UNIT - I

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is an efficient means (tool) of analysis of systems involving fluid flow, heat transfer
and other associated phenomenons such as chemical reactions, by means of computer-based simulation. CFD technique is
very powerful and has found application in a wide range of industrial and non-industrial application areas. Some examples
are:
➢ Combustion in IC Engines and Gas turbines.
➢ Aerodynamics of aircraft and vehicles: lift and drag.
➢ Hydrodynamics of ships.
➢ Turbo-machinery: water turbines and pumps.
➢ Electrical and electronic engineering: cooling of equipment including micro-circuits.
➢ Chemical process engineering: mixing and separation, polymer moulding.
➢ Marine engineering: loads on off-shore structures.
➢ Hydrology and oceanography: flows in rivers, oceans.
➢ Biomedical engineering: blood flows through arteries and veins.
• CFD could also be defined as an extension of classical fluid dynamics, originating from the merging of classical fluid
dynamics and numerical analysis supported by powerful digital computers. A primary difference between CFD methods
and approximate methods of classical fluid dynamics: The model equations and initial boundary conditions are solved
in CFD numerically exact methods, without introducing any further approximation. By sufficient refinement of the mesh
system, the computed solutions are expected to approach the exact solution. This is not true in case of approximate
methods of classical fluid dynamics, which introduce approximations to the model equations and boundary conditions
which are then solved by approximate methods.
• Moreover, there are several unique advantages of CFD over experiment-based approaches to fluid system design:
➢ Substantial reduction in time and costs of new designs.
➢ Ability to study very large system.
➢ Ability to study under hazardous conditions.
➢ Practically unlimited level of detail of results.
• The variable cost of an experiment, in terms of facility hire and person-hours costs, is proportional to the number of
configurations tested and results obtained. In contrast, CFD codes can produce extremely large volume of results at
virtually no added expense, and it is very cheap to perform parametric (variables) studies, for optimise equipment
performance.
• Today, CFD is an equal partner with pure theory and pure experiment in the analysis and in the solution of fluid
dynamic problems. However, to keep things perspective, CFD provides a new third approach but nothing more than
that. It nicely and successfully complements the other two approaches of pure theory and pure experiment, but it will
never replace either of these approaches. In other words, CFD bridges the gap between the theory and practical.
(1.1)
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.2) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Fig. 1.1

1.1.1 CFD as a Research and Design Tool

• Advanced mathematical methods offer opportunities for an in-depth analysis, optimization and examination of various
options in order to increase the overall efficiency of the energy facilities. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
technique, as a powerful engineering tool, has been extensively used for modelling and investigation of operational
behaviour of thermal energy systems, but it has been used in academia for a long time, too. Advanced CFD techniques
help researchers in performing research work efficiently and in interpretation of test results. The improved solver
technologies and outstanding modelling possibilities also support teaching of numerical analysis and application
fundamentals for a broad range of disciplines within the thermal power and environmental engineering.
• Within several examples, the capabilities of CFD technique are demonstrated in connection with certain specific issues:
enabling realistic physical representation of the geometry and the aerodynamic processes occurring in the analyzed
object, comparing different approaches to describe the turbulence, ability to analyze the combustion process at
different levels depending on the specific needs, evaluation of the impact of the applied thermal radiation model on
the overall results
• The importance of energy as an essential factor for economic growth, as well as for overall social development is well
known. Advanced modelling techniques, such as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), have reached a remarkable
development and are already well established as very useful tools for solving different energy and environmental
problems. They are particularly suitable for prediction of aerodynamics and thermal processes (fuel burnout, heat
transfer, formation and reduction of pollutants) in combustion plants. In combination with experimental research
and/or on-site measurements, they offer multiple benefits: cost and time reduction, possibility to reproduce the
operating conditions, as well as detailed insight into the complex interacting physical phenomena and chemical
reactions determining the combustion process.
• The CFD significantly facilitate the investigation of the influence of various process and design parameters, such as fuel
properties, air and fuel inlet redistribution, combustor geometry (furnace shape, air and fuel distribution openings,
layout of air staging nozzles, recirculation holes), burner design, flame-wall interaction phenomena, heat transfer
degradation, slagging propensity etc. to the overall combustion efficiency and, consequently, to the plant efficiency
and the emission of pollutants.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.3) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

• A comprehensive historical review of the modelling approaches and techniques of solid fuels combustion systems is
given in. Different standpoints, objectives, advantages and shortcomings of some particular modelling approaches for
two-phase flow, turbulence, combustion and thermal radiation are discussed in. Nowadays efforts of the researchers
are concentrated in some general directions: improvement of the fundamental models of the complex phenomena that
occur in the combustion systems, detailed mathematical description of physical and chemical processes in certain
specific conditions and accurate extrapolation of research results to industrial applications. The permanent progress in
computers capability has enabled development and application of massive mathematical models of turbulent flows
and thermal processes in the combustion systems and extensive use of CFD techniques with quite sat is factory results.
• Comprehensive 3-D models of industrial-scale combustors have been developed and successfully applied for years
now. There are also combinations of original models of separate processes and existing computational codes.
Numerical codes that describe the processes in combustion plants, based on a solution of differential conservation
equations, have been a subject of numerous investigations.
• A comprehensive overview of different turbulence modelling approaches, including some widely known and applied
(k-ε turbulence model, Spalart-Allmaras, LES, DNS etc.) and some specific (two-scale second-moment one-point
turbulence closure, rescale dv2-f model etc.) is given in. Despite some weaknesses when applied to flows with strong
streamline curvature, as in significant recirculation regions or the near-burner area of swirl burners, the k-ε turbulence
model, or some derivatives, like RNG k-ε model or k- ε -k p two-phase turbulence model, are often used in
combustion systems, mostly due to the simplicity. Very often, the standard k-ω model, based on Kolmogorov’s work
(1942), is employed as a reasonable compromise. Gas phase conservation equations are mostly used as time averaged,
but some prefer the Favre-averaged equations instead. Two-phase flow is usually described by Eulerian-Lagrangian
approach and PSI-CELL method for taking into account the influences between phases. Usually the combustion sub-
models separately treat the releasing of volatiles, char oxidation and gas phase reactions, like in. Thermal radiation in
the furnaces is modelled by means of various approaches, like discrete transfer method, so called P-1 model as a
variation of the P-N model, the six-fluxes method, Monte Carlo method, or discrete ordinates method. Generally, a
comprehensive model of the furnace processes must balance sub-models sophistication with computational
practicality

