A

TECHNICAL PRESENTATION ON

STUDENT ‘S INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

UNDERTAKEN AT

UNION DIAGNOSTICS AND CLINICAL SERVICES PLC

SIMILOLUWA, OPPOSITE CRUNCHIES PLUS, ADO-EKITI, EKITI STATE,

NIGERIA.

AND

BASIC HEALTH CENTER

FEDERAL HOUSING ESTATE, ADO- EKITI, EKITI STATE, NIGERIA

BY

ABOLAJI TAIWO OLUWASEUN

MCB/2019/1010

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc. DEGREE) IN MICROBIOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

i
 FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OYE-EKITI,

EKITI STATE, NIGERIA.

OCTOBER 2023

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that ABOLAJI TAIWO OLUWASEUN of the matric number

MCB/2019/1010 compiled this report based on the six (6) weeks student industrial work
experience scheme (SIWES) carried out at UNION DIAGNOSTICS AND CLINICAL
SERVICES PLC, SIMILOLUWA, OPPOSITE CRUNCHIES PLUS, ADO-EKITI, EKITI
STATE AND BASIC HEALTH CENTER, FEDERAL HOUSING ESTATE, OKE –ILA ,
ADO- EKITI,EKITI STATE, NIGERIA.

ABOLAJI TAIWO OLUWASEUN

MCB/2019/1010
SIGNATURE/DATE

Dr. S.K OJO

DEPARTMENTAL SIWES COORDINATOR

SIGNATURE/DATE

Dr. AKINYELE H.A

HOD MICROBIOLOGY DEPARTMENT

SIGNATURE/DATE

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 DEDICATION

This SIWES report is dedicated to Almighty God, my source of strength, wisdom and
knowledge.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My profound gratitude to God Almighty the author of life and knowledge for helping me this far
and for giving me proper understanding to go about this SIWES report.

I acknowledge the Industrial Training Fund for putting this program in place. I am grateful to my
industry-based supervisors, Miss Johnson Ronke E. and Mr Oludipe O.O. To my co-IT students,
thank you for being part of this wonderful experience.

My special appreciation goes to my wonderful parents, Mr and Mrs Abolaji Abiodun for their
financial support, unending love and encouragements towards my academic pursuit. My
appreciation also goes to Adebo Oluwaseyi for his financial and moral support and to my loving
family members for their love and support.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page

Certification

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Table of content

List of figures

CHAPTER ONE

1.0: History of student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES)

1.1 Aims and Objective of SIWES

1.2 Organogram of Union Diagnostics and Clinical Services Plc, similoluwa, opposite crunchies,
Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State.

1.3 Organogram of Basic Health Center, federal housing estate ,Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State

CHAPTER TWO

2.0: Introduction to the Laboratory

2.1 Safety Precautions in the Laboratory

2.2 Principle and Functions of Laboratory Equipments

CHAPTER THREE

3.0: Tests carried out at Union diagnostics and clinical services plc

3.1: High vaginal swab (HVS) test

3.2: Urinalysis test

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3.3: Semen fluid analysis (SFA)

3.4: Stool analysis

3.5: Packed cell volume (PCV)

3.6: Blood grouping

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0: Tests carried out at Basic health center, federal housing estate, oke-ila, Ado-Ekiti

4.1: Blood sugar test

4.2: Malaria parasite test

4.3: Retroviral screening test

4.4: WIDAL test

4.5: Immunization

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0: Summary

5.1: Conclusion

5.2: Recommendation

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LIST OF FIGURES

1.0: Organogram of union diagnostics and clinical services plc

1.1: Organogram of basic health center

2.0: An autoclave

2.1: An incubator

2.2: A water bath

2.3: An analytical balance

2.4: A Bunsen burner

2.5: A centrifuge

2.6: A biomedical refrigerator

2.7: A colony counter

2.8: A microscope

2.9: A vortex mixer

2.10: An inoculating loop

2.11: A petri dish

2.12: A glass slide

2.13: A cover slip

3.0: Diagram showing HVS test result

3.1: A rapid urine test kit

3.2: Diagram showing urinalysis test result

3.3: Diagram showing semen fluid analysis result

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3.4: Table showing result for stool analysis sensitivity test

3.5: Diagram of capillary tube

3.6: Diagram showing PCV result

3.7: Blood group chart

3.8: Donor and recipient compatibility in blood table

4.0: Table showing result of blood sugar test

4.1: Demonstration of blood sugar test

4.2: Diagram showing slide with smear on it

4.3: Diagram showing RDT kit

4.4: Diagram showing sample collection for RVS test

4.5: Diagram showing RVS test kit

4.6: Diagram showing slide and antigens used for WIDAL test.

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 HISTORY OF STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

SIWES was established by Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in 1973 to solve the problems of lack
of adequate practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of
tertiary institutions (Studocu, 2022). It is a skill training program designed to expose and prepare
students of Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of Agriculture, Colleges of Technology and
Colleges of Education for the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after graduation.
The scheme also affords students the opportunity of familiarizing and exposing themselves to the
needed experience in handling equipment and machinery that are usually not available in their
institutions.

It is a cooperative industrial internship program that involves various sectors like Higher
Institutions, Industries or Organizations, the Federal Government of Nigeria, Industrial Training
Fund (ITF), National University Commission (NUC), National Board for Technical Education
(NBTE) and National Council for College of Education (NCCE). The duration differs for
different higher institutions. For University, it is a six (6) month program, while for Colleges of
Education and Polytechnics it is for four (4) months.

In Federal University, Oye-Ekiti, SIWES is divided into two phases. The first phase is done
during the sessional holiday after the second year (200level) and the second one is done likewise
during the holiday following the conclusion of third year academic session (300level). For the
two phases, the duration is three (3) months each.

SCOPE

The scheme as conducted by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) through their representative
liaison units and offices situated within the various institutions and in major cities or towns in
Nigeria with the necessary industrial rudiments needed to corroborate, practicalize and then
actualize the required technical knowledge. The Industrial Training Experience not only puts
them in real life situation but also exposes their practical knowledge of the course of study,
consequently perfecting this knowledge thereby producing very competent and versatile
professionals.

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1.1: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

The aim of SIWES is to bridge the gap between the level of knowledge acquired in tertiary
institutions and the practical application of such knowledge in the field of work. It also raises the
student technical know-how in tackling problems associated with the professions, combining
both academic and practical competence with a view to achieving the desired result.

The objectives of conducting SIWES include.

