DATA AND COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS

The purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data between two individuals/devices.
The following figure presents one particular example, which is the communication between a workstation
and a server over a public telephone network.

The key elements of the model are source, transmitter, transmission system, receiver and destination.

Source. This device generates the data to be transmitted, like telephones and personal computers.
Transmitter, the device to transform/encode the signal generated by the source. The transformed signal is
actually sent over the transmission system. The Modem transforms digital data to analog signal that can be
handled by telephone network.
Transmission System. This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting source and
destination.
Receiver, the device to decode the received signal for handling by destination device. Modem converts the
received analog data back to digital for use by the computer.
Destination. This device takes the incoming data from the receiver.
Communication Tasks
Some of the key tasks that must be performed in a data communications system are listed below:
1) Transmission system utilization - Efficient use of transmission network typically shared among a
number of communicating devices. Multiplexing is used to share the total capacity of network
among a number of consumers. Congestion control to ensure that the system does not get
overwhelmed by excessive transmission network demand.
2) Interfacing - Point of interaction or communication between two entities, such as a device and the
transmission system.
3) Signal generation - Communication is achieved through signal generation. Properties of signal:
i. Possible to propagate through the transmission system.
ii. Possible to interpret as data by the receiver.
4) Synchronization - Operation of transmitter and receiver in unison. Receiver must be able to
determine when a signal begins to arrive and when it ends. Receiver must also know the duration of
each signal element.
5) Exchange management - Need for cooperation between two entities for bidirectional data transfer.
Conventions or protocols to decide whether data is transferred simultaneously by more than one
entity in a network connection or whether they take turns. Other things to worry about are the
amount of data to be transferred, data format, and error detection/correction capabilities.

Page 1 of 24
6) Error detection and correction - Signal may get distorted during transmission. Cannot afford to alter
the contents of data being transmitted. Imagine if this file gets some bits changed in every sentence
while you download it, and does so in different locations for every download.
7) Flow control - Collection of techniques used in serial communications to stop the sender sending
data until the receiver can accept it.
8) Addressing - Source must identify the identity of intended destination in a shared network.
Transmission system must ensure that only the intended destination receives the data.
9) Routing - The transmission system may choose any of the various available routes to deliver the
data; it may even send data in parts with each part taking a different route.
10) Recovery - In the event of transmission interruption, should the transmitter resend entire data, or
send the remaining data only from the point of interruption.
11) Message formatting – Pre-established patterns of signals between transmitter and receiver.
12) Security - Safe delivery of data to intended recipient only. Data should not get modified during
transmission. Data must be authenticated to be from the sender only.
13) Network management - Configure the system. Monitor system status. React to failure and overload.
Plan for future growth.

Data Communications
Email example:

 Keyboard receives data and puts it in computer memory as a sequence of bits g.

 Data goes from memory to modem over local communications bus of the computer, and is
denoted by g(t) during this transition phase.
 It is picked up by modem (transmitter) and converted to sequence of voltage shifts (digital-to-
analog conversion) which are sent over the network (communications medium); data are now
denoted by s(t).
 Finally, the signal reaches the destination (receiver) as r(t) because it may get modified during
the transmission by addition of noise.
 Receiver attempts to recover the signal g(t) from r(t) and produces a sequence of bits g’(t).
 The signal message m’ should generally be as close to m as possible, ideally an exact copy of m.

Data Communication Networking

Data communication takes place between two devices that are directly connected by some
form of point-to-point transmission medium. However, it is impractical for two devices to be
directly, point-to-point connected. This is because, any pair of devices may be very far apart, making
it expensive to have multiple dedicated links and a set of devices may require a link to many other
devices at different times. Examples are all of the telephones in the world and all of the terminals and
computers owned by a single organization.
Page 2 of 24
 The solution to this problem is to attach each device to a communications networks
classified in to two major categories: wide-area networks (WANs) and local-area networks (LANs).
Wide-Area Networks (WAN)
Wide-area networks cover a large geographical area, require the crossing of public right-of-ways,
and rely on circuits provided by a common carrier. Typically, a WAN consists of a number of
interconnected switching nodes. A transmission from any one device is routed through these internal
nodes to the specified destination device. These nodes provide a switching facility that will move the data
from node to node until they reach their destination. WANs have been implemented using the technologies:
circuit switching, packet switching, frame relay and ATM (Asynchronous transfer mode) .