1.2 CFD CODES

• CFD codes are structured around the numerical technique (algorithms) that can tackle fluid flow and temperature
related problems. In order to provide easy access, all CFD packages include sophisticated user interface to input
problem parameters (such as T, V, P) and to examine the results. Hence all codes contain three main elements:
(i) A pre-processor
(ii) A solver
(iii) A post-processor. Now we will discuss the function of each element.
(i) Pre-processor
• Pre-processing consists of the input (known data) of a flow problem to a CFD program by means of an operator-
friendly interface and the subsequent transformation of this input into a form suitable for use by the solver. Pre-
processing involves:
➢ Defining of the geometry of the region of interest: Computational domain.
➢ Grid generation: The sub-division of the domain into a number of smaller, non-overlapping sub-domains; a grid
(or mesh) of cells (control volumes or elements)
➢ Selection of the physical and chemical phenomenons that need to be modeled.
➢ Selection of appropriate boundary conditions at cells.
• The accuracy of a CFD solution is governed by the number of cells, in the domain. In general, the larger the number of
cells, better the solution accuracy. Both the accuracy of a solution and its cost in terms of necessary computer
hardware and calculation time are dependent on the fineness of the grid. At present, it is still up-to the skills of the CFD
user to design a grid that is a suitable compromise between desired accuracy and solution cost.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.4) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

(ii) Solver
• Solver analyses the problem using numerical techniques. There are three distinct methods of numerical solution
techniques: finite difference, finite element and spectral methods. Finite volume method, a special finite difference
formulation that is used in the most well-established CFD codes CFX/ANSYS, Fluent, STAR-CD. In short, the numerical
techniques (algorithm) consist of the following steps:
➢ Integration of the governing equations of the fluid flow over all the control volumes of the domain.
➢ Discretisation conversion of the integral equations into a system of algebraic equations.
➢ Solution of the algebraic equations by an iterative method.
(iii) Post-Processor
• Post processing involves: (i) Domain geometry (ii) vector plots (iii) line and shaded contour plots (iv) particle tracking
(v) view manipulation (vi) colour post script output. These facilities may also include animation for dynamic result
display.
• However, the main ingredients for success in CFD are experience and a thorough understanding of the physics of fluid
flow and the fundamentals of the numerical algorithms.
• CFD codes contain discretisation techniques suitable for the treatment of the key transport phenomena, convection
(transport due to fluid flow) and diffusion (transport due to variations of any property φ from point to point) as well as
the source terms (associated with the creation or destruction of φ) and the rate of change with respect to time.
• During the last 35 years CFD made impressive progress, and several powerful computational methods have come up
during this period, the most prominent being the finite difference method, finite element method, finite volume
method and spectral method. All these methods discretised the problem so that solvable systems of algebraic
equations are obtained, the number of equations being equal to the number of discrete points in the domain. The
resulting algebraic system is linear if the original problem is linear otherwise a system of nonlinear equations is
obtained, which is then solved by a standard numerical method on a digital computer. In general, CFD analysis is done
in following steps:
For a Given Problem:
➢ Define material properties: (i) Fluid (ii) Solid.
➢ Select appropriate physical model:
(i) Turbulence
(ii) Combustion
(iii) Multiphase.
➢ Prescribe operating conditions.
➢ Prescribe boundaries conditions at all boundary zones.
➢ Provide initial values or a previous solution.
➢ Set-up solver control, set-up convergence, Monitor.
Visualization Tools (Monitor) can be used to, Particularly in Fluid Flow Problems.
➢ What is the overall flow pattern?
➢ Is there any separation of fluid in flow region?
➢ Where do shocks, shear layers etc. form?
➢ Are key features being resolved?
Numerical Reporting Tools can be used for
➢ Forces and Momentum, Average Heat Transfer coefficient.
➢ Surface and volume integrated quantities, flux balance.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.5) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

1.3 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME

• Consider a flow field as represented by the streamlines in Fig. 1.2. Let us consider a closed volume (V) drawn within a
finite region of flow. This volume is enclosed by a surface known as control surface (S). The control volume may be
fixed in space and fluid is flowing through it as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a). It could also be said that the control volume may
be moving with the fluid such that the same fluid always remains inside it. Here, it could be suggested that the control
volume is a finite region of flow.
• The basic physical principles can be applied to the fluid present inside the control volume (CV). Therefore instead of
looking at the whole field at once, with the control volume model we limit our attention to the fluid in the finite region
of control volume.

