energies

Article
MHSEER: A Meta-Heuristic Secure and Energy-Efficient
Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Network-Based
Industrial IoT
Anshika Sharma 1 , Himanshi Babbar 1 , Shalli Rani 1, * , Dipak Kumar Sah 2 , Sountharrajan Sehar 3
and Gabriele Gianini 4, *

1 Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,

Rajpura 140401, Punjab, India; [email protected] (A.S.);
[email protected] (H.B.)
2 Department of Computer Engineering and Application, GLA University,
Mathura 281406, Uttar Pradesh, India; [email protected]
3 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Amrita School of Computing,
Chennai 601103, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India; [email protected]
4 Dipartimento di Informatica, Universita degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy
* Correspondence: [email protected] (S.R.); [email protected] (G.G.)

Abstract: Several industries use wireless sensor networks (WSN) for various tasks such as monitoring,
data transmission, and data gathering. They find applications in the industrial internet of things (IIoT).
WSNs are utilized to track and monitor changes in the environment. Since they include multiple small
sensor nodes (SN), they are severely constrained, so resource management geared toward energy
efficiency is crucial in this kind of network. Minimizing the power to interpret, transmit, and store
data between various sensors poses important challenges. Experts have considered various ways to
address these issues that unavoidably affect the network’s performance: reducing energy usage while
maintaining system throughput remains the primary research issue. Another important concern
Citation: Sharma, A.; Babbar, H.; relates to network security. Specifically, intrusion detection and avoidance are major concerns. In this
Rani, S.; Sah, D.K.; Sehar, S.; Gianini,
work, we introduce the meta-heuristic-based secure and energy-efficient routing (MHSEER) protocol
G. MHSEER: A Meta-Heuristic
for WSN-IIoT. The protocol learns the forwarding decisions using the number of hops, connection
Secure and Energy-Efficient Routing
integrity characteristics, and accumulated remaining energy. To make the method more secure, the
Protocol for Wireless Sensor
Network-Based Industrial IoT.
protocol also employs counter-encryption mode (CEM) to encrypt the data. A meta-heuristics study
Energies 2023, 16, 4198. https:// designed to achieve reliable learning is used in the suggested protocol. The protocol consists of two
doi.org10.3390/en16104198 stages. The first stage uses a heuristics method to improve the option for dependable data routing.
Security based on a computationally simple and random CEM is accomplished in the second stage.
Academic Editors: R. Maheswar,
The proposed MHSEER protocol has been compared to the secure trust routing protocol for low
M. Kathirvelu and
power (Sectrust-RPL), heuristic-based energy-efficient routing (HBEER), secure and energy-aware
K. Mohanasundaram
heuristic-based routing (SEHR), and secure energy-aware meta-heuristic routing (SEAMHR) in terms
Received: 22 April 2023 of packet drop ratio, throughput, network delay, energy usage, and faulty pathways. The proposed
Revised: 14 May 2023 protocol increases throughput to 95.81% and decreases the packet drop ratio, packet delay, energy
Accepted: 15 May 2023
consumption, and faulty pathways to 5.12%, 0.10 ms, 0.0102 mJ, and 6.51%, respectively.
Published: 19 May 2023

Keywords: wireless sensor networks; industrial internet of things; sensor nodes; energy efficiency;
meta-heuristic
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
1. Introduction
conditions of the Creative Commons The industrial internet of things (IIoT) paradigm relies heavily on wireless sensor
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// networks (WSNs) [1], which are wireless networks without infrastructure facilities that
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ are deployed using a wide variety of wireless sensors to assess operational, physical, or
4.0/). environmental conditions. In WSN, sensor nodes (SNs) with an inbuilt CPU manage the

Energies 2023, 16, 4198. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16104198 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 4198 2 of 19