 To bridge the identified gap and practice of engineering and technology in tertiary
institutions.
 To provide opportunity for students to apply their knowledge in real work situations
thereby bridging the gap between theory and practical.
 SIWES exposes students to work methods and techniques in handling of equipments and
machinery that may not be available in education institutions.
 It helps to ease the transition from school to the world of work and enhance student
contacts for later jobs.
 SIWES earnest placement and strengthens employee’s involvement in the education
process of preparing student for employment in industries.
 SIWES provides an avenue for students to acquire industrial skills together with
industrial experience in their respective approved course of study.
 It prepares students for their industrial work situation which they are likely to meet after
graduation.
 It helps students to develop good working habits and behavior that can assist in the
reputation when the students finally begin work.
 SIWES helps in the development of morals, relationship culture with both boss and
subordinates.
 It also helps students to develop interest in career or area of specialization.
 To promote and encourage the acquisition of the much-needed skills in industries.

Benefits of SIWES

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  The scheme provides students the opportunity to apply the theoretical principles taught in
school in a real job situation. This leads to better understanding of the courses.
 The scheme also helps the student to develop and analyze complex interdisciplinary
problems and proffer appropriate solutions applicable to them.

The roles of students during SIWES

1. To be good ambassadors of the institution they represent.

2. To fill their logbook as required for each daily activities at the industry.
3. To comply with their industry-based supervisor’s rules and regulations.
4. To contribute to the development of the industry or establishment.

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1.2: PROFILE OF UNION DIAGNOSTICS AND CLINICAL SERVICES PLC

Union diagnostics and clinical services plc was established in the year 2015 by Dr Adejobi
R.O, a medical doctor in the then Federal Medical Center, Ido-Ekiti now Federal Teaching
Hospital, Ido-Ekiti. The private medical laboratory started as a small-scale diagnostic center at
Adamolekun Estate, Adebayo Road, Ado-Ekiti with a vision to provide reliable and accurate
diagnostic services to the community. It began its operations with a limited range of tests and
employed a small team of dedicated healthcare professionals. The laboratory later moved to its
permanent site at Similoluwa, Teaching hospital road, opposite Crunchies, Ado-Ekiti in the year
2018.

Over the years, the laboratory gained recognition for its commitment to excellence and
advancing healthcare in the region. With the growing demand for quality diagnostic services, the
laboratory expanded its infrastructure and introduced new technologies and methodologies to
enhance its capabilities. The laboratory played a significant role in the healthcare system by
collaborating with hospitals to provide timely and accurate diagnostic solutions.

1.3: ORGANOGRAM OF UNION DIAGNOSTICS AND CLINICAL SERVICES PLC

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 Chief medical
director

Administration officer

Accounting officer Medical laboratory scientist

Receptionist Laboratory tecnicians

Security Phlebotomist

IT
students

Figure 1.0: Organogram of union diagnostics and clinical services

1.4: HISTORY OF BASIC HEALTH CENTER, FEDERAL HOUSING ESTATE, ADO-

EKITI, EKITI STATE.

Basic Health Center Federal Housing Estate was established in the year 2008 under the
administration of Governor Olusegun Oni of the People’s Democratic Party.
The health center was established to provide primary healthcare services to the residents of the
estate and surrounding areas. The center has a team of Community Health Extension Workers
(CHEW), Medical Laboratory Scientist, Pharmacist and Cleaners who work together to ensure
the wellbeing of the patients. They offer a range of medical services such as general checkups,
immunization, antenatal care, family planning and treatment of common illness.

Over the years, the basic health center has played a crucial role in promoting and improving
the health of the community. It has helped in reducing the burden on the larger hospitals in the

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city by providing assessable and affordable healthcare to the people.
In addition to the primary healthcare services, the center also specializes in services such as
vaccinations, maternal and child healthcare and counseling for various health issues.

1.5: ORGANOGRAM OF BASIC HEALTH CENTER, FEDERAL HOUSING ESTATE,

ADO-EKITI, EKITI STATE

Senior
CHEW/Officer in
charge

Medical Community
laboratory Health Extension
scientist Workers

Laboratory
Pharmacist Cleaner
Technicians

IT/SIWES
Students

Figure 1.1: Organogram of Basic Health Center, Federal Housing Estate, Oke-ila,Ado-
Ekiti

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0: INTRODUCTION TO THE LABORATORY

A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific research,

experiments and measurements may be performed. Hence the medical laboratory is a laboratory
where tests are carried out on clinical specimens to get information about a patient’s health (Safe
working in laboratories 2023).

There are three sections in a standard medical diagnostic laboratory. The sections include.

 Microbiology and Parasitology section

 Hematology /serology section
 Chemical pathology/clinical chemistry section.

The overall significance of the laboratory diagnosis is that they guide towards the administration
of most effective therapy to restore a proper health on the patient.

2.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE LABORATORY

Every laboratory is expected to adopt a code of bio-safety principles and work practice which
should be enforced and strictly adhered to by workers and visitors. All specimens coming into
and from the laboratory are being assumed to be potentially infectious and harmful and that is
why the precautions listed below are ensured to be followed to avoid contamination and
laboratory hazard.

1. All persons in laboratories, including students, staff and visitors should wear protective
clothing such as laboratory coat, hand gloves, safety glasses, head covers and face mask.
2. Wear cover shoe in the laboratory and avoid working bare footed.
3. Eating, drinking, chewing gum and applying cosmetics are prohibited in the laboratory.
4. Do not store food or beverages in the same refrigerators or freezers with chemicals,
biohazards, radioactive materials or culture samples.
5. Never pipette anything by mouth in the laboratory.

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 6. All disposable equipment such as needles and syringes, gloves, etc should not be reused.
7. The work area must be kept clean and uncluttered before and after any laboratory
procedures.
8. All chemicals should be labeled and stored properly.
9. Avoid adding solid to hot liquids.
10. Use equipment for its designated purpose.
11. No contact lenses should be worn around hazardous chemicals.
12. Minimize all chemical exposure.
13. Remove contaminated gloves before touching common surfaces or devices (doorknobs,
faucets, equipment); discard gloves before leaving the laboratory.
14. Always wash hands and arms with antibacterial soap and water before leaving the
laboratory.
15. Disinfect work bench before and after use.
16. Treat all microorganisms as potential pathogens that may cause harm under unexpected
or unusual circumstances.
17. Never place contaminated pipette tips (or pipettes), inoculating loop, or any other
contaminated materials on the bench top. Sterilize loops before and after each use.
18. Never use bare hands to clean surfaces or any substance that pours in the laboratory.

2.2 PRINCIPLE AND FUNCTIONS OF LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS

1. AUTOCLAVE: The autoclave is a pressurized chamber used for the process of

sterilization and disinfection by combining three factors; time, pressure and steam
(Home, 2017).

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The autoclave uses steam as sterilization agent. The basic principle of an autoclave is that all the
items within the autoclave come in direct contact with the stream for a particular period
irrespective of the nature of the material, whether it is liquid, plastic ware or glassware. The

xvi
amount of time and temperature depends on the type of material being sterilized, but mostly the
principle of autoclaving is to sterilize under pressure at 121 degrees for 15 minutes.

USES:

 Autoclaves are mostly used for the sterilization of medical or laboratory equipment with
the capacity of sterilizing many materials at once.
 They are commonly used for the preparation of culture media during laboratory
applications.