Fig. 1.2 : General Flow Field

• The fluid flow equations which are directly obtained by applying basic physical principles to a finite control volume are
in integral form. These integral forms of the governing equations can be manipulated to indirectly obtain partial
differential equations. The equations so obtained from the finite control volume fixed in space (left side of Fig. 1.2 (a))
are called the conservation form of the governing equations. The equations obtained from the control volume moving
with the fluid (right side of Fig 1.2 (a)), in either integral or partial differential form are called the non-conservation
form of the governing equations.
1.3.1 Infinite Control Volume
• Now consider flow field as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b). Now we assume an infinitesimally small fluid volume (dV). But this
small fluid volume contains large number of molecules so that it could be considered as continuous medium. The fluid
element may be fixed in space with the fluid moving through it (left side of Fig. 1.2 (b)) or it may be moving along a
streamline with a velocity vector V equal to the flow velocity at each point. Again instead of looking at the whole field
at once, the basic physical principles are applied to just the infinitesimally small fluid element itself.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.6) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

• The equations so obtained from the fluid element fixed in space (left side of Fig. 1.2 (a)) are called the conservation
form of the governing equations. The equations obtained from the fluid element moving with the fluid (right side of
Fig. 1.2 (a)), in either integral or partial differential form are called the non-conservation form of the governing
equations.
• In the above discussion, we discussed the concept that the governing equations can be expressed in two general
forms-conservation form and non–conservation form. Now, we will make differentiation between them. In general, for
aerodynamic theory whether we deal with conservation or non-conservation form of the equations is irrelevant. By
simple manipulation, one form can be obtained from the other. However, there are cases in CFD where it is important
which form to be used.

1.4 VELOCITY GRADIENT

• To describe the motion of a fluid particle in quantitative terms, we introduce Cartesian co-ordinates and consider the
spatial variation (space co-ordinates) of the velocity (V = ui + vj + wk) in the neighbourhood (x) of a point (x0) within a
flow field. We introduce the velocity gradient or rate of relative displacement matrix ∇V, with components.

 
∂u ∂v ∂w
∂x ∂x ∂x

∇V =
 ∂u ∂v ∂w 

 ∂u∂y ∂y ∂y

 ∂z ∂v
∂z ∂z 
∂w

∂ ∂ ∂
where ∇ = i +j +k ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
V = ui + vj + wk
In physical terms, the velocity gradient expresses the spatial variation of the velocity across point particles composing
flow field. In formal mathematics, the velocity gradient is the tensor product of the gradient vector operator (∇) and
the velocity vector (V). Gradient of a scalar (φ) is written as
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z

1.5 DIVERGENCE OF THE VELOCITY

• Consider a control volume (CV) in a flow field, moving with fluid as shown in Fig. 1.3. This CV will always keep the same
fluid particle as it moves with the flow, with respect to time (∆t). However, its volume (V) and control surface (S) hence
shapes, will change with time at different locations. Now consider an infinitesimal small element of the surface (dS)
moving with velocity (V). The change (∆V) in the volume (V) of control volume due to the movement of (dS) over a
time-period (∆t) is equal to the volume of a thin cylinder with base area (dS) and height (V∆t) ⋅ n, where n is a unit
vector perpendicular to the surface(dS).
Hence, ∆V = {(V∆t) ⋅n} dS = (V∆t) dS
where vector dS = n⋅dS …(1.1)

Fig. 1.3 : Moving Control Volume

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.7) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

During the time-interval ∆t, total change in the whole volume (V) is the summation of above equation (1.1) over the total
control surface. In the limit as dS → 0, the sum becomes surface integral

∆V = ∫∫ (V∆t) ⋅dS
On dividing both the sides by ∆t
DV 1
Dt
=
∆t
∫∫ (V∆t) ⋅dS = ∫∫ (V) ⋅dS …(1.2)

Applying the divergence theorem from vector calculus to the right side of equation (1.2)
DV
Dt
= ∫∫∫V (∇⋅V) dV
If we assume that the moving control volume reduces to a very small volume (δV), then
D (δV)
Dt
= ∫∫∫δV (∇ . V) dV
Or it could be written as
D (δV)
= (∇⋅V) δV
Dt

1 D (δV)
∇⋅V =
δV Dt

∇⋅V is physically the time rate of change of the volume moving fluid element per unit volume.

The left hand side of this equation is called divergence of the velocity. Also the sum of the diagonal elements of velocity
gradient (∇V) is equal to the divergence of the velocity (∇⋅V). The divergence of the velocity expresses the rate of
expansion of the fluid.
∂u ∂v ∂w
∇⋅V = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

1.6 SUBSTANTIAL DERIVATIVE

Sum of local derivative   and convective derivative (V⋅∇) in a flow field is known as substantial or total derivative
∂  D .
∂t Dt
 D  =  ∂  + (V⋅∇)
Dt ∂t
For example

Du = ∂u + V⋅∇u,

 Dt   ∂t 
∂ ∂ ∂
where ∇ = i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z

or Total Derivative
Du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
= +u +v +w
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

Curl of Velocity

• Curl of a velocity represents the rigid body rotation part of the velocity gradient near a point. Actually a differential
change of velocity near a point is divided into three parts, linear translation rigid body rotation deformation = linear
deformation + angular deformation so the rigid body rotation part is termed as curl of velocity.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.8) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

1.7 GOVERNING EQUATIONS OF FLUID FLOW

The governing equations of fluid flow represent mathematical statements of the basic laws of the physics. They are

• The mass of a fluid is conserved.

• Newton’s second law of motion which states that the rate of change of momentum equals the sum of the forces on a
fluid particle.

• Application of first law of Thermodynamics: According to this rate of change of energy is equal to the sum of the rate
of heat addition to and the rate of work done on a fluid particle.

The fluid will be regarded as a continuum. Here we will describe the behaviour of the fluid in terms of macroscopic
properties, such as velocity, pressure, density, temperature and their space and time derivatives.