system and are connected among them and to the base station (BS) [2] (which in turn can
be linked to the internet). The nodes perform sensing, data processing, and transmission,
whereas data collection, analysis, and delivery to the end user for decision-making are the
BS’s responsibilities [3]. Due to their versatility, WSNs have found application in several
domains such as IoT, tracking and detection systems, conditions monitoring (relative
humidity, temperature, and air density), patient evaluation, and agribusiness [4,5].
The key characteristic of WSN is that not only the storage capacity, memory, and CPU
processor capabilities of the nodes are limited but their power consumption is considerably
constrained [6,7]. Energy-efficient routing (EER) algorithms are therefore essential to reduce
power consumption and extend the useful life of the network [8]. Furthermore, the network
must be operated manually, which presents certain difficulties [9].
When designing protocols and hardware architectures, researchers should prioritize
the effective utilization of the energy storage of SNs [10]. The approaches that have received
the most attention include cluster formation and different data transmission communication
methods. SNs are organized into a number of subsets, i.e., clusters, to reduce power usage
for lengthy transmission [11]. Removing associated data that could reduce the total volume
of data exchanged with the BS is the responsibility of a cluster head (CH) [2,12]. The CH
transfers the combined information to the BS.
Since they are frequently placed in hazardous or distant locations and are therefore
challenging to physically safeguard, sensor nodes are more susceptible to security attacks.
They might also lack the ability to process information and the memory necessary to
execute effective security regulations, which would make them more vulnerable to attacks.
The probability of illegal access and compromised network security and integrity increases
greatly as a result of such restrictions [13]. Most proposed solutions aim to increase resource
efficiency and the timely distribution of data but neglect to address the reliability of sensor
data, leaving a gap for hackers. For industrial operations, inaccurate or manipulated
sensor data can have major repercussions, including malfunctioning equipment, delayed
production, and safety risks. As a result, it is crucial to use secure protocols, encrypted data,
and authentication methods to guarantee the integrity and validity of sensor data [14].

1.1. Objective
WSN-IIoT has the distinct benefit of enabling the continuous surveillance and oversight
of industrial operations, which boosts productivity, safety, and effectiveness [15]. With the
use of WSNs, preventative upkeep may be carried out on manufacturing equipment and
processes, resulting in less downtime. WSNs can also aid in waste minimization and energy
optimization, which can save money and assist the environment. WSN-IIoT may, in general,
automate and revolutionize manufacturing operations by facilitating decision-making
based on data. In order to balance the power usage and avoid unauthorized access, data
manipulation, and exposure by malicious nodes on the network, an energy-efficient routing
(EER) protocol solution should be created for IoT-based WSNs [16,17]. The purpose of
this study is to propose a WSN routing technique that is secure and energy-efficient.
The primary goals of the proposed MHSEER protocol are energy efficiency, stability, and
reliability, in data transfer despite limited resources. To obtain the best possible data
routing, some heuristics are utilized. To learn the routing decision, the MHSEER protocol
uses integrated minimal resources, hop count, and connection integrity measures [18].
The suggested IIoT protocol has advantages such as improved security, decreased power
consumption, and increased reliability. A secure routing protocol can shield critical data
from cyberattacks and stop unauthorized users from connecting to the network. It helps
IIoT devices use less energy, which extends their lifespans and minimizes their operating
expenses, and by lowering the likelihood of network congestion and packet loss, the
protocol can increase the reliability of IIoT systems. The MHSEER protocol is reliable
thanks to encoding and the detection and segregation of hostile nodes; furthermore, it
offers a method for dynamic routing [13]. The network monitoring between the BS and its
surroundings and the energy-efficiency signals together provide effective load balancing
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 3 of 19

and lessen the issue of network segregation. We will show that, compared to existing
state-of-the-art solutions, the MHSEER protocol improves the performance of low-power
SNs in terms of different performance metrics [19]. The suggested Protocol in IIoT also
has several drawbacks, such as complexity and compatibility. A safe routing protocol’s
implementation might be difficult and expensive because it calls for specialized knowledge
and skills. Certain protocols might not work with some IIoT devices, which could restrict
their operation or necessitate extra hardware modifications.

1.2. Contributions
The paper’s contributions are the following.
• An architecture of WSN-IIoT has been developed for the MHSEER protocol that
helps minimize the delay and energy consumption of the network with maximum
stability [14].
• To solve the above-mentioned issues, an MHSEER approach has been proposed, which
enhances the choice for reliable data routing using a heuristic function and uses the
encoding and decoding of data package based on counter encryption mode (CEM) [9].
• The proposed protocol compares the different parameters of a routing protocol such
as throughput, network delay, packet drop rate, faulty pathways, and energy usage
with the above-mentioned existing approaches. MHSEER increases the throughput
and decreases metrics such as the packet drop rate and energy usage.

1.3. Structure
The structure of this article is as follows: Section 2 outlines the state-of-the-art in
energy-efficient routing protocols. Section 3 introduces the proposed architecture of WSN-IIoT
for the secured and energy-efficiency protocol. A detailed discussion of the MHSEER
protocol and the stages designed is presented in Section 4. Section 5 shows the experimental
findings about MHSEER and compares them to the competing approaches. Finally, Section 6
summarizes the findings of the paper.