Figure 2.0: An Autoclave

2. INCUBATOR: An incubator is a device that is used in the laboratory for the growth and
maintenance of microorganisms and cultures. The incubator provides an optimal
temperature, pressure and moisture required for the growth of microorganisms.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The incubator is based on the principle of maintaining a proper atmosphere for the growth of
microorganisms. Incubators have a heating system that allows for the temperature within the
incubator to be adjusted according to the type of organism cultivated inside.

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Similarly, they are provided with adjustments for maintaining the concentration of CO2 to
balance the pH and humidity required for the growth of the organism.

USES

 Incubators have a wide range of applications including cell culture, pharmaceutical

studies, hematological studies and biochemical studies.
 Incubators can also regulate the temperature and humidity levels in an environment
which allows for optimal growth conditions for the cultures being incubated.

Figure 2.1: An Incubator

3. WATER BATH: A water bath is a conventional device that is used for chemical
reactions that require a controlled environment at a constant temperature. It is an
electrical device used to maintain the temperature of media over a long period. A water
bath generally consists of a heating unit, a stainless-steel chamber that holds the water
and samples and a control interface. Temperature may be controlled digitally or by a
dial.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

xviii
A sensor in the device transfers water temperature to a reference valve which is then amplified,
and a control system generates a signal for the heating system which heats the water to the
desired temperature.

USES

 Water baths are primarily used for heating samples under a controlled temperature.
 It is suitable for heating flammable chemicals that might combust if exposed to open
flame.

Figure 2.2: A water bath

4. ANALYTICAL BALANCE: This is a device designed for precise, quick and accurate
measurement of the mass of an object.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

This type of balance is made with a measuring pan enclosed in a transparent covering that
prevents small particles or air currents from getting collected on the pan. Analytical balance
works on the principle of magnetic force restoration which measures the mass of an object using
an electromagnet. This balance do not directly measure the mass; rather, they measure the force
that acts in the downwards direction on the balancing pan.

USES

 As it is highly precise and based on advanced technology, analytical balance is explicitly

used in laboratories for the effective completion of tasks like weighing test materials and

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 sampling amounts, formulation, density determination, purity analysis, quality control
testing and materials and conformance testing.

Figure 2.3: An analytical balance

5. BUNSEN BURNER: Bunsen burner is a standard tool used in the laboratories, named
after Robert Bunsen. It Is a gas-fueled single open flame commonly used as heat source
in the laboratory.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

This burner is made with a metal tube on a flat base with a gas inlet at the bottom of the tube
which may have an adjustable valve. On the sides of the tube are openings that can be adjusted to
control the amount of air that can enter. Once the burner is connected to a gas source, the gas is
forced by the pressure so that the gas reaches the top where the flame is ignited with a match or a
lighter. The flame is created by the gas and oxygen being mixed in a controlled environment
which allows for precise regulation of the size and heat of the burner.

USES

 It is commonly used for processes like sterilization, combustion and heating.

 In medical or microbiology laboratories, it is commonly used for micro-loop sterilization.

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 Figure 2.4: A Bunsen burner

6. CENTRIFUGE: A centrifuge is a device that allows the rotation of an object about a

single axis, where an outward force is applied perpendicularly to the axis. A laboratory
centrifuge is motor-based and allows the rotation of a liquid sample resulting in the
separation of the components of the mixture.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

A centrifuge works on the principle of sedimentation, where the high speed of the rotation causes
the denser particles to move away from the center while the smaller, less dense particles are
forced towards the center. Thus, the denser particles settle at the bottom while the lighter
particles are collected at the top. In a laboratory tabletop centrifuge, the sample tubes are aligned
at an angle so that the particles must travel a shorter distance before they hit the bottom.

USES

 Centrifuge is used for the separation of cell organelles, nucleic acid, blood components
and separation of isotopes.
 In research and clinical laboratories, centrifuge is often used for cell, organelle, virus,
protein, and nucleic acid purification.

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 Figure 2.5: A centrifuge

7. BIOMEDICAL REFRIGERATOR: This is a type of biorepository that stores

biological samples, prepared agar plates, soil samples etc. for laboratory research
purposes.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Biomedical refrigerators are based on the principle that under extremely low temperatures, there
is minimum microbial growth which allows for the protection and preservation of different
substances. Based on this principle, cultures can be preserved over a long period of time without
any change in the concentration of the microorganism.

USES

 A biomedical refrigerator is used for the preservation of variety of samples in the

laboratory such as blood, vaccines, biological reagents etc.

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 Figure 2.6: A Biomedical refrigerator

8. COLONY COUNTER: A colony counter is used to estimate the density of a liquid

culture by counting the number of colonies forming units (CFU) on an agar or culture
plates.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

This instrument can accommodate different sizes of plates which are scanned on top with UV,
white light and/or fluorescent illumination. One can accomplish the counting either manually
with the touch pressure or with a digital counter.

USES

 A colony counter is primarily used for counting the number of colonies present on a
culture plate to estimate the concentration of microorganisms in liquid culture.

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 Figure 2.7: A colony counter

9. MICROSCOPE: A microscope is a device that allows the observer to have an

exceedingly close view of minute organisms/particles.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

There are many different types of microscopes, each of which works on its respective principles.
However, there is some commonality in them.

The basic principle in a microscope is magnification. Based on the relative position of the object
from the lens or electromagnets, different positions, nature and magnification of the image can
be achieved. When a sample is placed within the focus of the microscope, a virtual, erect and
magnified image is obtained at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye that is held at the
lens.

USES

 Microscopes are primarily used for the observation of minute organisms/particles which
cannot be observed with naked eyes.

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 Figure 2.8: A microscope

10. VORTEX MIXER: A vortex mixer is one of the basic technologies used for the mixing
of samples in glass tubes or flasks in laboratories.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

It is based on the simple principle of causing reactions and homogenization by agitating the
mixture. Motorized draft shafts present on the mixer oscillate and transfer the movement to the
sample tubes causing the sample fluids to undergo turbulent flow.

USES

 Vortex mixer is mostly used for the mixing of various sample fluids in the sample tubes
and allows for the homogenization of cells and cell organelles.

Figure 2.9: A vortex mixer

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 11. INOCULATING LOOP: An inoculating loop is a simple tool used primarily by
microbiologists to pick and transfer a small sample (inoculum) of a microorganism
culture.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

This is made up of a thick metallic lower part and a straight thin upper metallic part curved into a
small circle usually made up of platinum. It is usually sterilized by flaming red hot before and
after use.

USES

 Inoculating loop for picking samples and streaking.

Figure 2.10: An inoculating loop

12. PETRI DISH: The petri dish is a shallow cylindrical transparent lidded dish which is
usually used to hold growth medium in which microorganisms can be cultured. The
container is named after its inventor “Julius Petri”.