Circuit switching
In circuit switching, a dedicated communication path is established between source and destination
through the network nodes. The path is a connected sequence of physical links between nodes. There is no
delay between reception and retransmission of data at each node. An example is the telephone network.
Packet switching
In packet switching, there is no dedicate along a path through the network. Rather, data are sent out
in a sequence of small chunks, called packets. Each packet is passed through the network from node to
node along some path leading from source to destination. At each node, the entire packet is received,
stored briefly, and then transmitted to the next node. Packet-switched networks are commonly used for
terminal-to-computer and computer-to-computer communications.
However there is a considerable amount of error rate and additional bits are required at each node for
error detection and correction. The average data rate is 64kbps.
Frame relay
Frame relay removes the disadvantages of packet switching. It takes advantage of high transmission
speed and low error rates in modern networks and uses variable length packets called frames. It operates
efficiently to about 2Mbps.
Asynchronous transfer mode or ATM
ATM is also known as cell relay is an evolution from frame relay and circuit switching. The most
obvious difference between frame relay and ATM is that frame relay uses variable-length packets,
called frames, and ATM uses fixed-length packets, called cells. Hence processing overhead is reduced in
ATM compared to frame relay. ATM is designed to work in the range of 10s and 100s of Mbps. ATM
extends circuit switching to allow multiple channels with the data rate on each channel dynamically set on
demand.

Page 3 of 24
ISDN and Broadband ISDN
ISDN, Integrated services digital network is designed to replace existing public telecom network
while delivering a wide range of services. First generation or narrowband ISDN uses 64kbps channel with
circuit switching and frame relay. The second generation or broadband ISDN supports high data rates at
100s of Mbps with packet switching and ATM.
Local Area Networks or LANs
There is smaller scope, typically a single building or campus (10m to 1km). LAN is distinguished
from other networks by size, transmission technology, and topology. The small size restriction simplifies
network management. Internal data rates on LANs are much greater than those of WANs. LANs make use
of a broadcast network approach rather than a switching approach. There are no intermediate switching
nodes. The transmitter/receiver at each node communicates over a medium shared by other nodes.
Transmission from any station is received by every other station. Data are transmitted in packets, allowing
only one station to transmit at any given time. Generally use a single cable for transmission to which all
machines are attached with a speed of 10-100 Mbps.
Protocols and protocol architecture
In addition to data path, we need to account the following in a communication network:
(1) Source must identify the destination to the network
(2) Source must make sure that destination is prepared to accept data
(3) Security must be accounted ie. data should go to the intended user on the receiver
(4) Incompatible file formats may need to be translated
The exchange of information between computers for the purpose of cooperative action is generally
referred to as computer communications. Similarly, when two or more computers are interconnected
via a communication network, the set of computer stations is referred to as a computer network.
In computer communications and computer networks, two following two concepts are important:
 Protocols
 Computer-communications architecture, or protocol architecture
Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules governing the transfer of data between entities and it is used for
communication between entities in different systems. For two entities to communicate, they must speak the
same language. Communication must follow some mutually acceptable conventions, referred to as protocol.
Key elements of a protocol
Syntax. Data formats and signal levels
Semantics. Control information for coordination and error handling
Timing. Speed matching and sequencing

Protocol architecture
Cooperation between computers is broken into a number of modules, with each module is
implemented separately. For example file transfer could use three modules
—File transfer application
—Communication service module
—Network access module