2. Related Work
Various works aim at providing routing protocols that are secure and energy-efficient.
In 2019, Hamzah et al. [2] discussed a fuzzy approach for selecting cluster heads (CHs)
based on five features: density, residual energy, suitability, and distance from the BS.
Utilizing FL-EEC/D (fuzzy logic-based energy-efficient clustering) depending on minimal
segregation among CHs, WSNs are created. SNs are evaluated for energy efficiency using
the Gini index; clustering techniques normalize resource allocations between WSNs. The
results show that the energy usage of the SN stabilized and the energy efficiency with
respect to the lifetime of a network improved. In regard to the first cluster dead and half
clusters dead, the outcomes demonstrate an average growth.
In 2019, Liu et al. [10] suggest a revised routing protocol to increase WSN resource
efficiency. Residual network energy and network average energy are taken into account by
the IEE-LEACH protocol in this study. In order to further increase the network’s energy
consumption, the proposed protocol also adopts a threshold for choosing CHs amongst
some of the SNs and makes use of single-hop, multi-hop, and composite connections. The
simulation findings demonstrate that this method greatly decreases WSN power use if
compared with a number of current routing strategies.
In 2020, Hayajneh et al. [5] communicated with the OSI layers (physical, data link,
network, topology, and application) to examine cyber threats in WSNs. The number of
significant attacks is calculated, and security precautions are set up to detect attacks. A
security technique is created to fix the flaws and identify other problems that require more
investigation. This method was only used with a small number of SNs, which negatively
impacted the performance performance of the network and did not increase network safety
when there were many SNs present. However, the complexity, consumption, and transmit
time would all significantly increase, making this potentially inappropriate for WSNs.
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 4 of 19

In 2020, Binu et al. [14] created an innovative African Buffalo-based two-tier data
dissemination technique (AB-TTDD) to check the energy-drained unit early, before information
transfer. A brand new temporary energy mapping algorithm (TEMA) was also created
to sustain the pathway by producing the reference node rather than the energy-drained
component. This innovative method has significantly decreased both power usage and
the packet flow ratio. The current study demonstrates that routing maintenance and
optimization in WSN may decrease energy usage. However, the proposed methodology’s
processing takes longer.
In 2020, Haseeb et al. [6] suggested SEHR for WSNs to detect and prevent data
manipulation while achieving greater performance. The method provided reliable and
insightful learning through the use of heuristic evaluation, which was taken from artificial
intelligence (AI). This technique uses a heuristic approach to spot and guard against data
breaches. The current metaheuristic method provides less accurate data categorization. The
key generation portion of this approach needs to be enhanced because the counter block
allows the key value to be identified. By taking into account asynchronous operations among
the sensor nodes, energy consumption and routing efficiency can be further enhanced.
In 2022, Gurram et al. [9] discussed a SEAMHR technique in order to choose the best
route to the target while preserving data integrity. The learned path is used to identify
the most ideal neighbourhood, which serves as a redirector to send the information to
the intended receiver, and mutation elephant herding optimization (MEHO) is used to
enhance the meta-heuristic function. The SEAMHR method uses the AEDL approach
and CTR-AEDL mode encrypted using private keys to encrypt and decrypt data. The
MATLAB tool is used to conduct the experiment.However, the suggested protocol will
not be expanded to take into account mobility requirements and multi-hop network
interactions.
In 2022, Seyfollahi et al. [16] provided a composite energy-aware strategy for data
forwarding in IoT, considering the need to extend IoT technologies and the NP-hardness
of power management in diverse and dispersed IoT networks. By integrating the support
vector machine (SVM), a popular machine learning (ML) approach, and the meta-heuristic
heat transfer optimizer (HTOA) approach, this paper tried to implement an optimal method
for routing and transmitting data. The results demonstrate that merging ML and HTOA has
produced the best possible energy-conscious routing for the IoT.However, it should be taken
into account that HTOA, like another optimizer, could become trapped in local optima.
In 2022, Behera et al. [4] briefly discussed low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy
(LEACH)-based and bioinspired protocols, their advantages and disadvantages, their
underlying presuppositions, and the selection criteria for the CH to comprehend routing
protocols with various structures, innovative tactics, and improved efficiency in the WSN
environment. The scalability, durability, and packet-delivery rates of different protocols
are contrasted and considered as performance aspects. Additionally, the exploration of
developing cryptographic techniques for verified encryption in WSNs that support privacy
and network safety is an option.
In 2023, ref. [20] the WSN is responsible for gathering and arranging sensed data
before sending it to the base station (BS). As the battery power of sensor nodes is limited,
it is crucial to employ effective techniques for data collection and transmission to ensure
the extended operation of the sensor network. In this study, the researchers utilized the
particle swarm optimization (PSO) method to establish the cluster in WSN. Additionally,
they proposed an energy-efficient routing protocol (E-FEERP) based on fuzzy logic. The
E-FEERP algorithm considers various factors such as battery energy, the average distance
between sensor nodes (SN) and the BS, node density, and communication quality to transmit
data from the cluster head (CH) to the BS optimally.
Other works study the problem of clustering and energy efficiency from a game theory
perspective [21,22]. Indeed, game theory is routinely used as a framework for the modeling
and analysis of performance and security networked systems [23–29]. The work by Gemeda
et al. [30] addresses the issue of energy efficiency by proposing a protocol, called GREET,
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 5 of 19

based on non-coalitional game theory: the protocol is not power-aware, but it improves
over LEACH in terms of network lifetime.
The current research increases throughput rates and decreases the packet loss rates,
energy usage, defective routes, and packet delay of the WSN as compared to the existing
energy-efficient protocol (Table 1), as indicated in the prior research.