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 Figure 2.11: A petri dish

13. GLASS SLIDE: This is a thin, flat piece of glass made from the highest quality glass
that is 1mm thick. It is used to hold a specimen so there could be a stain to examine under
the microscope. It is sterilized by flooding with alcohol and flaming off excess alcohol.

Figure 2.12: A glass slide

14. COVER SLIP: This is a very thin piece of glass placed over a specimen on a glass slide
that is to be examined under a microscope.

Figure 2.13: A cover slip

CHAPTER THREE

3.0: TESTS CARRIED OUT AT UNION DIAGNOSTICS AND CLINICAL SERVICES

PLC

3.1: HIGH VAGINAL SWAB (HVS) TEST

xxvii
 High vaginal swab test is a medical procedure used to collect a sample of cells and
discharge from the upper part of the vagina (cervix) (professional, 2022). It is performed to help
diagnose and monitor various vaginal infections and sexually transmitted infections such as
Bacteria vaginosis and Trichomonas vaginalis. The aim of the test is to detect infections in
vaginal secretion and to detect the presence of yeast cells and motile organisms. The collected
sample is then examined under a microscope or sent to a laboratory for further analysis. The
result can help determine the appropriate treatment. The sample can be analyzed macroscopically
or microscopically.

AIM: To test for infection in vaginal secretion and to detect the presence of yeast cells and
motile organisms.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

 Glass slide
 Normal saline
 Microscope
 Pasteur pipette
 Incubator
 Agar plate
 Inoculating loop
 Cover slip

MACROSCOPIC ANALYSIS

For macroscopic analysis, the swab is examined visually for any abnormal odor, color or
consistency of the vaginal discharge. This can provide initial clues about the presence of
infection or other abnormalities.

MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS

For microscopic analysis, the sample is viewed under a microscope to identify the presence of
any microorganisms such as bacteria, or fungi and to determine their quality and characteristics.

PROCEDURES FOR MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS OF HVS TEST

xxviii
  3 drops of normal saline were dropped on the swab stick using Pasteur pipette.
 The swab stick was used to make a smear on a clean grease free glass slide.
 Sterile cover slip was used to cover the smear made on the glass slide.
 The preparation was mounted and observed under a microscope with *10 and *40
objective to identify the presence of any microorganism.

CULTURE ANALYSIS

PROCEDURE FOR CULTURE ANALYSIS OF HVS TEST

 After the preparation of the culture media, the swab was streaked on the agar plate
(chocolate agar).
 The culture plate was then incubated at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours allowing any
present bacteria or fungi to grow and multiply.
 After incubation, the plate was inspected for colonial growth.

HVS SENSITIVITY TEST

 After the preparation of sensitivity media, the wire loop was flamed to red hot using
Bunsen burner and allowed to cool.
 The flame sterilized wire loop was used to pick growth from the culture media and
introduced on the agar plate.
 The wire loop was flamed to red hot again and allowed to cool, then used to streak out
the growth on the agar plate.
 The sensitivity paper was placed in the middle of the agar and incubated for 24 hours at
37 degrees Celsius.

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Figure 3.0: Diagram showing results for macroscopic, microscopic and sensitivity analysis of
HVS test.

Key to the table

++ represent Sensitivity
R represent Resistant

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3.2: URINALYSIS TEST

Urinalysis is a diagnostic analysis of a urine sample that is used to detect and manage a
wide range of disorders such as diabetes, liver diseases, hemolytic diseases, urogenital and
kidney disorders and metabolic abnormalities (Urinalysis 2021). Urinalysis involves several
parameters that provide information about the urine including its physical properties (checking
the appearance), chemical composition (concentration and content of urine) and microscopic
analysis.

Urinalysis tests provide valuable information about kidney function, urinary tract health,
metabolic disorders, infections and certain systemic conditions. Abnormal urinalysis results may
point to a disease or illness.

AIM: To help detect various medical conditions such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease,
diabetes, liver problems and kidney stone.

URINE COLLECTION AND PREPARATION

The midstream urine is the main portion that is usually tested, and it is usually collected by
interrupting the flow of urine after a few seconds and then collecting the middle portion in a
clean universal bottle and tested as soon as possible.

METHODS OF URINALYSIS

1. VISUAL EXAMINATION: During the visual examination of the urine, the urine color,
odor and clarity was observed. These can give initial indications of certain conditions or
hydrating status of the urine and they are interpreted in conjunction with results obtained
during the chemical and microscopic examinations to confirm what substances are
present.
 Urine color
Urine can be of various colors, most often shades of yellow, form very pale or colorless
to very dark or amber. Abnormal or unusual urine color can be the result of a disease
process, several medications (Mayo clinic, 2023) e.g multivitamins can turn urine bright
yellow, or the result of eating certain foods. For example, some people can have red-

xxxi
 colored urine after eating beets; the color is from the natural pigments of beets and it’s
not a cause for worry. However, red-colored urine can also occur when blood is present
in the urine and can be an indicator of disease or damage to some parts of the urinary
system.
 Urine clarity
Urine clarity refers to the appearance of urine and describes how clear or cloudy it
appears to the naked eyes. It is one of the physical properties assessed during a urinalysis.
Urine can range from being clear and transparent to appearing cloudy or turbid.
Clear urine typically indicates adequate hydration and a normal balance of substances in
the urine. It suggests that there is no significant number of particles or sediments present
that could cause cloudiness.
Cloudy urine indicates the presence of various substances or conditions. It can be caused
by the presence of white blood cells, red blood cells, bacteria, mucus, crystals, or excess
protein in the urine. Certain medications, infections, urinary tract disorders or kidney
issues can also contribute to cloudy urine. Certain foods, vitamins, and supplements can
also temporarily affect urine clarity leading to slight changes in appearance.
2. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION: This is a component of urinalysis that involves
analyzing a urine sample under a microscope to observe the presence of various cellular
and sedimentary elements.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Urine sample, hand gloves, glass slide, microscope, cover
slip, dropper

PROCEDURES

 A drop of the urine sample was placed on a clean glass slide using a dropper and covered
with a cover slip.
 It was then observed under a microscope to detect any bacteria, casts etc.

During microscopic examination, the presence of different cells such as red blood cells, white
blood cells and epithelial cells indicate potential underlying conditions or infections.
Additionally, the presence of bacteria, yeast or other microorganisms can suggest the presence of

xxxii
urinary tract infection. Crystals such as calcium oxalate and uric acid can also be observed under
the microscope and may indicate certain metabolic disorders or conditions such as kidney stones.

3. RAPID URINE TEST – DIPSTICK TEST

A rapid urine test (dipstick test) is the quickest way to assess various components and
characteristics of urine. It involves dipping a plastic strip with reagent pad into a urine sample
and observing the color changes on the pads to indicate the presence or levels of specific
substances in the urine.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Urine sample, test strip, urine test package, hand glove,
paper towel

PROCEDURES

 The urine sample was collected, and the test strip was dipped into it for a few seconds.
 The strip was removed from the urine and placed on a paper towel to remove the excess
urine on it.
 The colored fields on the test strip changes color and they were compared with a color
table on the urine test package.
 The test result was interpreted using the dipstick analysis chart and recorded.