From kinetic theory of substances, the properties of fluids such as dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity, are related.
The Newtonian model is the simplest one, which holds true for a parallel flow. Stokes, an English scientist, extended it to a
general flow. For shear stresses and normal stresses, he suggested

τxy = µ
∂u + ∂v
∂y ∂x

and
∂u
τxx = –p + 2µ + µ'
∂u + ∂v + ∂w
∂x  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Where µ' is another constant.

1.8 MASS CONSERVATION EQUATION IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Velocity of fluid particle at any point in a flow field is given by V = ui + vj + wk. We consider a small element of fluid with
sides δx, δy and δz as shown in Fig. 1.4. The centre of the element is located at position of O (x, y, z).

Now mass balance for the face ABCD,

∂ (ρu) 1
Mass entering in X-direction = ρu – ∂x
∂x 2

Mass coming out from the face PQRS in X –direction

∂(ρu) 1
= ρu + ∂x
∂x 2

Similarly we can write for the other directions.

∂ ∂ρ
The rate of increase of mass in the fluid element is (ρδxδyδz) = (δxδyδz). The pressure at the ABCD and PQRS faces
∂t δt
1
which are both at a distance of δx from the element centre, can be expressed as
2
δp 1
P– δx and
δx 2
∂p 1
P+ δx
∂x 2

From Fig. 1.4 it can be seen that the net rate of flow of mass into the element across its boundaries is given by

ρu – ∂ (ρu) 1 δx δyδz – ρu + ∂ (ρu) 1 δx δyδx + ρv + ∂(ρv) 1 δy δxδz – ρv – ∂(ρv) 1 δy δxδz + ρw + ∂(ρw) 1 δz
 ∂x 2   ∂x 2   ∂y 2   ∂y 2   ∂z 2 

δyδx – ρw –
∂(ρw) 1 
δz δyδx =
∂ρ
(δxδyδz)
 ∂z 2  ∂t
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.9) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Fig. 1.4 : Fluid Element

Flows which are entering into the element get a positive sign and the flows which are leaving the element are given
negative sign. The rate of increase of mass inside the element is now equated to the net rate of flow of mass into the
element across its faces. On solving
∂ρ ∂(ρu) ∂ (ρv) ∂(ρw)
+ + + = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
In vector notation
∂ρ
+ div (ρV) = 0 …(1.3)
∂t
where velocity at any point in space
V = ui + vj + wk
Equation (1.3) is the unsteady, 3-D mass conservation or continuity equation at a point in compressible fluid. The first term
on the left hand side is the rate of change in time of the density (mass per unit volume). The second term describes the net
flow of mass out of the element across its boundaries and is called convective term.
For an incompressible fluid (ρ = Constant) such as water, equation (1.3) becomes in steady state
div V = 0 or ∇⋅V = 0
∂u ∂v ∂w
or + + = 0 …(1.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Dφ
The total or substantive derivative of any property (φ) with respect to time following a fluid particle, written as is
Dt
Dφ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
= +u +v +w
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Also it could be written as
Dφ ∂φ
= + V⋅ grad φ
Dt ∂t

1.9 STRESS AND STRAIN

• We know that the stress at any point in the flow region is defined by the first derivative of velocity, which is a vector
quantity. From vectors we know that a derivative of a vector makes it a tensor of order 2. Thus, a stress of order 2 will
have 9 components.

τ xx τxy τxz

τ yx τyy τyz 
τ zx τzy τzz 
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.10) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

where τ is the symbol for stress. Double subscript notation is used with first subscription for the face on which stress acts
and the second subscript for the direction in which it acts. For example, τxz is the stress on x-face in z-direction Fig. 1.5.
Diagonal elements represent the components acting normal to the surface; whereas the off-diagonal components act in
the surface and are named shear stress.

Fig. 1.5
The diagonal elements (τxx, τyy, τzz) in general, are not equal in magnitude. We define their average as the thermodynamic
pressure (which will always be compressive) at the point to which the volume element would shrunk in the limit. Thus
(τxx + τyy + τzz)
p =
3

We may similarly define strain components for fluid too, representing it by symbol σ. However, there is one significant
difference between the behaviour of solid and fluid. When a shear force is applied to a solid, it deforms and stays in
deformed position so long the force acts and comes back to original position on removal of force. Fluids on the contrary,
deform continuously even if an infinitesimal shear force acts on it. Therefore we use time strain instead of strain. It is
∂u
nothing but the velocity gradient . The corresponding strain rate
∂y

σ xx σxy σxz

σ yx σyy σyz 
σ zx σzy σzz 
A fluid is said to be isotropic when these relation do not depend on the direction of axes and homogeneous when it is
independent of the position of the fluid particle in the fluid region. We may establish that the stress tensor is symmetric,
which means the off-diagonal elements are equal, i.e. τxy = τyz. In such cases the tensor components are reduced from 9 to
4 three shear stress τxy, τxz, τyz and one pressure component.

1.10 MOMENTUM EQUATION IN THREE DIMENSIONS

• Newton’s second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a fluid particle equals the sum of the
forces acting on the fluid particle.

• Rate of increase of momentum of fluid particle = Sum of forces on fluid particle.