Table 1. Comparative analysis of existing literature.

Year/
Ref. Software
Author Objective Parameter Future Scope
No. Used
Name
To increase the
By integrating the
PhD network’s
SecTrust system into the
Research integration of
RPL protocol, a simulated
2019/ Lab of trustworthy
exercise was conducted to Throughput,
[1] Airehrour Auckland nodes that have
demonstrate the SecTrust packet drop rate.
et al. University repaid their
system’s effectiveness at
of battery life by
fending off Rank and
Technology. extending the
Sybil assaults.
SecTrust-RPL.
Utilize the gain ratio to
The Gini index is
assess how effectively the
SN’s residual a reasonable
clustering methods can
power, the assessment tool
balance the energy
distance to the for assessing the
distribution among WSN
2019/ BS, the density routing protocols’
sensor nodes. A fuzzy
[2] Hamzah .NET of the SN, the energy
logic-based CH election
et al. compacting of effectiveness in
method, a k-means-based
the SN, and WSNs for the
clustering method, and
location metric of energy
LEACH are contrasted
appropriateness. distribution
with the suggested
balance.
technique FL-EEC/D.
Throughput, the To make the
The method provided ratio of packet system smarter
reliable and insightful drops, and fault-tolerant
learning through the use significant delay, by employing
2020/ of heuristic evaluation, consumed certain
[6] Haseeb which was taken from AI. MATLAB energy, lightweight
et al. This technique uses a erroneous routes, machine
heuristic approach to spot overhead on learning-based
and guard against data networks, and approaches to
breaches computational enhance the
cost. SEHR technique.
Developed an accessible
virtual structure that
Average rate of
serves as an intermediary
delivery, average The suggested
architecture between the
2019/ energy approach can be
sink and the nodes while
[8] Kuhlani MATLAB utilization, the further explained
sharing metadata and
et al. lifespan of a to understand
query messages in order
network, and the flow better.
to lessen the mobile sink’s
absolute delay.
frequently current
location to all nodes.
To reduce the energy
consumption of WSNs, The suggested
hierarchical techniques Stable technique can be
that utilize clustering timeframe, expanded to
2019/ hierarchy are proposed. HNA, the manage a system
[31] Alami Data collection and MATLAB lifespan of a of mobile sinks
et al. transmission to a base network, and will analyze
station could be carried network traffic, the network
out using the nodes with and throughput . lifespan
the highest residual optimization.
energy.
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 6 of 19

3. Proposed Architecture of WSN-IIoT for Energy Routing Protocol

The clustering process divides the network into various clusters in the WSN
environment. Each cluster contains a CH node that transmits data collected from its SN
network to the BS, as shown in Figure 1. In hierarchical protocols, choosing the CH node is
a crucial decision that adds to the system overhead. The network will experience significant
overhead if the CH node fails. The objective is to suggest an energy efficiency technique
that minimizes system overhead and maximizes stability. The proposed protocol allows
all nodes in a cluster to be CH nodes; however, the clusters are not required to contain a
CH node [10]. The CH node is elected using a learned machine. In fact, consuming less
energy, which is currently being spent on frequent selections of CH nodes, will hopefully
lengthen network longevity. The nodes cooperate to send data to the BS; as a result, the
nodes closest to the BS will use more resources than most of the other nodes. As a result,
it is likely that the clusters near the BS change to a non-connected condition. As a result,
the detected data are not sent to the BS. The clusters next to the BS have smaller sizes to
address this issue. Hence, energy for transmitted data will be saved [11].
The proposed approach does not require the SNs to recognize the CH node. An SN
uses its cluster-ID and some basic details about its distant neighbors in one hop to deliver
data to the BS. The routing protocol employs a distributed and localized strategy to use a
learning system to identify the best CH nodes for each cluster. Each node in this scenario
can choose the optimum path for data transfer or act as a CH node [2].
An energy-efficient routing protocol is created. An algorithm is initialized right away
to preserve the route to identify erroneous data proclamation from the nearby nodes
and predicts link failure using its fitness function, as shown in Figure 2. As a result, the
algorithm helps extend the node lifetime by reconstructing the path and optimizing the
data drop ratio. Hence, the information is securely transmitted without being interrupted.
So, an algorithm is implemented to track the announcement of misleading data. The
inclusion of the proposed approach in the routing protocol helps to detect fraudulent data
announcements. The protocol also foresees energy-drained nodes early on and raises an
alarm as a result. This alarm helps to start the maintenance of the route of the protocol
that is elaborated in Figure 2 [14]. Some SNs are included in the homogeneous structure
of the energy-efficient routing protocol, and each node is aware of its own position. The
fitness function evaluates the node’s full energy; therefore, it has an early awareness of
connection failure based on the energy of the node. As a result, the algorithm is initiated
when the monitoring node issues an alarm in the event that a connection failure occurs
within a few moments. An energy-efficient routing protocol is an effective, expandable,
and adaptable routing protocol. In wireless architecture, the data can be transmitted to the
source and destination nodes via a variety of routes. There are some basic functions such
as route preservation, maximizing the lifespan of a network, and minimizing packet drops
for secure data transmission [32].
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 7 of 19