WHAT DIPSTICK/RAPID URINE TEST CHECKS

1. pH: This measures the acidity or alkalinity of the urine. Normal urine pH ranges from 4.6
to 8.0. Abnormal pH levels may indicate certain conditions such as urinary tract
infections or kidney stones.
2. Protein: This tests for the presence of protein in the urine. Elevated protein levels can be
a sign of kidney damage or disease.
3. Glucose: This measures the presence of glucose (sugar) in the urine. Elevated levels may
indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.
4. Ketones: This tests for the presence of ketones which are produced when the body breaks
down fats for energy. Abnormal levels of ketones may indicate uncontrolled diabetes or
other metabolic conditions.

xxxiii
5. Blood: This assesses the presence of red blood cells in the urine. Abnormal levels of
blood may indicate urinary tract infections, kidney stone or bladder infections.
6. Bilirubin: This measures the presence of bilirubin, a pigment produced by the liver.
Elevated levels of bilirubin in the urine may indicate liver diseases.
7. Urobilinogen: This tests for the presence of urobilinogen, a product of bilirubin
breakdown. Abnormal levels can indicate liver or gall bladder problems.
8. Nitrites: This tests for the presence of bacteria that converts nitrates to nitrites in the
urine. Positive nitrite results may suggest a urinary tract infection.
9. Leukocytes: This measures the presence of white blood cells in the urine. Elevated levels
may indicate an infection or inflammation in the urinary tract.

Figure 3.1: A rapid urine test kit

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Figure 3.2: Diagram showing macroscopic, microscopic and sensitivity analysis of urinalysis test

Key to the table

++ represents sensitivity

R represents resistant

xxxv
3.3: SEMEN FLUID ANALYSIS (SFA)

Semen fluid analysis, also known as semen analysis or sperm test is a laboratory test that
evaluates the quality and quantity of sperm in a man’s semen (Person, 2017). It is primarily
conducted to assess male fertility potential. During the analysis, several parameters are measured
including sperm count (the number of sperm in the sample), sperm motility (ability of sperm to
swim), sperm morphology (size and shape of sperm) and other factors like volume, pH level and
presence of white blood cells or bacteria. These measurements help to determine the overall
health and fertility of the male reproductive system.

Semen fluid analysis is usually performed as part of fertility evaluation, but it can also be used to
assess the success of a vasectomy or to monitor the effectiveness of fertility treatments.

The appearance of semen can be viscous (thick consistency) or whitish –gray or opaque
color. Semen becomes liquefied within 20-30 minutes after ejaculation due to action of
fibrinolysin in the fluid, however, the time of liquefaction vary between individuals and may be
influenced by factors such as temperature, individual physiology and overall health. Normal
semen volume ranges from 1.5 to 5 milliliters per ejaculation, however the exact volume can
vary between individuals and even within the same person on different occasions.

PRECAUTION TO FOLLOW FOR CORRECT SEMEN ANALYSIS TEST RESULT

 The patient must avoid sex for 3-5 days before the test.
 Alcohol should not be taken by a patient 3-5 days before the test.
 Lubricants must not be used as they might contaminate or kill the sperm.
 The time the semen is produced, received and analyzed must not exceed 30 minutes so
that the sperm cells do not die.

AIM: To analyze the quality, number, shape, motility and viability of sperm.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Universal bottle, microscope, glass slide, cover slip,
inoculating loop, Bunsen burner.

Semen fluid analysis involves three stages.

xxxvi
1. MICROSCOPY: This involves examining the semen sample under a microscope to
evaluate various parameters related to sperm health and fertility. It is used to determine
the sperm count, sperm motility, sperm morphology and other parameters such as semen
volume, pH level, presence of white blood cells or bacteria.

PROCEDURES FOR MICROSCOPIC SEMEN FLUID ANALYSIS

 A drop of thoroughly mixed liquefied semen was placed on a clean glass slide and
covered with a sterile cover slip.
 The specimen was focused on the microscope using *10 and *40 objective to assess
motility.
 A total of 100 spermatozoa were counted and the motile ones were noted out of the
hundred and the percentage of the motile and non-motile was record.

Normal motility is when over 50% of spermatozoa are motile within 60 minutes of
ejaculation. When over 60% of the spermatozoa are non-motile, eosin preparation is
examined to assess whether the spermatozoa are viable or non-viable.

2. CULTURE: Semen is sterile, as such, any microorganism found in it is said to be

pathogenic. Pathogens may include Staphylococcus aureus, Neisseria gonorrhea etc.
Semen culture is carried out when infection is suspected in a male adult.

PROCEDURE OF CULTURE ANALYSIS OF SEMEN

 After the preparation of the culture, the wire loop was flamed to red hot in Bunsen burner
and allowed to cool.
 Using the flame sterilized wire loop, semen sample was introduced on the agar plate.
 The wire loop was flamed again and allowed to cool and then used to streak the inoculum
on the agar plate.
 The culture was incubated at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours.
 The incubated plate was inspected for growth after the 24 hours of incubation at 37
degrees Celsius.

xxxvii
3. SENSITIVITY: This is carried out to detect the effective antibiotics to which the
bacteria isolate is sensitive. It enables the doctor to ascertain the most appropriate
antibiotics treatment.

PROCEDURE FOR SEMEN FLUID ANALYSIS SENSITIVITY

 After the preparation of sensitivity media, the wire loop was flamed to red hot in Bunsen
burner and allowed to cool.
 The flame sterilized wire loop was then used to pick a growth on the culture media and
introduced to the agar plate.
 The wire loop was flamed again and allowed to cool; it is then used to streak the
inoculum on the agar plate.
 The antibiotic disk was placed into the agar and inoculated for 24 hours at 37 degrees
Celsius.
 After 24 hours, the inoculated plate was observed for growth.

xxxviii
Figure 3.3: Diagram showing the microscopic, culture and sensitivity of semen fluid analysis.

Key for the table

+++ represents sensitivity

R represents resistant

xxxix
3.4: STOOL ANALYSIS

Stool analysis, also known as fecal examination, is a laboratory test conducted on a stool
sample to help diagnose certain conditions affecting the digestive tract, gastrointestinal disorders
and monitor treatment effectiveness (Myers, 2022). The conditions affecting the digestive tract
include, Intestinal tract infection caused by enteric pathogens such as Salmonella enteritidis,
Shigella dysenteria, poor nutrient absorption or cancer.

For a stool analysis, a stool sample is collected in a clean container. Laboratory analysis includes
macroscopic examination, microscopic examination, chemical test and microbiological
examination.