Du Dv Dw
• The rate of increase of x-, y- and z- momentum per unit volume of a fluid particle are given by ρ , ρ and ρ .
Dt Dt Dt

• We distinguish two types of forces on fluid particles:

(i) Surface Forces :

(a) Pressure forces

(b) Viscous forces

(c) Gravity forces

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.11) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

(ii) Body Forces :

(a) Centrifugal forces
(b) Electromagnetic forces
(c) Coriolis forces
• It is common practice to highlight the contributions due to the surface forces as separate terms in the momentum
equation and to include the effect of body forces as source terms. The pressure, a normal stress, is denoted by ‘p’.
Viscous stresses are denoted by 'τ'. The τij indicates the stress component acts in the j-direction on a surface normal to
i-direction.
• First we consider the x- components of the forces due to pressure p and stress components τxx, τyxτzx and shown in
Fig. 1.6. The magnitude of a force resulting from a surface stress is the product of stress and area. Forces in the positive
direction of the co-ordinate axis get positive sign and those in the opposite direction, a negative sign. Thus the net
force in the x-direction is the sum of the forces acting in that direction on the fluid particle. On the pair of faces (E and
W faces) in x-direction.
p – ∂p 1 δx – τ – ∂τxx 1 δxδyδz – p + ∂p 1 δx+ τ + ∂τxx 1 δxδyδz = – ∂p +∂τxxδxδyδz
  …(1.5)
  ∂x  2   xx  ∂x  2    ∂x  2   xx  ∂x  2   ∂x ∂x 

Fig. 1.6 : Stress Components

The net force on the pair of faces (N and S faces) in x-direction
 ∂τyx 1   τ∂τyx 1  ∂τyx
– τyx – δyδxδz + τyx + δyδxδz = δxδyδz …(1.6)
 ∂y 2   ∂y 2  ∂y
Finally the net force in the x-direction on faces (Top and Bottom)
 ∂τzx 1   ∂τzx 1  ∂τzx
– τzx – δzδxδy + τzx + δzδxδy = δxδyδz …(1.7)
 ∂z 2   ∂z 2  ∂z
The total force per unit volume on the fluid due to these surface stresses is equal to the sum of equations (1.5), (1.6) and
(1.7) divided by the volume δxδyδz.
∂(–p + τxx) ∂τyz ∂τzx
+ +
∂x ∂y ∂z
The x-component of the momentum equation is found by setting the rate of change of x-momentum of the fluid particle
without considering the body forces. Total force in the x-direction due to surfaces stresses plus the rate of increase of x-
momentum due to source SMX (body force).
Du ∂ (–p + τxx) ∂τyz ∂τzx
ρ = + + + SMX
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.12) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Similarly y-component and z-component

Dv ∂ (–p + τyy) ∂τxy ∂τzy
ρ = + + + SMY
Dt ∂y ∂x ∂z
Dw ∂ (–p + τzz) ∂τyz ∂τxz
ρ = + + + SMZ
Dt ∂z ∂y ∂x
The sign associated with the pressure is opposite to that associated with normal viscous stress, because the usual sign
convention takes a tensile stress to be the positive normal stress so that the pressure, which is by default compressive
normal stress, has a minus sign.

1.11 ENERGY EQUATION IN THREE DIMENSIONS

• The energy equation is derived from the first law of Thermodynamics, which states that the rate of change of energy of
a fluid particle is equal to the rate of heat addition to the fluid particle plus the rate of work done on the particle.
Rate of increase of energy = Net rate of heat added to + Net rate of work done on fluid of fluid particle fluid
particle element due to body and surface forces
DE
Now we will derive rate of increase of energy of a fluid particle per unit volume, ρ .
Dt
(i) Work Done by Surface Forces
The rate of work done on the fluid particle in the element by a surface force is equal to the product of the force and
velocity component in the direction of the force.
The net rate of work done by these surface forces acting in the x-direction is given by
d (u (– p + τxx)) + ∂(uτyx) + ∂(uτzx)δxδyδz …(1.8)
 dx ∂y ∂z 
Similarly in y- and z-directions
∂(vτxy) + d(v(–p + τyy)) + ∂(vτzy)δxδyδz …(1.9)
 ∂x dy ∂z 

and
∂((wτxz)) + ∂(wτyz) + ∂(w (– p + τzz))δxδyδz …(1.10)
 ∂x ∂z ∂z 
The total rate of work done per unit volume on the fluid particle by all the surface forces is given by the sum of equations
(1.8), (1.9) and (1.10) divided by the volume of fluid element δx δy δz. In vector form, terms containing pressure
∂ (up) ∂ (vp) ∂ (wp)
– – – = – div (pV)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Now total rate of work done on the fluid particle by surface stresses
∂(uτxx) ∂(uτyx) ∂(uτzx) ∂(vτxy) ∂(vτyy) ∂(vτzy) ∂(wτxz)
= – div (pV) + + + + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
∂(wτyz) ∂(wτzz)
+ + …(1.11)
∂y ∂z
(ii) Energy due to Heat Conduction: The heat flux vector q has three components qx, qy and qz. The net rate of heat
transfer to the fluid particle due to heat flow in the x-direction is given by the difference between the rate of heat input
across face W and the rate of heat loss across face E.
q – ∂qx 1 δx – q + ∂qx 1 δxδyδz = – ∂qxδxδyδz
 x ∂x 2   x ∂x 2 
  ∂x
Similarly in y- and z- directions
∂qy
= – δx δy δz
∂x
∂qz
= – δx δy δz
∂x
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.13) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Total rate of heat added to the fluid particle per unit volume is given by
∂qx ∂qy ∂qz
– – – = – div q …(1.12)
∂x ∂y ∂z
From Fouriers law of heat conduction, we know
∂T ∂T ∂T
qx = – k , q = – k , qz = – k
∂x y ∂y ∂z

In vector form

–q = –k grad T …(1.13)

where q = qxi + qyj + qzk

Combining equations (1.12) and (1.13) we get heat conduction across element

– div q = div (k grad T)

(iii) Energy Equation


The energy of a fluid element (E) is defined as the sum of internal (thermal) energy (I), kinetic energy k =
1 2 2 2 
(u + v + w )
 2 
and gravitational potential energy (z). It is due to the reason because fluid element stores gravitational energy, within it. It
is also valid as with regard to the gravitational force as body force, which does work on the fluid element as it moves
through the gravity field.