Figure 1. Framework of WSN in IIoT.

Figure 2. Architecture of WSN for energy-efficient routing protocol.

4. Methodology
This section describes the phases of the proposed MHSEER protocol in detail. The
protocol uses link stability metrics, hop counts, and accumulated residual energies to make
routing decisions. To begin with, the suggested MHSEER protocol uses a meta-heuristic
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 8 of 19

study built to produce reliable and wise learning [9]. The protocol is a metaheuristic
technique that enhances reliable data routing. There are two primary stages to this project.
The first stage of the proposed protocol enhances the choice for reliable data routing
using a heuristic algorithm. The beam heuristic reduces the memory requirements of the
nodes and provides efficient next-hop selection by utilizing a number of characteristics
and link reliability [6]. In the second stage, a protocol that is secure, legitimate, and
based on a computationally simple and random CEM is achieved [14]. The proposed
protocol (Figure 3) simultaneously uses the encryption and decryption of data packets
while utilizing less computational power from the nodes. Furthermore, alarm and traffic
assessment techniques reduce the likelihood of link failure and uneven energy use in the
network area [33].

Figure 3. Design of the proposed method.

4.1. Route Discovery

Suppose that the SNs are structured as graphs G, where G ( D, L) represents the graph,
L represents the optimal links between the two closely linked nodes n1 and n2 , and D is
the density of the SNs. The MHSEER protocol uses the heuristic method in the first stage
to estimate the relative weight for locating the best node as the next hop. The decision to
route in the direction of the target node is guided by the heuristic function [34]. The source
node validates its route entrance against the BS in a local database to start the discovery
process. If it is discovered that the route meets the criteria for a number of hops to the BS
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 9 of 19

(h), the degree of integrity of the link (dli ), and the accumulated energy (ei ), the source node
is selected as the next hop, and the packages are transferred directly to it [35]. Additionally,
suppose that there is no viable route available that satisfies the routing criteria in the local
database of the source node. In that case, each of the neighboring nodes must participate in
the process of choosing the next hop. While accessing the affected links, the link integrity
degree uses the hash function of cryptography to ascertain if the transmitted number of
packets has been altered. Suppose node i endangers a probe packet with p bits and sends
it to node j [36]. To identify its message code, Mc , node i first delivers the probe packet
p1 to the hash function. Second, the received Mc is added as p1 + Mc to the real probe
packet and sent to node j. Node j recalculates Mc of the probe packet received by p1 after
receiving it along with Mc . One is used to denote the high threshold value, and zero is
used to denote the low threshold value. The link’s high threshold value indicates that it is
very trustworthy and has a low fault rate. Residual energy aggregation ei is estimated in
two stages [9]. The residual level el is first continuously watched by each node, and then
the residual energy’s rate er is calculated using Equation (1).

∑ men − cen (1)

where n is the neighbour, men is the maximal energy, and cen is the neighbour’s energy
consumption.
The node with the most accumulated residual energy is consequently assigned the
highest precedence. Finally, the node examines the equivalent value that represents the hop
count to the BS in its local table. The closer the node is to the BS, the less communication is
required to transfer data, as indicated by a lower value. The heuristic function h f is then
determined by adding all of the measured values of the accumulated residual energy, the
integrity of the link, and the number of hops in a stack, as shown in the Equation (2).

