead to melting and does not
primarily based on the layer-lumping concept. In this method, a part is cause sufficiently high temperature gradients to promote yielding. Thus,
divided into a certain number of blocks along the build direction. These residual stresses do not form under such conditions.
blocks are essentially a number of actual layers which are merged Bayat et al. [197] studied the impact of the activation sequence on
together and denoted meta-layers. The meta-layer thickness is an input the thermal and mechanical conditions during L-PBF of Ti6Al4V. They
variable for the model and can vary. Upon the activation of these meta- compared the final deflection and residual stresses using 5 different
layers, a volumetric heat source or a heat flux, starts heating the meta- meta-layer widths, ranging from 1 block per meta-layer to 20 blocks per
layer during an on-time period. These heat sources depend on the meta-layer. They finally noticed that the FH method with 1 block per
input parameters of the process. Zaeh et al. [193] developed a part-scale meta-layer overestimates the final deflection field and leads to unreal­
model for simulating the residual stress formation during the L-PBF istic symmetrical deformation patterns. While the one with 20 blocks per
process of 1.2709 tool steel and used a meta-layer thickness of 1.00 mm. meta-layer, led to a much better agreement between the experiments
Prabhakar et al. [194] used this technique for modeling the and simulations, see Fig. 15(a) and (b).
thermo-mechanical conditions during E-PBF of IN718 coupons and used Another way of performing a part-scale simulation is to integrate the
700 µm thick meta-layers. They also noted that FH is unable to capture laser source in space and time. In such a technique, instead of modeling
the impact of scanning patterns on the residual stresses. the thermal field by capturing the movement of the actual laser beam,
The heat sources implemented for the FH method can vary depend­ the movement of an agglomerated heat source is modeled. Hodge et al.
ing on their on-time period. An on-time period of 1 – 10 ms leads to [198] developed a part-scale thermo-mechanical model and used a heat
melting point temperatures during the activation of meta-layers [195]. source that was 20 times bigger than the actual laser beam and at the
However, if one extends the on-time period, to fulfill the total input same time had 20 time higher laser power. They applied this technique
energy, the magnitude of the heat source drops accordingly, as expected. to several cases and predicted the final deformation and residual stresses
This would lead to lower peak temperatures in the domain. For instance, in agreement with experimental results. Ganeriwala et al. [199] used
Chiumenti et al. [196] used an extended on-time period for their pure this method to simulate the L-PBF of a bridge structure made of Ti6Al4V
thermal part-scale model. They reported peak temperatures that were where the final strains were also in a very good agreement with the ones
far below the melting point of Ti6Al4V. Nevertheless, their results measured via XRD. One of the main drawbacks of the agglomerated heat

Fig. 13. Overview of the modified inherent strain method. In the equation, subscripts ti and ts are intermediate time and steady state time, respectively [182,183].

Fig. 14. Comparison of residual distortion between the modified inherent strain method and experimental measurement along two lines on a Ti6Al4V canonical
part [189].