Page 4 of 24
Three-Layer Model
In a file transfer operation, communications task is organized in to three relatively independent
layers:
1. Network access layer
 Lowest layer in the communications network
 Concerned with exchange of data between computer and network
 Source computer must provide the address of destination computer to enable the network to route
the data
 Source computer may invoke some special services such as priority
 Different standards for type of networks (circuit switching, frame relay, LAN)
 The communications software above the network access layer need not know about the type of
network
2. Transport layer
 Data must be exchanged reliably, and in the same order in which it is sent
 This layer contains mechanisms for reliable data transportation
3. Application layer
 Support for different user applications
eg. e-mail, file transfer

Protocol architectures and networks

In the above diagram, three computers are connected to a network. The modules are at the same level
and communicate through a network. Application at one machine hands a message to transport layer through
its service access point(SAP) to be transmitted over the network to the service access point of another
application at a specified machine. Transport layer sends the data only to another machine and not to the
service access point. The specifics of the address are encapsulated into the message.
 Data from next higher layer and the control information is known as protocol data unit or PDU.

Page 5 of 24
  Header in each transport PDU contains control information to be used by peer transport protocol at
destination.
Examples of items that may be stored in this header include the following:
Destination SAP. Address information for destination transport layer for data delivery.
Sequence Number. Allows assembly of messages from packets that arrive out of order.
Error-detection code. Extra information embedded by the transmitting transport entity to allow
receiver to perform error detecting and correction.
Transport layer hands over each PDU to the network layer, with instructions to send it over to
destination. Items in the network access header may include:
Destination computer address. Where to deliver the data.
Facilities requests. Extra facilities like priority.

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control protocol/Internet protocol) Protocol Architecture

The TCP/IP model is most widely used interoperable structure. We can organize the communication
task for TCP/IP into five relatively independent layers:
 Application layer
 Host-to-host, or Transport layer
 Internet layer
 Network access layer
 Physical layer

1. Physical layer
 Physical interface between transmitter and network.
 Species the characteristics of transmission medium, nature of signals, data rate, and
related matters.
2. Network access layer
 Exchanges data between end system and network
 Transmitter must provide the address of destination to the network for proper routing
 Transmitter may invoke certain network services such as priority
 Different standards are used for circuit switching, packet switching (X.25), LANs
(Ethernet)
 Mainly concerned with access and routing data between two computers connected to
the same network
3. Internet layer
 Used to transfer data between devices attached to different networks
 Data may have to traverse multiple interconnected networks
 Uses Internet Protocol to route data across multiple networks
 Protocol is implemented both in end systems as well as in routers
 Router connects two networks and relays data from one network to the other
Page 6 of 24
 4. Transport (host-to-host) layer
 Ensures data reliability and packet order
 Most common protocol in this layer is the transmission control protocol or
TCP
5. Application layer
 Contains logic to support various user applications
 Separate module for each application (such as ftp)

OSI Model
The open systems interconnection (OSI) is the standard model for classifying communications
functions which consists of seven layers:
 Application
 Presentation
 Session
 Transport
 Network
 Data Link
 Physical

Standards
Essential for managing physical, electrical, and procedural characteristics of communications
equipments so that communication-equipment vendors recognize their equipment will generally interface
to and communicate with other vendors' equipment.
Advantages
 Large market for hardware/software; translates to lower cost

Page 7 of 24
  Intercommunication in products from different vendors
Disadvantages
 Technology freeze
 Multiple / conflicting standards

Page 8 of 24
 DATA TRANSMISSION
Concepts and terminology
Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver over some transmission medium.
Transmission media may be classified as guided or unguided. In both cases, communication is in the
form of electromagnetic waves.
With guided media, the waves are guided along a physical path. Examples of guided media are
twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber. Unguided media provide a means for transmitting
electromagnetic waves but do not guide them. Examples are propagation through air, vacuum, and sea
water.
The term direct link is used to refer to the transmission path between two devices in which
signals propagate directly from transmitter to receiver with no intermediate devices, other than
amplifiers or repeaters used to increase signal strength. This term can apply to both guided and unguided
media.
A guided transmission medium is point-to-point if,
i. it provides a direct link between two devices and,
ii. those are the only two devices sharing the medium

In a multipoint guided configuration, more than two devices share the same medium.