1
h f = a ∗ ( e l + er ) + b ∗
+ c ∗ dli (2)
h
where a, b, and c are the weighting coefficients and provide the heuristic function with a
meaningful effect. Following the computation of h f , every neighbor node communicates
its knowledge to the SN to forecast the best course of action to take to reach the BS. The
neighbor node with the highest h f indicates a superior rank for choosing the next hop.
The proposed method uses the meta-heuristic protocol, which maximizes the suitable
next-hop in a subset, to analyze the linked graph. In order to save memory and preserve the
untrusted node while finding the next hop, the protocol creates node databases [37]. The
beam meta-heuristics provide the method for choosing the best node as the next hop based
on each node’s greatest value. If we assume that, using beam heuristics, h f 0 , h f 1 , . . . , h f n ,
which have the highest weight value, then the weighted total S( f n ) can be denoted as
provided in the Equation (3)

S( f n ) = ∑ hfi (3)
where i = 0,1. . . ,n.

4.2. Route Discovery Security

The proposed protocol concentrated on data protection for the selected beam based
on heuristics routing in the second stage. To guarantee connectivity solutions with the least
propagation delay, it also provides a route maintenance plan [6]. The proposed protocol uses
a CEM that allows nodes to simultaneously encrypt data packets with randomization [38].
Three elements are required to start the CEM encoding method: a data package (Di ), a
private key (K), and counter bits (C). To create the distinctive pattern of the counter block
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 10 of 19

Bi shown in Equation (4), the node Ni and counter bits are combined together and then
sent through an encoding function E f using key K.

Bi = E f (K ( Ni + C )) (4)
An encoder enables the encoding and decoding of the packet header, and a key
generator is used to carry out the learning process. The network’s parameters were
optimized through a number of experiments, enabling the system to encode and decode
data packets and Bi very quickly. The activation function used in this experiment is given
by Equation (5).

1
f (x) = (5)
1 + e− x
where f (x) is the sigmoid function. The originating nodes ni and E f are used to create
the new counter block Bi+1 for the data packets Di+1 after being concatenated with Ni
and C. The ciphertext sequences ci , . . . , cn−1 , cn nodes for ni , . . . , nn−1 , nn are consequently
obtained in the BS, indicating that the decoding function D f with the same key is used to
obtain authentic data packets Di where i = 1,. . . , n applying Equation (6).

Di = [ D f (K ( Ni + Bi ))] ⊕ ci (6)

4.3. Route Maintenance

Some other routes are found with the help of route maintenance if the energy rates
of the selected next-hop nodes drop to a particular threshold value [39]. As a result, data
degradation and re-transmission are prevented. When an energy-inefficient node is found
during the routing stage, it stops transmitting data and sends an error message to the
origin node. The next subsequent hop is chosen to continue the data routing after the
originating node uses the heuristic function to identify the node with the highest weight.
The application of an energy threshold for the maintenance of the route significantly
decreases the time of network and route intrusions [40]. Additionally, the quantity of
packets received that the next-hops of the BS’s neighbors broadcast to them determines the
congestion ratio. The proposed method is used to determine the traffic rate (T f r ) among
the neighboring hops (i) or the BS given by Equation (7).

bl − Pl
T fr = (7)
Bm

where bl , Pl , and Bm are the bandwidth of the link, the transmitted packets on the link, and
the maximal bandwidth from i to the BS, respectively.

5. Results and Discussion

This section describes the experimental findings and configuration of the proposed
method over the Sectrust-RPL [1], SEHR [6], HBEER [6], and SEAMHR [9] approaches.
The various network techniques are validated, tested, and verified using the MATLAB
simulator tool to assess the results of the experiments. In terms of throughput, packet
delay, defective routes, and energy consumption, the results are significantly better than
the previous research’s results. In addition, the performance of the linked methodologies
and the proposed protocol is provided by taking into account variables such as end-to-end
delay, fault pathways, throughput, packet drop ratio, and energy consumption. Table 2
displays the WSN parameter settings used in the simulation.
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 11 of 19

Table 2. Simulation parameters.

Parameter Value
Area of simulation 300 ∗ 300 m
SNs 250
Infected nodes 50
Size of packets 64 bits
Level of energy 4 Joules
Position of BS 200, 600
Beamwidth 4
Control messages 40 bits
Range of transmission 40 m
Type of traffic CBR

Table 3 represents the comparative analysis of the proposed approach with the state of
art approaches, and Figure 4 shows the graphical representation of the same.

Table 3. Comparative analysis of proposed approach with state-of-art approaches.

Parameters Sectrust-RPL HBEER SEHR SEAMHR Proposed

Throughput (%) 74.94 79.75 86.16 94.64 95.81
Packet drop
25.66 19.71 13.32 7.34 5.12
ratio (%)
End-to-end
0.178 0.162 0.136 0.114 0.10
delay (ms)
Energy
consumption 0.0326 0.0252 0.0190 0.0154 0.0102
(mJ)
Faulty routes
17.07 13.31 10.46 7.83 6.51
(%)

5.1. Throughput Analysis

Table 4 depicts the analysis of the proposed throughput with the four existing methods.
Figure 5 represents the throughput with respect to the different number of nodes. Additionally,
by utilizing the CEM mechanism for information security, the proposed protocol lessens
the possibility of rogue nodes impairing the operation of data transportation between the
SNs and the BS. Furthermore, improving the delivery of packets and network access results
from traffic monitoring between neighboring nodes and the BS, while the throughput is
calculated by Equation (8).

