Unit 15: Electrical Circuits and their

Applications

Ac (alternating current) and DC (direct current) are two types of electrical currents
that are \ used in electrical circuits. Both have similarities and differences in their
properties.

Similarities:

● Both AC and DC current are used to power electrical devices

● Both can be measured in volts (V), amperes (A) and ohms (Ω)
● Both obey Ohm's law (V=IR)

Differences:

● AC current periodically changes direction, while DC current flows in only one

direction
● AC current has a varying magnitude, while DC current has a constant
magnitude
● The frequency of AC current is measured in Hertz (Hz), while DC current has
a frequency of 0 Hz
● AC current can be easily transformed into different voltages using a
transformer, while DC current cannot be easily transformed

In terms of their use in simple circuits, DC is commonly used in electronic devices

such as calculators, computers, and cell phones, while AC is used in power
transmission and distribution, household appliances, and lighting. AC current is more
suitable for long-distance transmission because it can be easily stepped up or down
using a transformer to reduce energy losses. DC current is more efficient for short-
distance transmission and is commonly used in batteries.

In summary, AC and DC current have similarities and differences in their properties,

which make them more or less suitable for different applications in electrical circuits.

AC Electricity Production:
One way to produce AC electricity is through a generator, which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. A simple generator can be made by
rotating a coil of wire (armature) in a magnetic field. As the armature rotates, it cuts
through the magnetic field lines, inducing a current in the wire. As the coil continues
to rotate, the current produced alternates in direction, producing AC electricity. Here
is a diagram of a simple AC generator:
DC Electricity Production:

A simple way to produce DC electricity is through a battery, which converts chemical

energy into electrical energy. A battery consists of two electrodes (a positive and a
negative) immersed in an electrolyte. Chemical reactions between the electrodes
and the electrolyte produce a potential difference (voltage) between the electrodes. If
a wire is connected between the electrodes, a current will flow through the wire from
the positive electrode to the negative electrode. This current flows in only one
direction, producing DC electricity. Here is a diagram of a simple battery:

In summary, AC electricity is produced through a generator by rotating a coil of wire

in a magnetic field, while DC electricity is produced through a battery by chemical
reactions between two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte.
Fleming's Left Hand Rule (FLH) and Fleming's Right Hand Rule (FRH) are two rules
used in electromagnetism to determine the direction of force or current in a
conductor in a magnetic field. FLH is used for electric motors, while FRH is used for
AC generators.

Fleming's Left Hand Rule:

FLH is used to determine the direction of force on a current-carrying conductor in a

magnetic field. The rule states that if the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the
left hand are held at right angles to each other, with the forefinger pointing in the
direction of the magnetic field, and the middle finger pointing in the direction of the
current, then the thumb points in the direction of the force on the conductor.

Fleming's Right Hand Rule:

FRH is used to determine the direction of current in a conductor that is moving in a

magnetic field. The rule states that if the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the
right hand are held at right angles to each other, with the forefinger pointing in the
direction of the magnetic field, and the thumb pointing in the direction of motion, then
the middle finger points in the direction of the current.

In summary, FLH is used to determine the direction of force on a current-carrying

conductor in a magnetic field in an electric motor, while FRH is used to determine the
direction of current in a conductor that is moving in a magnetic field in an AC
generator.

Split Ring Commutator in a DC Motor:

A DC motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It
consists of a rotor (rotating part) and a stator (stationary part) that are both made up
of conductors. When a current is passed through the conductors in the stator, a
magnetic field is created that interacts with the magnetic field of the rotor to produce
a torque that causes the rotor to rotate.
In a DC motor, the current in the rotor conductors needs to change direction every
half-turn in order to maintain the rotational motion. This is achieved through the use
of a split ring commutator, which is a device that connects the rotor conductors to an
external circuit while allowing them to change direction at each half-turn. The
commutator consists of two semicircular copper rings that are insulated from each
other and mounted on the rotor shaft. The rotor conductors are attached to the rings,
and as the rotor rotates, the rings make contact with stationary brushes that are
connected to the external circuit. The brushes switch the current direction every half-
turn, which allows the rotor conductors to maintain a constant torque in the same
direction.