17
M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Table 11 machines available. The other main challenge when using the AG
Overview of models using the inherent strain method. method, is finding the optimal layer thickness and beam size agglom­
Topic and highlights Authors Implementation of Reference eration and this is still an active area of research. For instance, Hodge
IS et al. [198] used agglomerated layers which were 20 times thicker than
The original inherent strain Ueda et al. One-shot with [177,178] the actual layer thickness, whereas Ganeriwala et al. [199] used
method for predicting the 1975 elastic behavior meta-layers with thicknesses 10 times thicker than actual layers.
distortion and residual Ueda et al. Furthermore, one other drawback of the AG method is its inability to
stress for the welding 1979 model island scanning patterns where instead, a simplified serpentine
process IS calculation:
Experimental measurement
pattern is typically used.
Comparison of residual stress Yaghi et al. Layer-by-layer with [179] Rather than modeling the thermo-mechanical conditions in just one
and distortion prediction by 2017 elastic/ model, some researchers, however, did part-scale simulations via the
analytical thermal model, elastoplastic development of a number of models at different scales involving
elastic inherent model, and behavior
different physics [201,202]. For instance, Li et al. [203] developed three
elastoplastic inherent
model models at three different scales for their part-scale deflection modeling.
IS calculation: Yield strength In their first model, they captured the movement of the laser beam in a
over Young’s modulus (at meso-scale pure condition model. Then they developed a hatch-scale
room temperature) thermo-mechanical model where they used an equivalent heat flux
Evaluation of the residual Alvarez Layer-by-layer with [180]
stress and distortion of et al. 2016 elastoplastic
that led to identical temperatures to those from the first model. Addi­
IN718 cantilever beams behavior tionally, they applied the average residual stresses found from the
fabricated by SLM + study hatch-scale model and finally mapped them to the final part-scale me­
on the influence of chanical model, which was used to find the stresses and deformations.
scanning strategy
Adaptive re-meshing has also shown its potential for performing
IS calculation: Equivalent
thermal expansion part-scale simulations [204,205]. This is a unique technique which al­
coefficient multiplied by lows for resolving the actual laser beam movement at part scale. Olleak
the temperature difference and Xi [102] developed a scan-wise adaptive re-meshing model to
between the melting point simulate the thermal conditions during the L-PBF process. In this
and the initial value of that
method, they first meshed the sample with coarse elements and then
layer
Evaluation of the distortion of Keller and Layer-by-layer (the [181] they refined the mesh in the vicinity of the laser over a re-meshing area
316 L cantilever beams Ploshikhin material behavior is with a specific length. They modeled the melt pool movement during the
fabricated by SLM + study 2014 unknown) printing of a bridge sample which had a size of 10 mm by 3 mm by
on distortion compensation
2 mm. Moran, Warner and Phan [206] developed a part-scale super­
IS calculation: Extracted
from meso-scale FE position-based FEM thermal model for the L-PBF process. They divided
simulation the temperature field into two fields of a nearly-analytical and subse­
Evaluation of the residual Liang et al. Layer-by-layer with [182–184] quently corrected FEM temperature field, respectively. In their later
stress and distortion for 2018 elastoplastic work, the same authors [103], applied this technique to simulate the
parts fabricated by DED and Liang et al. behavior
temperature field during the L-PBF process of an engine nacelle. Their
L-PBF with the modified 2019
inherent strain method Chen et al. model simulated the addition of 1313 layers and the actual G-code
IS calculation: Extracted 2019 containing the laser patterns for each layer was taken into the model.
from meso-scale FE They did the simulation in 18 h which was roughly less than half of the
simulation
actual printing time for printing the component. They also defined two
Calculation of inherent Li and Layer-by-layer with [190]
strains for an arbitrary hath Anand 2020 elastoplastic
criteria for detecting the formation of lack-of-fusion and hot-spot de­
pattern behavior fects, where they found that the latter increases steadily with the
IS calculation: Neural manufacturing of subsequent layers.
network The meso-scale thermo-mechanical model developed by Cheng,
Evaluation of the distortion of Bugatti and Layer-by-layer with [191]
Shrestha and Chou [92], took around 92 h to simulate the L-PBF process
maraging steel (18Ni300) Semeraro elastoplastic
double cantilever beams 2018 behavior of a geometry with 6 mm by 6 mm by 90 µm size. While the part-scale
fabricated by L- FH thermo-mechanical model developed by Bayat et al. [197] took
PBF + study on the just less than 5 h for simulating the L-PBF process of a case-study with
influence of scanning
30 mm by 30 mm by 3 mm. This once more highlights the computa­
strategy + comparison
with the original IS method
tional gain when implementing multi-scaling techniques. An overview
IS calculation: of some of the most important part-scale simulations are given in
Experimental calibration Table 12.
and optimization
Evaluation of the distortion of Setien et al. Layer-by-layer with [192]
Ti6Al4V double cantilever 2019 elastic behavior
6. Conclusion
beams fabricated by L-
PBF + study on the In the recent years and with the rapid growth of the AM industry, the
influence of scanning numerical models of MAM processes have proven their capability as a
strategy
cheap and reliable tool that can be utilized for predicting the quality of
IS calculation:
Experimental calibration end-user products. These models can be used as a low-cost alternative to
and optimization pure experimentation that would have otherwise slowed down the
quality assurance and part optimization phases substantially and would
have also incurred significant costs on the manufacturers.
source (AG) method is its massive computational requirements, which is MAM simulation covers a wide range both in terms of physics and
also underlined by Gouge et al. [200]. As an example, Hodge et al. [198] length-scales. Based on the current literature, MAM simulations fall into
ran their AG thermo-mechanical model on systems with 128–512 CPUs, three levels of length-scales; namely micro, meso and part-scale.
which are significantly stronger than most of nowadays typical desktop Different modeling strategies as well as most important contributions