Simplex, Half-duplex, or Full-duplex transmission

In simplex transmission, signals are transmitted in only one direction ie. one station is the
transmitter and the other is the receiver (eg. TV).
In half-duplex operation, both stations may transmit, but only one way at a time (eg. Police Radio).
In full-duplex operation, both stations may transmit simultaneously ie. the medium is carrying
signals in both directions at the same time (eg. Telephone).
Frequency, Spectrum, and Bandwidth
A signal is generated by the transmitter and transmitted over a medium. The signal is a function
of time, called time-domain view. It can also be expressed as a function of frequency, called frequency-
domain view.
Time-Domain Concepts
An electromagnetic signal can be either continuous or discrete.
a. A continuous signal is one in which the signal intensity varies smoothly over time and there
are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal.

Page 9 of 24
 b. A discrete signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a constant level for some
period of time and then changes to another constant level.

The simplest sort of signal is a periodic signal, in which the same signal pattern repeats over time.
The following figure shows an example of a periodic analog signal (sine wave) and a periodic digital
signal (square wave). A signal s(t) is defined to be periodic if and only if

A signal is aperiodic or non-periodic if it is not periodic. In data communications, we commonly use

periodic analog signals and non-periodic digital signals.
The sine wave is the fundamental continuous signal. A general sine wave can be represented by three
parameters: amplitude (A), frequency (f), and phase (φ). The amplitude is the peak value or strength of the
signal over time; typically, this value is measured in volts or watts. The frequency is the rate (in cycles per
second, or Hertz (Hz)) at which the signal repeats. An equivalent parameter is the period (T) of a signal,
which is the amount of time it takes for one repetition; therefore, T = l/f. Phase is a measure of the relative
position in time within a single period of a signal. The general sine wave can be written as,

The wave length(λ) of sine wave is defined as the distance occupied by a single cycle. If the signal travels at
velocity ν, then λ = νT.
The following figure shows the effect of varying each of the three parameters.

Page 10 of 24
Frequency Domain Concepts
A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single spike in the frequency
domain. Simple sine waves have many applications in daily life. ( eg. to carry electric energy from one place
to another). A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications. We need to send a
composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine waves.
A composite signal can be periodic or non-periodic. A periodic composite signal can be decomposed
into a series of simple sine waves with discrete frequencies having integer values. A non-periodic composite
signal can be decomposed into a combination of an infinite number of simple sine waves with continuous
frequencies having real values.
An electromagnetic signal will be made up of many frequencies. For example, the signal

is shown in the following figure. The components of this signal are just sine waves of frequencies f l and
3f1. Parts (a) and (b) of the figure show these individual components.

When all of the frequency components of a signal are integer multiples of one frequency, the
latter frequency is referred to as the fundamental frequency. The period of the total signal is equal to the
period of the fundamental frequency. The period of the components is T = l/fl, and the period of
s(t) is also T, as can be seen in the figure (c).
So, there is a time-domain function s(t) that specifies the amplitude of the signal at each instant in
time. Similarly, there is a frequency-domain function S(f) that specifies the amplitude at each frequency
component of the signal. The following figure (a) shows the frequency-domain function for the signal in
the above figure, which is discrete.

Page 11 of 24
Spectrum
The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that it contains. For the above signal, the
spectrum extends from f1 to 3f1.
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal. In the above case, the bandwidth is 2f 1. The bandwidth of the non-periodic signals
has the same range, but the frequencies are continuous.

DC component
If a signal includes a component of zero frequency, that component is a direct current (dc)
component. For example, the following figure shows the result of adding a dc component to the signal of
. With no dc component, a signal has an average amplitude of zero, as seen
in the time domain. With a dc component, it has a frequency term at f = 0 and a nonzero average amplitude.

Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth

The effective bandwidth is the band within which most of the signal energy is confined. Although a
given waveform may contain frequencies over a very broad range, as a practical matter any transmission
medium is able to accommodate only a limited band of frequencies. This, in turn, limits the data rate that
can be carried on the transmission medium.
Consider a sine wave of frequency f1. Consider the positive pulse to be binary 1 and the negative
pulse to be binary 0. Add to it sine waves of period 3f 1, 5f1, 7f1, … . The resultant waveform starts to
Page 12 of 24
approximate a square wave. Frequency components of a square wave with amplitude A and –A can be
expressed as,

This waveform has infinite number of frequency components and infinite bandwidth. Peak amplitude of k th
frequency component is 1/k, so most of the energy is concentrated in the first few frequencies. Limiting the
bandwidth to only the first few frequencies gives a shape that is reasonably close to square wave. We can
use the following figures to illustrate the relationship between data rate and bandwidth.

Suppose that we are using a digital transmission system that is capable of transmitting signals with
a bandwidth of 4 MHz. Let us attempt to transmit a sequence of alternating 1s and 0s as the square wave of
figure (c). What data rate can be achieved? Let us approximate our square wave with the waveform of
figure (a). Although this waveform is a "distorted" square wave, it is sufficiently close to the square wave
that a receiver should be able to discriminate between a binary 0 and a binary 1. Now, if we let f l = l06
cycles/second = 1 MHz, then the bandwidth of the signal,

Page 13 of 24
is (5 X l06) - l06 = 4 MHz. Note that for f 1 = 1 MHz, the period of the fundamental frequency is T = 1/ l0 6
= l0-6 = 1 µsec. Thus, if we treat this waveform as a bit string of 1s and 0 s, one bit occurs every 0.5 µsec,
for a data rate of 2 X l06= 2 Mbps. Thus, for a bandwidth of 4 Mhz, a data rate of 2 Mbps is achieved.

Analog and digital data transmission

Data
We can define data as entities that convey meaning. The concepts of analog and digital data are
simple enough. Analog data take on continuous values on some interval. For example, voice and video are
continuously varying patterns of intensity. Most data collected by sensors, such as temperature and
pressure, are continuous-valued. Digital data take on discrete values; examples are text and integers.
Signals
In a communications system, data are propagated from one point to another by means of electric
signals. An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a
variety of media, depending on spectrum; examples are wire media, such as twisted pair and coaxial
cable, fiber optic cable, and atmosphere or space propagation. A digital signal is a sequence of
voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wire medium; for example, a constant positive voltage level
may represent binary 1, and a constant negative voltage level may represent binary 0.
Transmission
Both analog and digital signals may be transmitted on suitable transmission media. The way
these signals are treated is a function of the transmission system. Analog transmission is a means of
transmitting analog signals without regard to their content; the signals may represent analog data (e.g.,
voice) or digital data (e.g., binary data that pass through a modem). In either case, the analog signal will
become weaker (attenuated) after a certain distance. To achieve longer distances, the analog
transmission system includes amplifiers that boost the energy in the signal.

Transmission Impairments
Transmission Impairment means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the
signal at the end of the medium. The most significant impairments are,
 Attenuation
 Delay distortion
 Noise
1. Attenuation
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels with distance over
through a medium, it loses some of its energy due to the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire
carrying electric signals gets hot. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To
compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. The following figure shows the effect
of attenuation and amplification.

Page 14 of 24
 The unit of the decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different points. The decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified.

Variables PI and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

Attenuation is Logarithmic in nature for guided media; expressed as a constant number of decibels
per unit distance. For unguided media, complex function of distance and atmospheric conditions.
2. Delay distortion
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in a composite signal
made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own propagation speed, through a medium
and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination. Differences in delay may create a
difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the period duration. In other words, signal
components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the sender. The shape of the
composite signal is therefore not the same. The following figure shows the effect of distortion on a
composite signal.