DC Electricity Storage:

DC electricity can be stored in a battery, which is a device that converts chemical

energy into electrical energy. A battery consists of two electrodes (a positive and a
negative) immersed in an electrolyte. Chemical reactions between the electrodes
and the electrolyte produce a potential difference (voltage) between the electrodes. If
a wire is connected between the electrodes, a current will flow through the wire from
the positive electrode to the negative electrode. This current flows in only one
direction, producing DC electricity that can be used to power devices or stored for
later use.

Difference between AC and DC Electricity as seen using an Oscilloscope:

An oscilloscope is a device that measures and displays electrical waveforms. The

difference between AC and DC electricity can be seen on an oscilloscope by
measuring the voltage over time. In AC electricity, the voltage periodically changes
direction, producing a waveform that alternates between positive and negative
values. In DC electricity, the voltage remains constant over time, producing a flat
line.

Here is a fully labelled graph that illustrates the difference between AC and DC
electricity as seen using an oscilloscope:
The blue line represents AC electricity, which has a waveform that alternates
between positive and negative values. The red line represents DC electricity, which
has a flat line indicating a constant voltage over time.

In summary, a split ring commutator is necessary in a DC motor to change the

direction of current in the rotor conductors and maintain a constant torque in the
same direction. DC electricity can be stored in a battery by converting chemical
energy into electrical energy. The difference between AC and DC electricity can be
seen on an oscilloscope by measuring the voltage over time, where AC electricity
produces a waveform that alternates between positive and negative values, and DC
electricity produces a flat line.

The peak voltage value is the maximum voltage in the waveform, which occurs at the
peak of the waveform. In the graph, the peak voltage value is 170V.

The RMS (Root Mean Square) voltage value is a measure of the effective voltage of
the waveform, which takes into account the magnitude and duration of both positive
and negative cycles. It is calculated as the square root of the mean (average) of the
squared values of the waveform over one cycle. In the graph, the RMS voltage value
is approximately 120V.

The RMS voltage value is more useful than the peak value because it gives an
indication of the actual heating effect of the AC electricity on a resistive load, such as
a light bulb or heater. The heating effect of AC electricity is proportional to the square
of the RMS voltage, whereas the peak voltage has no direct physical meaning in
terms of power or heating effects.

To calculate the peak voltage value for an AC electricity with an effective voltage
value of 230V in the UK, we can use the formula:

Peak voltage = Effective voltage x √2

Substituting in the values, we get:

Peak voltage = 230V x √2

Peak voltage = 230V x 1.414

Peak voltage = 325V

Therefore, the peak voltage value for AC electricity with an effective voltage value of
230V in the UK is approximately 325V.
Here is a diagram of the human body with notes on the resistance values or current
pathways in the body, skin resistance, current exposure time, safe levels of DC
voltage, and the effect of electric shock on the heart:

1. Resistance values: The human body has a typical resistance value of 100,000
to 1,000,000 ohms. However, the resistance of different body tissues can vary
widely, with skin having a very high resistance and internal organs having a
lower resistance. The current pathway through the body depends on the path
of least resistance.
2. Implications of resistance: The high resistance of skin means that dry skin can
provide a significant barrier to electric current, while moist or broken skin can
greatly reduce the body's resistance and increase the risk of electric shock.
AC current can cause muscle contractions that can increase the risk of injury,
while DC current can cause sustained muscle contraction that can make it
difficult to let go of a live wire.
3. Current exposure time: The longer the body is exposed to electrical current,
the greater the risk of injury. The amount of electrical current flowing through
the body also affects the severity of the injury, with higher currents causing
more damage. AC current can be more dangerous than DC current because it
can cause muscle contractions that can make it difficult to let go of a live wire.
4. Safe levels of DC voltage: The safe levels of DC voltage depend on the
amount of current that can flow through the body, which is affected by the
resistance of the body and the duration of the exposure. Generally, a DC
voltage of 50 volts or less is considered safe for human exposure.
5. Effect of electric shock on the heart: Electric shock can cause the heart to go
into ventricular fibrillation, which is a life-threatening condition in which the
heart beats irregularly and cannot pump blood effectively. A defibrillator is
used to shock the heart back into a normal rhythm by delivering a controlled
electric shock to the heart.