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M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Fig. 15. (a) temperature field during a sequential flash heating simulation [197] and (b) the final deflection patterns with 1 and 20 block/meta-layers along with the
experimental measurements [197]. (c) shows the comparison between the measured and predicted final deflection using the FH method with one block/meta-layer
[46] and (d) shows the predicted residual stress right before the cutting step using FH with 1 block/meta-layer [46].

within this field belonging to meso-scale and part-scale simulations for MAM in the near future.
both the DED and PBF processes are enumerated and discussed in this The main issue about the meso-scale models, as can also be inferred
review. The meso-scale models are ideal for understanding the detailed from their names, is that they are only applicable to a limited domain
melt pool behavior and they are subdivided into pure conduction size, typically covering a few tracks or layers. Since these models capture
models, thermo-metallurgical models, thermo-mechanical models and the movement of the laser beam, they need to have a sufficiently fine
finally multi-physics thermo-fluid models. Pure conduction models are mesh. This requirement is the main obstacle that hinders application of
not very accurate in predicting the temperature fields within melt pools meso-scale models to a part-scale sample. Multi-scaling techniques are
as they ignore a very important mechanism of heat transfer, the melt therefore a solution to this issue as they allow for the simulation of
pool convection. However, this branch of meso-scale models is quite thermal or mechanical conditions at part-scale geometries within a
robust and they do not ask for significant computational resources. reasonable timeframe of 10–100 h.
Therefore, the pure conduction models can be easily coupled to a sub­ One of the potential investigation routes for the near future would be
sequent mechanical or metallurgical model, where the former is used for the involvement of reduced-order or surrogate models in the commercial
predicting the formation of residual stresses and the latter is used for printers’ performance optimization feedback loop. At the moment, the
simulating possible phase transformations, respectively. majority of PBF printers use two sets of fixed process parameters; one for
Multi-physics models, on the other hand, solve for more unknown the bulk of the sample (raster) and one for contouring. This can, how­
variables, thus are much more complex compared to the pure conduc­ ever, become problematic in case of an improper choice of input process
tion models. The multi-physics models also involve more sophisticated parameters especially at critical locations such as overhang areas.
physics e.g. surface tension, the Marangoni effect, the recoil pressure, Possible defects or process instabilities can show up in the form of dross
evaporation, etc. As a result, as these models cover more physical phe­ formations and hotspots. One smart way to tackle these kind of geom­
nomena, they are very accurate in predicting the melt pool shape and etry- or process-dependent defects would be via developing a closed-
size for both the PBF and DED processes. Depending on the degree of loop control system that adjusts and controls the process parameters
their complexity and the way they treat the free surface of melt pool, in-situ and based on a well-calibrated surrogate model that itself is
these models can also predict the formation of lack of fusion as well as developed based on higher fidelity models.
keyhole-induced porosities in a reasonable agreement with experi­ The coupling between different length-scales is also an area of
mental observations. research within MAM that has not been explored sufficiently and this
Although the multi-physics models are very accurate in predicting could furthermore be another potential investigation track for the up­
the melt pool morphologies, substantial effort is still needed for the coming years. For example, the material properties used for part-scale
calibration and validation of these models against experiments. This is to simulations are the ones from cast or wrought samples and these prop­
a large extent due to numerous uncertainties in either the process pa­ erties are quite different from those arising from samples made with
rameters or material properties. For instance, it is still quite challenging MAM processes. One option would be to develop a micro-scale or meso-
to measure the exact size of the laser beam for the PBF processes. scale representative volume element that can both resemble the porosity
Knowing the fact that the beam size is a first order process parameter, and microstructural pattern of a sample made with MAM. Then a micro-
one should then expect noticeable over or underestimations of the melt mechanical analysis using crystal-plasticity can be carried out to find the
pool shape and size in the models. The same applies for uncertainties in nominal engineering mechanical properties that can later on be used in a
the value of the absorption coefficient, the surface tension forces or more accurate part-scale simulation.
liquid viscosity at elevated temperatures as well. All these uncertainties
would in turn lead to significant difficulties to validate these multi- CRediT authorship contribution statement
physics models. The spatter and denudation phenomena also play a
remarkable role and thus can highly impact the morphology of tracks Mohamad Bayat: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization,
made with the L-PBF process. Most of the current multi-physics models Writing – original draft. Jesper Thorborg: Conceptualization, Writing –
for the L-PBF process do not account for the spatter and denudation review & editing. Albert C. To: Conceptualization, Investigation,
effects. Adding these physics would add extra unknowns to the problem Visualization, Writing – original draft. Jesper Henri Hattel: Concep­
and make the models even more time-consuming and complex. How­ tualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Resources, Writing – re­
ever, the current expectation is that the spatter and denudation effects view & editing.
will be an inherent part of the next generation of multi-physics models of