Here we will include the effects of potential energy changes as a source term which we define as source of energy (SE) per
unit volume per unit time. Thus energy of fluid particle is equal to the rate of change of energy of the fluid element which
is the sum of the net rate of work done on the fluid particle, net rate of heat addition to fluid element and the rate of
increase of energy due to sources. Hence Energy Equation

DE ∂(uτxx) ∂(uτyx) ∂(uτzx) ∂(vτxy) ∂(vτyy) ∂(vτzy) ∂(wτxz)

ρ = – div (pV) + + + + + + +
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
∂(wτyz) ∂(wτzz)
+ + + div (k grad T) + SE
∂y ∂z

Here we have E = i+
1 (u2 + v2 + w2)
2 
i = internal (thermal) energy per unit volume

1.11.1 Boundary Conditions

Up till now we have derived all the governing equations related to fluid flows. The time has come to turn our attention to
the issue of the initial and boundary conditions to construct a well defined mathematical model of a fluid flow. First of all
we will categorise physical behaviour of flow in two sub-categories (i) Equilibrium problems (ii) Marching problems.

(i) Equilibrium Problems : The problems in first category are steady state situation, e.g. the steady state distribution of
temperature in a rod of solid material, steady fluid flows. The Laplace’s equation which describes irrotational flow of an
incompressible fluid and steady state conduction heat transfer. In 2-dimensions we have
2 2
∂T ∂T
2 + 2 = 0
∂x ∂y

A very simple example of an equilibrium problem is the steady state heat conduction in an insulated rod of metal whose
ends at x = 0 and x = L are kept at constant but different, temperatures T0 and TL.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.14) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Fig. 1.7
2
∂T
This problem is one-dimensional and governed by the equation k 2 = 0. Under the given boundary conditions the
∂x
temperature distribution in the x-direction will be a straight line. Problems requiring data over the entire boundary are
called boundary-value problems.
(ii) Marching Problems: Under this category we have transient heat transfer, unsteady flows and wave phenomenon.
These problems are generally governed by parabolic or hyperbolic equations.
Let us consider time-dependent conduction equation which is parabolic in character.
2
∂T ∂T
= α 2 …(1.14)
∂t ∂x
The transient distribution of temperature (T) in an insulated rod whose ends (x = 0 and x = L) are kept at constant and
equal temperatures (T0) is governed by above diffusion equation. This problem comes into existence when initial source is
switched off at time (t = 0) and rod cools down. Here temperature distribution is a parabola with maximum temperature at
(x = L/2), as shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8
The solution of diffusion equation (1.14) yields the exponential decay of initial temperature distribution. Initial conditions
are needed in the entire rod and conditions on all its boundaries are required for all times (t > 0). This typeof problem is
known as initial boundary value problem.

1.12 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL FORMS OF THE GENERAL GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Let us take momentum equation in x-direction
Du ∂ (–p + τxx) ∂τyz ∂τzx
ρ = + + + SMx
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(ρu) ∂p
Or + div (ρuV) = – + div (µ grad u) + SMx …(1.15)
∂x ∂x
Equation (1.15) is called transport equation. It clearly highlights the various transport processes: the rate of change of term
(any property) and the convective term on the left side and the diffusive term and the source term on the right hand side.
This equation is used as the starting point for computational procedures in the finite volume method. The key step of the
finite volume method is the integration of equation (1.15) over a 3-D control volume.

⌠ ∂(ρu)
⌡ ∂t dV + ⌠
⌡ div (ρu) dV = ⌠
⌡ div (grad u) dV + ⌠
⌡ SMxdV …(1.16)
cv cv cv cv
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.15) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

The volume integrals in the second term on the left hand side, the convective term, and in the first term on the right hand
side, the diffusive term, are rewritten as integrals over the bounding surface of the control volume. We have from Gauss’s
divergence theorem

⌠ div (B) dV = ⌠ (n ⋅B)A

⌡ ⌡
cv A

The physical interpretation of (n ⋅ B) is the component of vector (B) in the direction of the vector(n) normal to the surface
element dA. Thus the integral of the divergence of a vector (B) over a volume is equal to the component of (B) in the
direction normal to the surface which bounds the volume summed (integrated) over the bounding surface A. Using Gauss’s
divergence theorem, equation (1.16) could be written as

∂ ⌠ ∂(ρu)  ⌠ ⌠ ⌠
∂t⌡ ∂t
dV + ⌡ n⋅ (ρV) dV = ⌡ div (grad u) dV + ⌡ SMxdV …(1.17)
 cv  cv cv cv

The order of integration and differentiation has been changed in the first term on the left hand side equation (1.16) to
illustrate its physical meaning. This term signifies the rate of change of the total amount of fluid property (u) in the control
volume.
There is substantial amount of difference between the integral and differential forms of the governing flow equations. The
integral form of the equations permits the discontinuities inside the fixed control volume and this discontinuity does not
provide any inherent to mathematics of governing equations. However, the differential forms of the governing equations
presume that the flow properties are differential, hence continuous. This is the reason by virtue of which integral form of
the equations to be considered more fundamental than the differential form. This aspect becomes very significant when
calculating a flow with real discontinuities, such as shock waves.
Differential approach is followed when a designer is interested in knowing velocity, pressure and temperature throughout
the flow region. However for engineers the overall effect matters more than the total solution of the flow and in that case
we consider mass, momentum and energy efflux from the surface of the control volume and relate it to time rate of change
of these quantities for the control volume. Such approach leads to integral equations.