It is important to take all necessary precautions when working with electricity to

prevent injury and ensure a safe work environment. This includes wearing
appropriate personal protective equipment, maintaining a safe working distance from
live wires and electrical equipment, following lockout/tagout procedures, and using
circuit protection devices. In case of electric shock, prompt medical attention should
be sought to prevent serious injury or death.
The ring main circuit is a common electrical circuit found in houses that distributes
electricity from the consumer unit (also known as the fuse box or distribution board)
to various outlets throughout the house. The circuit is called a "ring" because the
cable runs from the consumer unit to each outlet and then back to the consumer unit
in a loop, forming a ring.

Residual current and earth leakage circuit breakers (RCCBs and ELCBs) are safety
devices designed to protect against electric shock. They work by detecting
imbalances in the electrical current flowing through the circuit. An RCCB monitors
the difference between the current flowing in the live and neutral wires, while an
ELCB detects current leakage to earth. If a fault is detected, the circuit breaker will
trip, cutting off the electrical supply to the circuit and preventing any potential electric
shock.
Kettles and hairdryers are often "double insulated," meaning they have two layers of
insulation to protect against electric shock. This is significant because it means the
appliance does not need to be earthed, making it safer to use in damp conditions.

Fuses and miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are used in domestic appliances to
protect against overloading and short circuits. Fuses work by melting when the
current passing through them exceeds a certain level, breaking the circuit and
preventing any further electrical current from flowing. MCBs work in a similar way,
but can be reset manually rather than needing to be replaced. They provide a more
convenient and cost-effective option for protection against overloading and short
circuits.

When charging DC equipment such as tablets, games consoles, and mobile phones
from an AC mains supply, the AC is converted into DC by a transformer or rectifier
circuit. The DC voltage is then regulated and supplied to the battery for charging.
This process typically involves using a charger that is specific to the device being
charged, as different devices have different voltage and current requirements.

There are potential dangers associated with charging devices from the mains supply,
including electric shock and fire hazards. To prevent these risks, chargers are
designed with inbuilt safety features such as fuses and overcurrent protection. It is
important to use the correct charger for the device being charged and to follow the
manufacturer's instructions carefully to ensure safe operation.

Overall, the principles of the ring main circuit and associated safety devices are
designed to protect against potential electric shock and fire hazards. It is important to
use electrical equipment safely and follow manufacturer instructions to ensure safe
operation.
AC electricity is typically produced in electrical generator facilities using the
principles of electromagnetic induction. A rotating magnetic field is generated by a
turbine, which is then used to produce an alternating current. The fundamental
aspects of Fleming's right-hand rule are used to determine the direction of the
generated current.

The high voltage AC generator is used instead of a low voltage turbine-driven

dynamo because it is more efficient in terms of power production and transmission.
High voltage transmission allows for greater distances to be covered with less
energy loss.

Once AC electricity is generated, it is transmitted from the hydroelectric plant to

homes and industry using transformers and high voltages. Transformers are
necessary to step up the voltage of the generated electricity to the required voltage
for transmission, typically around 400 kV for long-distance transmission.

The need for transformers and high voltages can be mathematically accounted for
using the following equations:

Vp/Vs = Np/Ns
IpIs = Ns/Np

Where Vp is the primary voltage, Vs is the secondary voltage, Np is the number of

turns in the primary coil, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil, Ip is the
primary current, and Is is the secondary current.

The voltage required for applications of AC electricity around the home and at the
smelting plant varies depending on the specific application. For example, household
outlets typically provide 120 V or 240 V, while industrial applications may require
much higher voltages.

The mathematical comparison of energy/power loss of transmitting electricity at

different voltages can be explained using the formula:

P = VI

Where P is power, V is voltage, and I is current. Power loss is directly proportional to

the current, which means that increasing the voltage reduces the current and thus
reduces power loss.