19
M. Bayat et al. Additive Manufacturing 47 (2021) 102278

Table 12 Table 12 (continued )

An overview of a number of part-scale thermo-mechanical models using Topic and highlights Authors Method Software Reference
different multi-scaling methods. AG (agglomerated heat source), MS (multi-step
method), FH, SFH (flash heating and sequential flash heating), AMR (adaptive the heat-treatment
stress relief step
mesh refinement).
Part-scale thermo- Kiran et al. FH/SFH ABAQUS [211]
Topic and highlights Authors Method Software Reference mechanical modeling of 2020
DED of 316 SS using
Part-scale thermo- Hodge et al. AG Diablo [198]
layer-by-layer FH for a
mechanical modeling of 2016 [207]
single track and a multi-
L-PBF of 316-L
layer-track printing of a
samples + experimental
35 mm3 sample
validation of vertical
Part-scale thermal Olleak 2020 AMR ANSYS [102]
and horizontal prisms
modeling of the L-PBF
and an L-shape sample
process using a scan-
Part-scale thermo- Ganeriwala AG Diablo [199]
wise adaptive re-
mechanical modeling of et al. 2019 [207]
meshing technique
L-PBF of Ti6Al4V
Part-scale superposition- Moran et al. AMR In-house [103,206]
sample + analysis of
based FEM thermal 2018 code
rate-independent,
modeling of the L-PBF Moran et al.
viscoplastic and
process of 2021
viscoelastic material
Ti6Al4V + modeling
models
the printing of 1313
Part-scale simulation of Li et al. MS ABAQUS [201–203]
layers and simulating
thermal and mechanical 2017
the actual laser
conditions via Li et al.
movement according to
development of micro, 2018
the G-code
meso and macro-scale Li et al.
models 2016
Part-scale thermo- Gouge et al. MS Pan Solver [200]
mechanical modeling of 2019 (Autodesk) Declaration of Competing Interest
industrial components
made of IN625, IN718 The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
and interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
AlSi10Mg + adaptive
remeshing technique
the work reported in this paper.
Thermo-mechanical Zaeh et al. FH ANSYS [193]
modeling of L-PBF of 2010 Acknowledgement
cantilever beam made of
1.2709 tool steel
This work has received funding from Independent Research Fund
Part-scale thermo- Prabhakar FH ABAQUS [194]
mechanical modeling of et al. 2015 Denmark, DIGI-3D project (contract no. 0136–00210B).
E-PBF of coupons made The author group highly acknowledges Venkata K. Nadimpalli,
of IN718 Markus Baier and Christopher G. Klingaa for their support on providing
2D thermo-mechanical Zhang et al. FH ABAQUS [195] experimental images for this paper. The authors also want to thank
modeling of L-PBF of 2019
Ti6Al4V
David De Baere for his support during the revision of the manuscript.
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