At the sender At the receiver

3. Noise
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise,
crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.
i. Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not
originally sent by the transmitter.
ii. Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a
sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna.
iii. Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the
other as the receiving antenna.
iv. Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from
power lines, lightning, and so on.
The following figure shows the effect of noise on a signal.

Page 15 of 24
Channel Capacity
Variety of impairments limits the data rate that can be achieved. The rate at which data can be
transmitted over a given communication path, or channel, under given conditions, is referred to as the
channel capacity.
There are four concepts here that we are trying to relate to one another:
Data rate. This is the rate, in bits per second (bps), at which data can be communicated.
Bandwidth. This is the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained by the transmitter and by the
nature of the transmission medium, expressed in cycles per second, or hertz.
Noise. The average level of noise over the communications path.
Error rate. The rate at which errors occur, where an error is the reception of a 1 when a 0 was transmitted,
or the reception of a 0 when a 1 was transmitted.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Transmission medium
The transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver. They may be guided
(wired) or unguided (wireless). Data communication is achieved by using electromagnetic waves.

Characteristics and quality of data transmission

The Characteristics and quality of data transmission are dependent on characteristics of medium and
signal. In Guided medium, Medium is more important in setting transmission parameters. In Unguided
Page 16 of 24
medium, Bandwidth of the signal produced by transmitting antenna is important in setting transmission
parameters. One key property of signals transmitted by antenna is directionality. The lower frequency
signals are Omni-directional and higher frequency signals can be focused in a directional beam.
In considering the design of data transmission systems, a key concern is data rate and distance. The
greater the data rate and distance are better. A number of design factors relating to the transmission
medium and to the signal determine the data rate and distance:
Design factors
• Bandwidth
- Higher bandwidth gives higher data rate
• Transmission impairments
- Impairments such as attenuation, limits the distance. Twisted pair has more attenuation than coaxial
cable which in turn is not as good as optical fiber.
• Interference - Can be minimized by proper shielding in guided media.
• Number of receivers
- In a shared link, each attachment introduces attenuation and distortion on the line.
The following figure depicts the electromagnetic spectrum and indicates the frequencies at which
various guided media and unguided transmission techniques operate.

Electromagnetic spectrum for telecommunications

Guided transmission media

The transmission capacity (bandwidth and data rate) depends on distance and type of network (point-
to-point or multipoint).

Twisted pair
Page 17 of 24
 Twisted pair cables are least expensive and most widely used.
Physical description
i. Two insulated copper wires arranged in regular spiral pattern
ii. Number of pairs are bundled together in a cable
iii. Twisting decreases the crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs in the cable, by using different
twist length for neighboring pairs

Applications
 Most common transmission media for both digital and analog signals
 Less expensive compared to coaxial cable or optical fiber
 Limited in terms of data rate and distance
 Telephone network
 Individual units (residence lines) to local exchange (end office)
 Subscriber loops
 Supports voice traffic using analog signaling
 May handle digital data at modest rates using modems
Transmission characteristics
i. Requires amplifiers every 5-6 km for analog signals
ii. Requires repeaters every 2-3 km for digital signals
iii. Attenuation is a strong function of frequency
 Higher frequency implies higher attenuation
iv. Susceptible to interference and noise
v. Improvement possibilities
 Shielding with metallic braids or sheathing reduces interference
 Twisting reduces low frequency interference
 Different twist length in adjacent pairs reduces crosstalk
Unshielded and shielded twisted pairs
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
o Ordinary telephone wire
o Subject to external electromagnetic interference
Shielded twisted pair (STP)
o Shielded with a metallic braid or sheath
o Reduces interference
o Better performance at higher data rates
o More expensive and difficult to work compared to UTP
Category 3 and Category 5 UTP
o Most common is the 100-Ohm voice grade twisted pair
Page 18 of 24
 o Most useful for LAN applications
Category 3 UTP
o Transmission characteristics specified up to 16 MHz
o Voice grade cable in most office buildings
o May have data rates up to 16 Mbps over limited distances
o Typical twist length 7.5 to 10 cm
Category 4 UTP
o Transmission characteristics specified up to 20 MHz
Category 5 UTP
o Transmission characteristics specified up to 100 MHz
o Data grade cable in newer buildings
o May have data rates up to 100 Mbps over limited distances
o Much more tightly twisted, with typical twist length 0.6 to 0.85 cm, for better performance