The voltages used to transmit electricity through the national grid for a variety of
uses have been selected based on the specific application and distance of
transmission. Higher voltages are used for long-distance transmission, while lower
voltages are used for shorter distances. Components such as transformers are
required in specific parts of the national grid to step up or step down the voltage as
needed. The connections between the hydroelectric plant and the National Grid are
designed to efficiently transmit the generated electricity to where it is needed.
The differences and similarities of the properties of AC and DC current in simple
circuits:

AC (alternating current) and DC (direct current) are the two main types of electric
current used in electrical circuits. DC flows in only one direction, while AC alternates
direction periodically. One major difference is that AC can be easily transformed to
higher or lower voltages using transformers, whereas DC cannot be transformed
easily. Additionally, AC is used for long-distance power transmission, while DC is
mainly used for electronic devices and batteries.

The comparison of the root mean square (RMS) and peak voltage for AC electricity
in a simple circuit:

In an AC circuit, the voltage and current are constantly changing. The peak voltage
is the maximum voltage reached by the AC wave, while the RMS voltage is the
equivalent DC voltage that would produce the same amount of power in a resistive
load. The RMS voltage is a more useful measure of the voltage in AC circuits
because it allows for accurate power calculations and is a better indicator of the
heating effect of the voltage.

The effects and dangers of AC and DC electricity on human physiology:

Both AC and DC can be dangerous to the human body. Electric shock can cause
muscle contractions, burns, and even heart failure, leading to death. The severity of
the shock depends on the amount of current passing through the body, the duration
of exposure, and the path the current takes through the body. AC is generally
considered more dangerous than DC because it can cause muscle contractions at
lower frequencies, making it harder to let go of a live wire.

It is important to note that the effects of electricity on the human body are not just
limited to electric shock. Prolonged exposure to strong electric and magnetic fields
can cause health problems such as headaches, dizziness, and even cancer. This is
why safety regulations such as the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 exist to
protect workers in industrial settings where exposure to electricity is common.
AC electricity production and transmission is based on the use of generators and
transformers. AC generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
through the use of Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction. The generator is
typically driven by a turbine, which may be powered by water, steam, or wind. The
produced AC electricity is then transmitted at high voltages through the National Grid
to reduce energy loss during transmission. The voltage is then stepped down using
transformers to the required voltage for use in homes and industry.

To ensure the safe use of AC electricity in homes and industry, it is important to

follow established safety procedures and practices. The Electricity at Work
Regulations 1989 outline the measures that employers should take to minimise risks
to workers when working with electricity. These include:

1. Regular safety checks: Regular checks should be carried out on electrical

equipment to identify and rectify any faults or potential hazards.
2. Provision of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Workers should be
provided with the necessary PPE to protect them from electric shock or burns.
3. Training and certification: Workers should receive appropriate training and
certification to work with electrical equipment.
4. Risk assessment: A thorough risk assessment should be carried out before
carrying out any work involving electrical equipment to identify and mitigate
any potential hazards.
5. Safe isolation procedures: Safe isolation procedures should be in place to
ensure that electrical equipment is de-energized before any maintenance or
repair work is carried out.

In addition to these measures, it is important to use safety devices such as Residual

Current Devices (RCDs) and circuit breakers to protect against electric shock or
overloading of electrical equipment. RCDs work by monitoring the current flowing in
the live and neutral wires of a circuit. If the current flowing in these wires is not equal,
indicating that some of the current is flowing through a person or an alternate path,
the RCD will trip and cut off the supply of electricity.

In summary, the safe use of AC electricity in homes and industry requires adherence
to established safety procedures, provision of appropriate PPE, regular safety
checks, risk assessments, and the use of safety devices such as RCDs and circuit
breakers. By following these guidelines, the risks associated with working with
electricity can be minimised, and workers can carry out their work safely and
effectively.