1.13 NAVIER-STOKE’S MODEL

A viscous flow is one where phenomenon of friction, thermal conduction and mass diffusion are considered. The transport
of these phenomenons is considered as dissipative in nature, because they are irreversible in nature or in other words,
increases the entropy of the flow system.
The equation of motion for an incompressible fluid takes the form of second order partial differential equation in space for
velocity, called the Navier–Stoke’s equation. Supplementing the Navier–Stoke’s equation with the continuity equation to
ensure mass conservation, and then introducing appropriate initial and boundary conditions, we obtain a complete set of
governing equations.
2 2 2
ρ
∂u + u ∂u + v∂u + w ∂u = – ∂p + µ∂ u2 + ∂ u2 + ∂ u2 + ρx …(a)
 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
2 2 2
ρ
∂v + u ∂v + v∂v + w ∂v = – ∂p + µ∂ v2 + ∂ v2 + ∂ v2+ ρy …(b)
 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z 
2 2 2
ρ
∂w + u ∂w + v∂w + w ∂w = – ∂p + µ∂ w2 + ∂ w2 + ∂ w2  + ρz …(c) (1.18)
 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
In general
DV 2
ρ = – ∇⋅ p + µ∇ V + ρB
Dt
where B is the body force per unit mass and
X, Y and Z are its components or B = Xi + Yj + kZ
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.16) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
2
When the viscous force (∇ V) on the right hand side of above equation is negligible, the Navier–Stoke’s equation reduces
to Euler’s equation.
DV
ρ = – ∇p + ρB
Dt
This is strictly applicable for in-viscid fluids. One important difference between the Euler’s equation and the Navier–Stoke’s
equation is that the former is first order differential equation while the letter is a second order differential equation.
1.13.1 Control Volume Approach
In differential approach, the results of the differential equation are applicable to every point in the flow region. The
advantage of such approach is the detailed analysis and we know all the parameters of interest at each point. However, the
approach is rigorous, time consuming and requires a large computing memory.
In thermodynamics, we study closed and open system, most popularly known as control volume. In the control volume
approach, a fixed region, bounded by control surface, is marked in which the mass and energy flow in or out of the control
surface. Therefore the identity of the particles changes with time. Whether the mass changes or remains constant with time
depends on the rate of mass flow across its surface. If the net mass flow rate was zero then the mass would not change.
Under steady conditions both the mass and energy of the control volume remains invariant with time.
Let ∆V be the volume of control volume having density ρ. Then the mass conservation for the control volume can be
written as
D (ρ∆V)
= 0
Dt
1.13.2 Integral Approach
So far we have discussed the differential approach and expressed the conservation of mass in the differential equation
form which is valid at every point in the flow region. For integral approach, we may consider a control volume and
determine the net mass efflux from its control surface and equate it to the rate of change of mass of the control volume.
–
Consider a control volume with a small area element dA on its control surface,
–
The efflux from the control surface S is ∫∫ ρV ⋅ dA where V is the velocity of fluid particle at any point in space.
S

We may also find out the rate of change of mass of the control volume by dividing the control volume into small volume
∂
elements, each of volume dV and sum up their masses to give total mass at a time. Then the rate of accumulation is ∫∫∫
∂t V
ρdV. The mass of conservation demands the total rate of change of mass to be zero. This gives the integral form of the
continuity.

Fig. 1.9 : Integral Approach

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.17) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

∂ –
∫∫∫ ρ dV + ∫∫ ρ V⋅A = 0
∂t V
…(1.19)
S

The surface integral can be changed to volume integral using the Gauss divergence theorem. This gives

∫∫∫  ∂t + ∇⋅ (ρV)dV
∂ρ
= 0
V

∂ρ
or + ∇⋅ (ρV) = 0
∂t
This result is same as continuity equation for unsteady state. This explains that the results are independent of the solution
technique followed.

SOLVED EXAMPLE
3
Example 1.1: Water enters a rectangular duct at a rate of 10 m /s as shown in Fig. 1.10. Two of the faces of the duct are
porous. On the upper face, water is added at a rate shown by parabolic curve, while on the front face water leaves at a rate
determined linearly by the distance from the end. The maximum values of both rates are given in the Fig. 1.10. What is the
2
average velocity of water leaving the duct if the duct is 1m long and has a cross-sectional area of 0.1m .
Solution :

Fig. 1.10

Let the distance y be measured from the upper cross section. For the parabolic curve, we assume profile for discharge
2 dQ
Q = A + By + Cy where A, B and C are the constant which could be determined from the conditions – y = 0, = 0 and
dy
3 2
y = 1 and Q = 3 m /s. This gives Q = 3y . Similarly, at the front end the discharge can be represented by the linear equation
3
Q = A+ B y with the conditions that at y = 0, Q = 5 m /s and at y = 1m, Q = 0. This gives the form Q = 5 – 5y.
The problem can be solved by using the integral form of the mass balance applied to the control volume made from the
interior of the duct of constant cross–section and assuming steady conditions so that change in the mass of the control
volume is zero.
1 1

We get – 10 – ⌡
⌠ 3y2dy + ⌠ (5 – 5y) dy + V × 0.1 = 0
⌡
0 0

V = 85m/s

1.14 DISCRETIZATION METHODS FOR THE CFD (FDM, FVM, FEM, HYBRID METHODS)
• The numerical solution of differential equations cannot produce a continuous distribution of the variables over the
solution domain, thus the aim instead becomes to produce a set of discrete values at a number of nodes that cover the
solution domain. There are however, different ways to approximate the flow variables:
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.18) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

(a) Finite Difference Method (FDM): Describes an

unknown variable ϕ by means of point samples at node
points. Truncated Taylor series expansions are used to
generate finite difference approximations to the
derivatives of ϕ at each grid point and its immediate
neighbours. This method is discussed in more depth in
future posts.