Coaxial cable
Physical description
i. Consists of two conductors with construction that allows it to operate over a wider range of
frequencies compared to twisted pair
ii. Hollow outer cylindrical conductor surrounding a single inner wire conductor
iii. Inner conductor held in place by regularly spaced insulating rings or solid dielectrical material
iv. Outer conductor covered with a jacket or shield
v. Diameter from 1 to 2.5 cm
vi. Shielded concentric construction reduces interference and crosstalk
vii. Can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared line than twisted pair

Applications
 Most common use is in cable tv
 Traditionally part of long distance telephone network
 Can carry more than 10,000 voice channels simultaneously using frequency-division multiplexing
 Short range connections between devices
Transmission characteristics
 Used to transmit both analog and digital signals
 Superior frequency characteristics compared to twisted pair
 Can support higher frequencies and data rates
 Shielded concentric construction makes it less susceptible to interference and crosstalk than twisted
pair
 Constraints on performance are attenuation, thermal noise, and inter-modulation noise
 Requires amplifiers every few kilometers for long distance transmission
 Usable spectrum for analog signaling up to 500 MHz
Page 19 of 24
  Requires repeaters every few kilometers for digital transmission
 For both analog and digital transmission, closer spacing is necessary for higher frequencies/data rates

Optical Fiber
Physical Description
-Thin, Flexible material to guide optical rays
-Cylindrical cross-section with three concentric links
1. Core
 Innermost section of the fiber
 One or more very thin (dia. 8-100 µm) strands or fibers
2. Cladding
 Surrounds each strand
 Plastic or glass coating with optical properties different from core
 Interface between core and cladding prevents light from escaping the core
3. Jacket
 Outermost layer, surrounding one or more claddings
 Made of plastic and other materials
 Protects from environmental elements like moisture, abrasions, and crushing

Applications
 Long haul trunks
o Increasingly common in telephone networks
o About 1500km in length with high capacity (20000 to 60000 voice channels)
 Metropolitan trunks
o Average length of about 12 km with a capacity of 100,000 voice channels
o Mostly repeater less to join phone exchanges in metro areas
 Rural exchange trunks
o Circuit lengths from 40 to 160 km
o Fewer than 5000 voice channels
o Connect exchanges of different phone companies
 Subscriber loops
o Central exchange to subscriber
o May be able to handle image and video in addition to voice and data
 Local area networks
o 100Mbps to 1Gbps capacity
o Can support hundreds of stations on a campus
Transmission characteristics
Page 20 of 24
 o Single-encoded beam of light transmitted by total internal reflection
o Transparent medium should have higher refractive index compared to surrounding medium
(Refractive Index - The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a
medium under consideration)
o Optical fiber acts as a waveguide for frequencies in the range of about 1014 to 1015 Hz (IR and
visible regions of spectrum)

Step-index multimode
o Rays at shallow angles are reflected and propagated along the fiber
o Other rays are absorbed by the surrounding material
Multimode transmission
o Allows for multiple propagation paths, with different path lengths and time to traverse the fiber
o Signal elements can be spread over time
o Limits the rate at which data can be accurately received
o Best suited for transmission over very short distances
Single-mode transmission
o Reduced fiber core will allow fewer angles to be reflected
o Single transmission path reduces distortion
o Typically used for long-distance applications
Graded-index multimode
o Lies in between single-mode and multimode
o Higher refractive index at the center implies that the rays close to axis advance slowly compared to
rays close to the cladding
o Light in the core curves helically reducing its traveling
o Shorter path and higher speed makes light at periphery as well as at the axis travel at the same Speed
Light sources
1. Light-emitting diode (LED)