REASONS FOR STOOL ANALYSIS

 Stool analysis helps diagnose and monitor conditions such as Inflammatory bowel
disease (IBD), irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), celiac disease or mal-absorption
disorders.
 It is used to identify infectious agents that may cause gastrointestinal infections such as
bacteria (e.g., Salmonella, Campylobacter), parasites (e.g., Giardia, Cryptosporidium), or
viruses (e.g., norovirus, rotavirus).
 Stool analysis detects the presence of hidden blood in the stool, which may suggest
gastrointestinal bleeding from conditions like ulcers, polyps, or colorectal cancer.

AIM: To detect the presence of enteric pathogens in stool sample

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS: Bunsen burner, incubator, glass slide, cover slip,
universal bottle, normal saline, inoculating loop.

STAGES OF STOOL ANALYSIS

MACROSCOPY: The stool will be checked for color, consistency, amount, shape, odor and the
presence of mucus.

MICROSCOPY: This is an important component of stool analysis that involves examining a

stool sample under a microscope to identify and qualify various components present in the
sample.

xl
PROCEDURE

 3 drops of normal saline was introduced into the swab stick to moisten it using Pasteur
pipette
 A drop of moistened specimen was placed on a clean glass slide and covered with a
sterile cover slip.
 The preparation was mounted on the microscope and was examined using *10 and *40
objective.

CULTURE: This is done to identify and grow bacteria and other microorganisms present in a
stool sample.

PROCEDURE

 After the preparation of the media, the wire loop was flamed to red hot with Bunsen
burner and allowed to cool.
 Using the flame sterilized wire loop, stool sample was picked from the prepared media
and introduced on agar plate.
 The wire loop was flamed again to red hot and allowed to cool; it is then used to streak
the inoculum on the agar plate.
 The culture plate was incubated at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours, this allows the
microorganism present in the sample to multiply and form visible colonies.
 After 24 hours of incubation, the culture plate was examined to identify and characterize
the colonies that have grown.

PROCEDURE FOR SENSITIVITY TEST

 After the preparation of sensitivity media, the wire loop was flamed to red hot using
Bunsen burner.
 The flamed sterilized wire loop was used to pick a growth from the culture media and
placed on agar plate.
 The wire loop was flamed again and allow to cool and then used to streak out the
inoculum on the agar plate.

xli
  The sensitivity disk was placed in the middle of the agar and then incubated for 24 hours
at 37 degrees Celsius.
 After 24 hours of incubation, the plate is then observed, and the results are recorded.

Result for microscopy

Mucus Nil
Crystal Nil
Color Brown
Amount 2.5ml

Result for culture

Bacteria such as Salmonella enteritidis, Shigella dysenteriae, and Escherichia coli as in the case
of infantile gastroenteritis may be isolated after 24 hours of incubation.

Result for sensitivity

Nitrofu Genta Ampic Septri Clafor Tari Roce Nalidi Eryt Cipro Pe Strep Sparfl Augm Chlora
ration mycin lox n an vid phin xicaci hro floxa flo tomy oxacin enten npheni
d my cin xac cin col
cin in
CN APX SXT OFX R E CPX PEF S SP AU CH
+++ + ++ +++ + + ++
R S R S R R S R R S S R S S S
Figure 3.4: Table showing sensitivity result of stool analysis.

Key to the table

+++ means Sensitivity

R means Resistant

3.5: PACKED CELL VOLUME (PCV)

xlii
 Packed cell volume test also known as hematocrit test is a blood test that measures the
percentage of red blood cells (RBCs) in the total volume of blood (Portea Medical & Dr. Udaya
Kumar Maiya (MBBS, 2022). Blood is a mixture of plasma and cells, the packed cell volume
test measures how much of the blood consists of cells.

Generally, the test is a part of a full blood count and is commonly carried out to monitor
response to treatment, estimate need for blood transfusions etc. A normal PCV value varies
depending on factors like age and sex, but it generally falls within the range of 38%-54% for
adult males and 35%-47% for adult females. Deviations from the normal range may indicate
conditions such as anemia, dehydration, polycythemia or other blood disorders in the patient.

AIM: To determine the level of the total column of blood

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Capillary tube, modeling clay sealant/plasticine,

microhematocrit centrifuge, microhematocrit reader, hand gloves, tourniquet, needle and syringe,
cotton wool and ethanol.

PROCEDURE

 Collect sample from patient using needle and syringe into a universal bottle.
 Dip a capillary tube into the blood sample (the blood moves into the capillary tube
through capillary action) remove the tube and wipe excess blood from it.
 Seal the tube with plasticine and place it in the microhematocrit centrifuge for spinning
with the sealed end towards the periphery.
 Centrifuge at a preset speed of 12000rpm (revolution per minute) for 5 minutes causing
the blood cells to separate based on their density.
 After spinning, the blood separates into three layers; plasma, platelets (buffy coat) and
the heavy red blood cells at the bottom of the tube.
 Place the capillary tube on the microhematocrit reader and take the result.
 The length of the packed red blood cell column is measured, this measurement represents
the packed cell volume and is expressed as a percentage.

xliii
 Figure 3.5: Diagram of a capillary tube showing the different layers

Expected Results:

Normal range of PCV

Children (2-5years) …………….. 34.40%

Children (6-12years) …………… 35-45%

Adult men …………………………… 40-54%

Adult women ……………………… 36-47%

Plasma from normal blood appears straw- colored. In iron deficiency, it appears colorless. When
it contains an increased amount of bilirubin (as occurs in hemolytic anaemia), it appears yellow.
If plasma is pink-red this indicates a hemolyzed sample.

xliv
 Figure 3.6: Carrying out PCV.

3.6: BLOOD GROUPING

Blood grouping or blood typing is a laboratory test that determines the specific blood type of an
individual. Blood grouping tests involve mixing a person’s blood with specific antibodies that
can detect the presence or absence of A, B and Rh antigens, the reactions observed determines
the person’s blood type (Testing, 2022). The most common blood grouping system used is the
ABO system which classifies blood into four types: A, B, AB and O.

Blood grouping is based on the presence or absence of certain antigens on the surface of red
blood cells. Type A blood has A antigens, type B blood has B antigens, type AB blood has both
A and B antigens, and type O blood has neither A nor B antigen. In addition to the ABO system,
another important blood grouping system is the Rh system which classifies blood as Rh positive
(Rh+) or Rh negative (Rh-) based on the presence or absence of the Rh antigen.

xlv
Determining an individual’s blood type is crucial for blood transfusions, as mismatched blood
types can lead to severe immune reactions. Blood grouping is also important for organ
transplantation, pregnancy management, and paternity testing.

AIM: To determine the blood group of patients.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Needle and syringe, EDTA bottle, mixing stick,
tourniquet, Pasteur pipette, slide, antisera A, B and O.

PROCEDURE

 Take sample from patient into an EDTA bottle.