Recieved packets
Throughput = (8)
Total time
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 12 of 19

Figure 4. Comparative analysis of state-of-art approaches in terms of different parameters.

Table 4. Comparative analysis of proposed throughput (%) with state-of-art approaches.

No. of Nodes Sectrust-RPL HBEER SEHR SEAMHR Proposed

50 78.8 85 89.8 95.2 95.8
100 77.4 84.4 89.2 94.9 96.2
150 76.2 82.3 86.3 94.76 95.9
200 74.94 79.75 86.16 94.64 95.12
250 70 76.2 85 92.8 93.25

Figure 5 shows the 250 nodes with respect to the throughput. In the case of 50 nodes,
the proposed approach acquires the maximum throughput, i.e., 95.8%, as compared to
the other existing approaches; in the case of 100 nodes, the proposed approach acquires
96.2% throughput in comparison to the existing approaches; in the case of 250 nodes, the
proposed approach acquires 93.25% as compared to the existing approaches.
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 13 of 19

Figure 5. Throughput.

5.2. Packet Drop Ratio Analysis

Table 5 shows the comparative analysis of the packet drop ratio of the four existing
methods with the proposed approach. Figure 6 represents the packet drop rate with respect
to the different numbers of nodes. In contrast to existing methods, the MHSEER protocol
uses a beam heuristic approach to construct a residual energy-based weighted function, the
number of hops to the BS, and the connection integrity criteria. Such an approach allows
for the choice of the most reliable and energy-efficient nodes for packet transmission, and
the packet drop ratio can be calculated by Equation (9).

Received packets
Packet drop ratio = (9)
Total packets

Table 5. Comparative analysis of proposed packet drop ratio (%) with state-of-art approaches.

No. of Nodes Sectrust-RPL HBEER SEHR SEAMHR Proposed

50 22.51 16.22 10.11 5 4.8
100 23.63 16.32 12 6.21 5.10
150 24.94 17.41 13.24 7.12 6.56
200 25.66 19.71 13.32 7.34 6.85
250 30 21.27 15 9.54 8.24

Figure 6 depicts the minimum packet drop ratio in the proposed approach. As shown,
if there are 50 nodes, it is 4.8% as compared to the existing approaches. If there are 250
nodes, it is 30% for Sectrust-RPL; 21.27% for HBEER; 15% for SEHR; 9.54% for SEAMHR;
and 8.24% for the proposed approach, which is the minimum that is required.
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 14 of 19

Figure 6. Packet drop ratio.

5.3. End-to-End Delay Analysis

Table 6 depicts the comparative analysis of the packet delay of the four existing
methods with the proposed approach. Figure 7 represents the end-to-end delay with
respect to the different number of nodes. The proposed protocol reduces the likelihood of
path re-finding with the lowest number of re-transference, in contrast to existing solutions,
by selecting the security-aware and reliable path for the routing. Such a routing technique
eventually reduces congestion issues and effectively utilizes the bandwidth of wireless
channels to send data packets with the least amount of network delay.

Table 6. Comparative analysis of proposed end-to-end delay (ms) with state-of-art approaches.

No. of Nodes Sectrust-RPL HBEER SEHR SEAMHR Proposed

50 0.152 0.141 0.120 0.0912 0.015
100 0.163 0.149 0.122 0.101 0.018
150 0.171 0.154 0.132 0.110 0.100
200 0.178 0.162 0.136 0.114 0.100
250 0.192 0.173 0.141 0.121 0.104

Figure 7 depicts the minimum end-to-end delay in the proposed approach. In case
there are 100 nodes, the proposed approach acquires 0.015 ms, i.e., minimum delay, as
compared to the existing approaches. In the case of 250 nodes, it acquires 0.192 ms for
Sectrust-RPL, 0.173 ms for HBEER, 0.141 ms for SEHR, and 0.121 ms for SEAMHR; 0.104 ms
has been acquired for the proposed approach.
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 15 of 19

Figure 7. End-to-end delay.

5.4. Energy Consumption Analysis

Table 7 compares the energy usage of the four existing methods with the proposed
approach.

Table 7. Comparative analysis of proposed energy consumption (mJ) with state-of-art approaches.