Page 21 of 24
 o Cheaper and works over a greater temperature range
o Longer operational life
2. Injection laser diode (LLD)
o More efficient and can sustain greater data rates
Wireless Transmission
Transmission and reception are achieved using an antenna
 Transmitter sends out the Electromagnetic (EM) signal into the medium
 Receiver picks up the signal from the surrounding medium
Directional transmission
 Transmitter sends out a focused EM beam
 Transmitter and receiver antennae must be carefully aligned
 More suitable for higher frequency signals
Omnidirectional transmission
 Transmitted signal spreads out in all directions
 May be received by many antennae
Frequency ranges for wireless transmission
1. 2 GHz to 40 GHz
o Microwave frequencies
o Highly directional beams for point-to-point communications
o Also used for satellite communication
2. 30 MHz to 1 GHz
o Broadcast radio range
o Suitable for omnidirectional purposes
3. 3 x 1011 HZ to 2 x 1014 Hz
o Infrared portion of the spectrum
o Useful for local point-to-point and multipoint applications within confined areas
o TV remote

Terrestrial microwave
Physical description
o Parabolic dish antenna, about 3m in diameter
o Fixed rigidly with a focused beam along line of sight to receiving antenna
o With no obstacles, maximum distance (d, in km) between antennae can be

where h is antenna height and K is an adjustment factor to account for the bend in microwave due to
earth's curvature, enabling it to travel further than the line of sight; typically K = 4/3.
o Two microwave antennae at a height of 100m may be as far as

o Long distance microwave transmission is achieved by a series of microwave relay towers

Page 22 of 24
Applications
o Long haul telecom service
o Fewer repeaters than coaxial cable but needs line of sight
Transmission characteristics
o Frequencies in the range of 2 to 40 GHz
o Higher frequency implies higher bandwidth leading to higher data rates
o Loss varies as the square of distance
o For twisted pair and coaxial cable, loss varies logarithmically with distance
o Repeaters may be placed further apart compared to coaxial cable
o Attenuation may increase with rainfall, especially above 10 GHz
o Interference is a problem, leading to regulated assignment of frequencies

Satellite microwave
Physical description
o Communication satellite is a microwave relay station between two or more ground stations
o Satellite uses different frequency bands for incoming (uplink) and outgoing (downlink) data
o A single satellite can operate on a number of frequency bands, known as transponder channels or
transponders
o Geosynchronous orbit (35,784 km)
o Satellites cannot be too close to each other to avoid interference

Applications
o Television/telephone/private business networks

Page 23 of 24
 o VSAT - Very small aperture terminals
- Used to share a satellite capacity for data transmission
Transmission characteristics
o Optimum frequency range in 1to10 GHz
o Below 1 GHz, significant noise from galactic, solar, and atmospheric noise, and terrestrial electronic
devices
o Most satellites use 5.925{6.425 GHz band for uplink and 4.2{4.7 GHz band for downlink (4/6 band)
o Propagation delay of about a quarter second due to long distance
 Problems in error control and flow control
 Inherently broadcast, leading to security problems

Broadcast radio
Physical description
o Omnidirectional transmission
o No need for dish antennae
Applications
o Frequencies from 3 KHz to 300 GHz
o Radio/Television/Data networking
Transmission characteristics
o 30 MHz to 1 GHz (UHF band) used for broadcast communications
o Ionosphere transparent to radio waves above 30 MHz
 Transmission limited to line of sight
 Distant transmitters do not interfere with each other due to reflection from atmosphere
o Less sensitive to attenuation from rainfall
o Maximum distance between transmitter and receiver is given by same equation as microwave; same
for attenuation
o Impairment due to multipath interference
- Reflection from land, water, natural, man-made objects
Infrared
→ Limited to short distances and highly directional
→ Cannot penetrate walls
→ No licensing; no frequency allocation issues

Page 24 of 24