Compare RMS and peak values of AC electricity:

The peak value of an AC voltage or current is the maximum value it can reach during
a cycle. The RMS value of an AC voltage or current is the equivalent DC value that
would produce the same heating effect in a given resistance. In other words, the
RMS value is the effective value of an AC voltage or current. For a sinusoidal
waveform, the RMS value is equal to the peak value divided by the square root of 2.

Discuss procedures and practices used to minimise risk when working with
electricity:

When working with electricity, it is important to follow proper safety procedures and
use appropriate protective equipment. This includes wearing insulated gloves, using
non-conductive tools, and avoiding working near live electrical components
whenever possible. It is also important to ensure that circuits are properly grounded
and that electrical equipment is properly maintained and inspected regularly.

Explain the similarities and differences of AC and DC electrical circuits:

AC and DC circuits are similar in that they both involve the flow of electrons through
a conductor. However, AC circuits involve alternating current that periodically
changes direction, while DC circuits involve a steady flow of current in one direction.
AC circuits require additional components such as capacitors and inductors to
control the flow of current, while DC circuits do not require these components.
Additionally, AC circuits can be more dangerous to work with due to the potential for
electrocution from the changing direction of the current.

Explain the dangers of working with electricity and its effects on human physiology:

Working with electricity can be extremely dangerous and even deadly. Electrical
shock can cause burns, muscle contractions, and heart failure. The severity of these
effects depends on the current level, the duration of exposure, and the path of the
current through the body. In addition to the immediate effects of electrical shock,
long-term exposure to electrical fields and magnetic fields can also have negative
health effects. It is important to follow proper safety procedures and use appropriate
protective equipment to minimise the risk of injury or death when working with
electricity.
A device called a transformer is used for reducing or increasing the
voltage of an alternating current.
Distribution of electricity from the generator to the end user uses a
complex network of transmission lines
To enable the electricity to be distributed efficiently and used safely, the
transmission voltage must be changed many times during the transmission.

An alternating current applied to the primary create

An alternating magnetic field on the primary core which then
induces an emf on the secondary coil.

Electricity leaving the generators is 23KV We step that up to 400KV

,that way we step down the current resulting in small losses.
After travelling long distances the voltage will have gone down to
275KV When we reach our destination towns we then need to step the voltage down to 132 KV
Here there after we are in the distribution Network We then step the 132 KV to 33 KV
for consumption by large factories 33 KV is then stepped down to 11 KV
for consumption by light factories Lastly, the 11KV is stepped down to 230V
for consumption by Residential Properties.
For a radial cct to support 32 Amps it will need 4 mm twin earth cable and that means more copper
Whereas for a ring cct to support 32 Amps it will need 2.5 mm twin earth cable and that means
less copper.

Types of Circuit breakers

Type B
MCB

This is used for resistive loads such as domestic heaters and bulbs

Type C
MCB

This type is used for inductive loads such as air conditioners and fans and pumps
Type D
MCB

This type is used for very high inductive load such as X ray equipment
Welding equipment and large induction motors.
MCBs work under the principle of Bi metallic strip switching
Two metals with different thermal expansion coefficient
are riveted together and heat is applied
As one of the metals expands less and the other more
the riveted strip curls
AC currents do not cause toxins to be created in your body

due to electrolysis.
DC can act like two electrodes if in your body and cause
electrolysis-like reactions to occur, which can create toxins
DC currents are more likely to stop your heart, however it is
easier to start your heart again.
AC causes your heart to beat irregularly and this is harder to fix.

Direct current (DC) is more likely to cause muscle

tetanus than alternating current (AC), making DC
more likely to "freeze" a victim in a shock scenario.
However, AC is more likely to cause a victim's heart
to fibrillate, which is a more dangerous condition for
the victim after the shocking current has been halted.

AC is more dangerous than DC (at least three times more

dangerous)
AC causes more severe/stronger muscular contractions
AC stimulates sweating, which lowers skin resistance, so the
current increases
Since resistance goes down rapidly with continued contact
(sweating and burning away of the skin oils and the skin itself), it
is extremely important to urgently free the victim from the
contact before the increasing current reaches the fibrillation-
inducing level