Advantage

• Ease of implementation.

Disadvantage

• Restricted to simple grids and does not conserve

momentum, energy, and mass on coarse grids. Fig. 1.11

(b) Finite Element Method (FEM): Uses simple piece-wise function (A piece-wise function is a function whose definition
changes depending on the value of the independent variable), valid on individual elements to describe the local
variation of ϕ. The governing equations are precisely satisfied by the exact solution of ϕ. As a result, one can obtain a
set of algebraic equations for the unknown coefficients of the approximating functions. The main application of FEM is
in solid mechanics (structural/stress analysis) because it has considerable geometric flexibility and general-purpose
codes can be used for a wide variety of physical problems. Some CFD codes (approx. 15%) also make use of this
method too.

• FEM uses a series of point called nodes which make the mesh. In
structural analysis for example, this mesh is programmed to contain
the material and structural properties which define how the structure
will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a
certain density throughout the material depending on the anticipated
stress levels of a particular area. Regions which will receive large
amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those
which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of:
fracture point of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex
detail, and high stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that
from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the Fig. 1.12
adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the material
properties to the object, creating many elements.

Advantage

• Highest accuracy on coarse grids. Excellent for diffusion dominated problems (viscous flow) and viscous, free surface
problems.

Disadvantage

• Long processing time for large problems and not well suited for turbulent flow.
(c) Finite Volume Method (FVM): Developed as a variant of the finite difference formulation. This is a common method
adopted and will be discussed in more depth later on. The FVM is popular in fluid mechanics because it rigorously
enforces conservation and it is flexible in terms of both geometry and the variety of fluid, therefore most of CFD codes
(including the ones mentioned earlier – approx. 80%) are based on finite volume method.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.19) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Advantage

• Basic FV control volume balance does not limit cell shape; mass,
momentum, energy conserved even on coarse grids; efficient,
iterative solvers well developed.

Disadvantage

• False diffusion when simple numerics are used.

Discretization in Finite Volume Method

• Domain is discretized into a finite set of control volumes or cells. The Fig. 1.13
discretized domain is called the “grid” or the “mesh.”
• General conservation (transport) equations for mass, momentum, energy, etc., are solved on this set of control
volumes.

∂ ⌠
∂t ⌡
ρφ dV + Š ρφV ⋅ dA = Š Γ ∇φ ⋅ dA + ⌠⌡
φ Sφ dV
v A A v

Unsteady Convection Diffusion Generation

• Partial differential equations are discretized into a system of algebraic equations.
• All algebraic equations are solved numerically to render the solution field.
1.15 INTRODUCTION TO MESHLESS METHODS
• Mesh or grid is defined as a discrete cell or elements into which the domain/ model is divided. All the flow variables
and any other variables are solved at centres of these discrete cells. This entire process of breaking up a physical
domain into smaller sub-domains (elements/cells) is called as meshing or grid generation. These cells are grouped to
form boundary zones and then boundary conditions are applied on these zones. Not only the generation of a good
grid but also its maintenance is an onerous task that can dictate factors like:
➢ Rate of convergence
➢ Accuracy of result
➢ CPU time required.
• Grid generation is performed manually by majority of practitioners though there have been recently additions of
softwares with automated meshing features. Using the automated meshing approach the user has to provide basic
inputs regarding cell size and zones to be meshed and the solver takes care of the grid generation. However this may
not be feasible for all the cases as they hold limitations for complex geometries and hence a third approach was
developed for CFD analysis called as "Meshless CFD".
• A Meshless method is used to establish a system of algebraic equations for the whole problem domain without the use
of a predefined mesh for the domain discretization. Nodes are scattered within the problem domain and also the set of
nodes are scattered on the boundaries of the domain to represent (not discretize) the problem domain and its
boundaries. No mesh implies that no information on the relationship between the nodes is required unlike in the
conventional cases of finite volume or finite difference methods.

Fig. 1.14
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (BE MECH.) (1.20) INTRO. TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

1.16 MESHED VS MESHLESS METHODS

• Many existing numerical methods such as finite volume method, finite difference method requires mesh. In such a
mesh, each point has a fixed number of predefined neighbors, and this connectivity between neighbors can be used to
define mathematical operators like the derivative and using this information, equations are solved for the entire
domain.
• But in case of simulations, where material being simulated can move around or is subjected to large deformations (e.g.
moving mesh problems), the connectivity of the mesh is difficult to maintain without introducing an error in simulation.
Though in such cases the mesh can be recreated during simulation, ultimately leads to further addition of errors.
Meshless methods are can act as a saviour for this problem.
Other advantages of meshless methods being:
➢ Time required for meshing is saved.
➢ Simulations on complex geometries can be done easily, as complex geometries are difficult to mesh and can take
even few weeks for meshing.
➢ Human assistance required for meshing can be eliminated.

Fig. 1.15

EXERCISE
1. Define CFD with its application. What are its advantages?
2. Define stress and strain of a flowing fluid.
3. Define:
(i) Divergence of velocity
(ii) Total derivative
(iii) Velocity gradient.
4. What do you understand by finite control volume? Explain with flow diagram.
5. Discuss Differential and Integral forms of the General Governing Equations of a fluid flow. Also write their merits and
demerits.
6. Write the momentum and energy equation for a viscous flow in integral form. Also state the assumption made in
explaining the above equations.