 Get a clean slide with 3 columns (A, B, O)
 Use Pasteur pipette to place a drop of the blood in each column.
 Place a drop of anti A into column A, anti B into column B and anti O into column O.
 Mix with a mixing stick using separate one for each column.
 Rock the slide gently and observe for agglutination.

xlvi
 Figure 3.7: Blood group chart

KEY

Red indicates no agglutination

White indicate agglutination

INTERPRETATION OF RESULT

 If agglutination occurs in column A and O then the patient blood group is A+ (positive).
 If agglutination occurs in column B and O then the patient blood group is B+ (positive).
 If agglutination occurs in column A, B and O then the patient blood group is AB+
(positive).
 If agglutination occurs only in column O then the patient blood group is O+ (positive).
 If agglutination occurs only in column A then the patient blood group is A- (negative).
 If agglutination occurs only in column B then the patient blood group is B- (negative).
 If agglutination occurs in columns A and B only, then the patient blood group is AB-
(negative).
 If there’s no agglutination in all the columns, then the patient blood group is O-
(negative).

NOTE: A patient is grouped Rhesus positive (Rh+) when there is agglutination in column O and
grouped Rhesus negative (Rh-) when no agglutination is observed in column O.

DONOR AND RECIPIENT COMPATIBILITY IN BLOOD

BLOOD TYPE CAN DONATE TO CAN RECEIVE

FROM
A+ A+, AB+ A+, A-, O+, O-
A- A+, A-, AB+, AB- A-, O-
B+ B+, AB+ B+, B-, O+, O-
B- B+, B-, AB+, AB- B-, O-

xlvii
AB+ AB+ All blood types
AB- AB+,AB- AB-, A-, B- O-
O+ O+, A+, B+, AB+ O+, O-
O- All blood types O-

Figure 3.8: Donor and recipient compatibility in blood table

xlviii
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0: TESTS CARRIED OUT AT BASIC HEALTH CENTER FEDERAL HOUSING

ESTATE, OKE-ILA, ADO-EKITI

4.1: BLOOD SUGAR TEST

Blood sugar test is a medical test that measures the amount of glucose (sugar) in the
bloodstream. It is used to evaluate and monitor conditions such as diabetes, hypoglycemia,
hyperglycemia and gestational diabetes. Glucose is the primary source of energy for the body
cells and the human body regulates blood glucose levels as a part of metabolic homeostasis
(Medlineplus, 2022). The normal blood sugar level in humans is about 4Mm (4 mmol/L or 72
mg/dL) however, this level fluctuates throughout the day.

Glucose levels are usually low in the morning before the first meal of the day termed “the
fasting blood sugar level” and rise after meals for an hour or two by few miliMolar termed
“random blood sugar level”. Blood sugar levels outside the normal range may be an indicator
of a medical condition. A persistently high level of blood sugar is referred to as hyperglycemia
and low levels are referred to as hypoglycemia. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by
persistent hyperglycemia from any of several causes and is the most prominent disease related to
failure of blood sugar regulation.

Temporary rise in blood sugar level may result from severe stress such as trauma, stroke,
myocardial infarction, surgery or illness. Excessive intake of alcohol also cause initial surge in
blood sugar levels and later tend to cause blood sugar levels to fall. Also, certain drugs can
increase or decrease glucose levels.

FASTING BLOOD SUGAR: This refers to the measurement of blood glucose level after a
period of fasting, typically overnight. It is often used as a screening test for diabetes or to
monitor blood sugar control in individuals with diabetes. To perform a fasting blood sugar test,
the patient will be asked to refrain from eating or drinking anything (except water) for at least 8
hours before the test. This allows for a baseline measurement of blood glucose level without the
influence of recent food intake.

xlix
Blood samples are collected by prickling the patient’s hand and the sample is then analyzed to
determine the concentration of glucose in the patient’s bloodstream. The normal fasting blood
glucose concentration is between 70mg/dL (3.9mmol/L) and 99mg/dL (5.5mmol/L).

Levels between 100-125 mb/dL (5.6- 6.9mmol/L) may indicate prediabetes and a fasting blood
sugar level of 126 mg/dL (7.0mmol/L) or higher may suggest diabetes.

RANDOM BLOOD SUGAR: This refers to the measurement of blood glucose levels at any
time of the day regardless of when the patient last ate. Unlike fasting blood sugar test, there is no
requirement for fasting before a random blood sugar test. Blood samples are collected usually by
prickling and then analyzed to determine the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream.

Random blood sugar tests are often used to quickly assess blood sugar levels especially in
emergency situations or when fasting is not feasible. However, it is important to note that
random blood sugar levels can be influenced by recent food intake, physical activity, stress and
other factors. Therefore, if a random blood sugar test indicates high or low levels, additional
testing may be needed such as fasting blood sugar test or oral glucose tolerance test to confirm a
diagnosis or assess long-term blood sugar control.

AIM: To measure and verify the amount of glucose in the blood stream.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Glucometer, glucose test strip, cotton wool, lancet,
ethanol, hand glove.

PROCEDURE

 Clean the patient finger with cotton wool mixed with ethanol.
 Prickle the finger with lancet and drop the blood on a glucose test strip
 Insert the test strip into the glucometer and wait for 1 minute.
 Note the result.

RESULT

To record the result,

l
After 1 minute of inserting the test strip into the glucometer, the screen will display the result in
mg/dL. For accurate result, the answer must be divided by 18 to convert it to mmol/L.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULT

GLUCOSE LEVEL INTERPRETATION

From 70-99mg/dL (3.9-5.5 mmol/L) Normal fasting glucose level
From 100-125mg/dL (5.6-6.9 Prediabetes (impaired fasting
mmol/L) glucose)
126mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L) and above Diabetes
on more than one testing

Figure 4.0: Table showing result of blood sugar test.

Figure 4.1: Demonstration of a blood sugar test

4.2: MALARIA PARASITE TEST

The Malaria parasite test is a diagnostic test used to detect the presence of malaria parasite in a
person’s blood. Malaria is caused by the causative agent Plasmodiun species which include
Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium vivax and

li
Plasmodium malariae (CDC, 2023). The test is usually performed when there are
symptoms suggesting malaria such as fever, headache, vomiting, nausea and fatigue or when
there is a risk of exposure to mosquito bite.
The plasmodium species can exist in various forms like ring form, early trophozoite, late
trophozoite, schizont and gametocyte. The most common methods of carrying out malaria test is
the microscopic analysis and the use of Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) kit.

AIM: To identify the presence of malaria parasite in patient’s blood.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Microscope, RDT kit, clean grease free glass slide, blood
sample, needle and syringe, gloves, lancet, cotton wool and ethanol.

PROCEDURE FOR MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

 Take a small drop of blood from the patient’s finger.

 Make a thick smear on a clean grease free glass slide.
 Stain the smear with Giemsa stain and leave for a minute to air dry.
 Rinse the stain and add oil immersion.
 View under the microscope using *100 objective.
 Note the result.

RESULT INTERPRETATION

Malaria parasites are usually identified by their characteristic shape, size and movement.