No. of Nodes Sectrust-RPL HBEER SEHR SEAMHR Proposed

50 0.0276 0.0211 0.013 0.0131 0.0122
100 0.0301 0.0212 0.0156 0.0143 0.0130
150 0.0313 0.0223 0.0179 0.0150 0.0141
200 0.0326 0.0252 0.0190 0.0154 0.0142
250 0.0355 0.0271 0.0223 0.0162 0.0155

Figure 8 represents the energy consumption with respect to the different numbers of
nodes. The proposed method shows a minimal consumption of energy of 0.0102 mJ, while
the existing Sectrust-RPL, HBEER, SEHR, and SEAMHR approaches show a consumption
of 0.0326 mJ, 0.0252 mJ, 0.0190 mJ, and 0.0154 mJ, respectively. Because of the smart and
risk-tolerant routing approach used by the proposed protocol, the routing pathways were
stable for a considerable amount of time.
Energies 2023, 16, 4198 16 of 19

Figure 8. Energy consumption.

5.5. Faulty Routes Analysis

Table 8 shows the comparative analysis of the faulty pathways of the four existing
methods with the proposed approach.

Table 8. Comparative analysis of proposed faulty routes (%) with state-of-art approaches.

No. of Nodes Sectrust-RPL HBEER SEHR SEAMHR Proposed

50 13.57 10.78 7.81 5.56 4.45
100 14.68 11.23 8.43 6.13 5.50
150 16.25 12.45 9.98 7.24 5.95
200 17.07 13.31 10.46 7.83 6.54
250 22.34 15.11 12.12 9.35 8.45

Figure 9 represents faulty pathways as a function of the number of nodes. The

proposed approach shows a minimal faulty pathway of 6.51%, while the existing approaches
Sectrust-RPL, HBEER, SEHR, and SEAMHR show 17.07%, 13.31%, 10.46%, and 7.83%,
respectively. This is a result of the improvement of the decision to route the heuristic
function pathway in the proposed protocol. Furthermore, the heuristic function generates
smart conclusions that take into account a variety of factors, such as connection integrity,
that promote the consistency of the data.

Figure 9. Faulty routes.

Energies 2023, 16, 4198 17 of 19

5.6. Findings and Implications for the Research

The major objective of this study is to suggest a WSN routing technique that is secure
and energy-efficient. The proposed MHSEER protocol’s primary goals are energy efficiency,
stability, and reliable data transfer capability because of its scarce resources. The finding of
the paper demonstrates that the throughput rate of the protocol is 95.81%, and the packet
drop ratio, packet delay, energy consumption, and faulty pathways are 5.12%, 0.10 ms,
0.0102 mJ, and 6.51%, respectively. As a result, the suggested method reduces energy
consumption, erroneous routes, and latency while also greatly extending the network
lifetime.

6. Conclusions
To optimize the routing strategy with wise judgments against malicious nodes, this
paper provides a safe EER protocol for WSNs. To achieve dependable communication
for WSN, the proposed protocol focuses on important elements, including energy usage,
secure data transfer, packet delay, and route maintenance. Using all parameters that have
an impact on the energy effectiveness of the WSN protocol is recommended to obtain
the highest results from energy-efficient routing protocols. To achieve efficient next-hop
decisions and decrease the use of node memory, the heuristic function uses a variety of
factors and network integrities. Using different parameters, performance evaluations with
existing approaches are shown. The approach offers improved network performance metrics
such as throughput and reduced packet drop ratios, energy consumption, end-to-end delays,
and defective routes. The proposed protocol increases throughput to 95.81% and decreases the
packet drop ratio, packet delay, energy consumption, and faulty pathways to 5.12%, 0.10 ms,
0.0102 mJ, and 6.51%, respectively, in comparison to the existing energy-efficient routing
protocol. However, if the proposed approach can be implemented using realistic datasets,
it can produce far better outcomes. In future work, the proposed energy-efficient protocol
will be implemented using real-world datasets for better results.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.B. and A.S.; methodology, S.R. and A.S.; validation,
A.S., D.K.S. and H.B.; formal analysis, S.S., S.R., and H.B.; investigation, S.R. and G.G.; resources, S.R.;
data curation, G.G., and A.S.; and writing—original draft preparation, A.S. and H.B. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The work was partially supported by the MUSA (Multilayered Urban Sustainability
Action) project, funded by the European Union—NextGenerationEU, under the National Recovery and
Resilience Plan (NRRP) Mission 4 Component 2 Investment Line 1.5:
strengthening of research structures and creation of R&D “innovation ecosystems”, set up of “territorial
leaders in R&D” (CUP G43C22001370007, Code ECS00000037). The work was also partially supported by
the SERICS project (PE00000014) under the NRRP MUR program funded by the EU—NextGenerationEU.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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