NOTE: Giemsa stain was used to give the parasite a distinctive appearance.

lii
 Figure 4.2: Diagram showing slide with smear on it

PROCEDURE FOR RAPID DIAGNOSTIC TEST

 Take a small drop of blood from the patient’s finger.

 Add a drop of blood to the test kit.
 Add 2 drops of buffer solution and leave for 3 minutes.
 Observe and note the result.

Figure 4.3: Diagram showing RDT kit.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULT

There are two lines on the kit, the control line and the test line. If a line appears on the control
region after 3 minutes, it indicates that the test is negative but if two lines appear on the control
and test region after 3 minutes, the test is positive.

4.3: RETROVIRAL SCREENING TEST (RVS)

A retroviral screening test is a type of test used to detect the presence of retroviruses in a
person’s blood (Sartorius, 2022). Retroviruses are a family of viruses that can insert their genetic
material into the DNA of their host cells. Example of a retrovirus is Human Immune Deficiency
Virus (HIV). The retroviral screening test involves taking a blood sample from an individual and
testing it for the presence of specific antibodies or viral genetic material associated with
retroviruses (HIV).

AIM: To detect the presence of retrovirus (HIV) in the blood stream of an individual.

liii
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Blood sample, pipette, lancet, unigold test kit, gloves,
cotton wool and ethanol.

PROCEDURE

 Clean the patient’s finger with cotton wool and ethanol.

 Prick the finger with a lancet and press for blood to come out.
 Use Pasteur pipette to pick the blood drop on the test kit.
 Add the buffer solution and leave for 3 minutes then observe the result.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULT

If a line appears after 3 minutes on the control region, the test is negative or non-reactive. If two
lines appear on the control and test region, the test is positive or reactive.

Figure 4.4: Diagram showing sample collection for RVS test.

Figure 4.5: Diagram showing RVS test kit.

liv
4.4: WIDAL TEST

Widal test also known as typhoid fever test is a diagnostic test used to detect typhoid fever in the
body. This test was first conducted in 1896 by Georges Ferdinand Widal and was named after
him (Shahapur et al., 2021). The widal test is an advanced way to check for antibodies that the
body makes against the Salmonella bacteria that causes typhoid fever.

PRINCIPLE OF WIDAL TEST

If a particular antibody is present in the serum, it will react with a specific antigen and show
visible agglutination on the test slide.

AIM: To detect the presence of Salmonella typhi in the body of an individual.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Blood sample (serum), centrifuge, slide, mix stick, Pasteur
pipette.

PROCEDURE

 Take a blood sample from the patient into an EDTA bottle

 Centrifuge for 5 minutes to separate the blood
 Get a slide with 8 circles on it and use Pasteur pipette to take the serum and place in each
of the 8 circles
 Add a drop of the different antigens to each circles and mix both the serum and the
antigen with a mix stick carefully so that the mixture does not go out of the circle to mix
with another mixture in a different circle
 Use different mix stick for each circles
 Rock the slide in a slow circular motion to ensure a proper mixture of serum and antigen
 Leave for few minutes and observe for result.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULT

The result of the widal test is interpreted by observing and measuring the strength of the reaction
(agglutination) between the antibodies and antigens.

lv
If there is little or no agglutination in the 8 circles, then the result is negative and if there are
agglutinations in the 8 circles then the result is positive.
Note that the degree of agglutination varies, we can have 1/40, 1/80, 1/120, 1/160….

Figure 4.6: Diagram showing slide and antigen used for WIDAL test.

4.5: IMMUNIZATION

Immunization is the process of administering vaccines to children to protect them against various
infectious diseases (WHO, 2022). Vaccines are substances that stimulate the immune system to
produce an immune response, creating immunity to specific diseases.
Immunization is crucial for children as it helps prevent the spread of diseases and protects them
from potentially serious or life-threatening infections. There is a recommended schedule that
outlines the specific vaccines and the ages at which they should be administered e.g., a child is
given BCG, Hepatitis B and oral polio vaccine at birth, oral vitamin A at 6 months, yellow fever
vaccine at 9 months etc.

Some common vaccines given to children include those for diseases like measles, polio, tetanus,
pertussis (whooping cough), chicken pox, yellow fever and hepatitis B. Some vaccines require
multiple doses to ensure full protection. These doses are usually spaced out over a period to
allow the immune system to respond effectively.

lvi
lvii
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0: SUMMARY

The few months industrial training program exposed me to a lot of practical parts of the theory
previously taught in school in the aspect of microbiology.
I learnt how major diagnostic tests are being carried out to detect various kinds of infections or
diseases in the human system. The scheme has also helped me to learn how to handle laboratory
equipments and use them effectively.

During the SIWES, I was taught how to perform microscopy on samples which involves
preparing smears for staining, viewing prepared smears under the microscope and identifying
various colonies of microorganisms on culture media. I was taught how to carry out tests
involving immunochemistry which includes WIDAL, Malaria Parasite test, Retroviral Screening
(RVS), Blood grouping, Blood sugar test among others. The scheme has satisfied its objectives
not only in acquiring the practical knowledge but also increased my interpersonal relationship
with people.

The industrial training scheme increases the ability of students to perform excellently in any
organization they find themselves and teaches them how to achieve a good level of training in
such an organization. SIWES provides students with the opportunity to apply their theoretical
knowledge in a real-world setting, gain industry-specific skills, build professional networks and
boost their resumes. It also allows them to explore potential career paths and make informed
decisions about their future.

5.1: CONCLUSION

Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) plays a vital role in bridging the gap
between academic knowledge and practical skills for students. It provides students with the
opportunity to gain valuable industry experience, develop essential workplace competencies and
enhance their employability.
SIWES do not only exposes students to real-world work situations but also allows them to apply
their theoretical knowledge in a practical setting. Through work placements in various

lviii
organizations, students gain industry-specific skills, learn about professional behavior and
understand the intricacies of their chosen field.

Furthermore, SIWES fosters collaboration between educational institutions, industries and

government agencies, creating a synergy that benefits all stakeholders. This collaboration
ensures that the program remains relevant and responsive to industry needs while also providing
students with exposure to emerging sectors and technologies.

5.2: RECOMMENDATION

For better and more effective SIWES in later years, I would recommend the following.

 Government and the universities should create an avenue through which various
departments will have a direct link to industries and different organizations thereby
making it easy for students to secure placements.
 Provide students with preparatory training before they embark on their SIWES program.
This can include workshops or seminars that focus on workplace etiquette, professional
behavior, communication skills and problem-solving techniques. Such training will better
equip students to make the most of their work experience and contribute effectively to
their assigned organizations.
 Establish a robust evaluation and feedback mechanism to assess the effectiveness of the
SIWES program. Regular surveys or feedback sessions with students, industry
supervisors and educational institutions can help identify areas for improvement and
ensure that the program is meeting its objectives.

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