General Biology 2:

Reproduction and
Development of Plants
and Animals
 Plants and Animals reproduce, develop and find foods to sustain those processes involve but what is
the difference between plants and animals in terms of reproduction and development?

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: reproduction and development
(STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1).

After going through this material, you are expected to:

1. Compare and contrast reproduction and development of plants and animals;

2. Make a diagram on the difference between plants and animals in terms of reproduction and
development; and
3. Value the importance of reproduction and development of plants and animals.

Reproduction

Plants, animals, and other organism have the ability to reproduce. Reproduction is a biological process
in which different organisms have the ability to produce another of their kind. With this ability, organisms are
able to improve their species and enhance their physical characteristics, because only those that have the genes
necessary for survival can proliferate and pass them on to the next generation. In plants and animals,
reproduction may either be sexual or asexual.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction does not involve gametes or sex cells. This type of reproduction can be
observed in some plants and in lower forms of animals.

Types of Asexual Reproduction:

1. Budding - an organism is reproduced by forming an outgrowth, or a “bud”, from a part of the parent
organism’s body. Example is Hydra:
 Figure 1: Hydra
Problem-based scenario: In a water plant facility where there is a rise in chlorine levels, a multi-
headed serpent like species appeared. Turns out, this is a hydra that re-grows its head once harmed,
what would you do to get rid of it?

o Hydras are known for its agile ability to move from place to place by basal gliding
o Hydra has the ability to regenerate from small pieces, the basis for the allusion to the mythical
Hydra, which regrew two heads after decapitation. If you cut a Hydra in half, the top half will
regenerate a foot and the bottom half will regenerate a head.
o Hydra has a high tolerance in varying temperature, which makes them hard to kill.
o They reproduce quickly that they can survive successfully compared to sponges, water fleas,
and other sexually and asexually reproducing species.

2. Fragmentation - an organism is produced from the detached body part of its parent. Example is some
species of sea stars.

Figure 2: Sea stars or starfish

Problem-based scenario: During the dive of scuba divers in south Pacific Ocean, they notice
enormous number of starfish with multiple arms, upon closer look, these are the ones who fell victim
to predation and environmental stresses that causes their parts to be fragmented. These fragmented
starfish pose a threat to coral polyps, what do you think you can do to at least minimize its negative
effect?
 o Starfish are mostly predators and feed on invertebrates such as mussels and clams that live on
the ocean floor. Several species have specialized feeding behaviors including eversion of their
stomachs. This means the starfish extends its stomach out of its mouth and over the digestible
parts of its prey.
o Starfish contain thousands of tube-like feet that contain cells that are specialized for adhesion.
starfish can use these tube feet to move across a surface.
o Most species of starfish can regenerate, or regrow, damaged or lost arms. They can also shed
arms as a means of defense. If an arm is damaged by a predator such as another starfish or a
crab, the starfish can detach that arm and grow a new, healthy one.
3. Binay fusion - a parent organism (e.g., a unicellular organism) splits into two “daughter” organisms.
This type of asexual reproduction is usually done by prokaryotic organisms (e.g., bacteria) and some
invertebrates. Example is cyanobacteria.

Figure 3: Cyanobacteria

Problem-based scenario: A river near laguna lake with a vibrant green color has turned murky
brown for a yet identified reason. Investigators who visited the area found out that the cyanobacteria
have decomposed which kills fishes, and other species. Also, it seems that these cyanobacteria
encountered defects during cell division process. Find out why these defects could potentially harm
bodies of water, and what can you do to prevent it from happening?

o They contain chlorophyll a, the same photosynthetic pigment that plants use.
o Cyanobacteria are very important organisms for the health and growth of many plants.
o Transverse binary fission is the most prevalent form of asexual reproduction in cyanobacteria.

4. Vegetative reproduction - a plant part is used to reproduce another plant. Example is strawberry and
kamote, etc..
 Figure 4: Plant

Problem-based scenario: A farm heavily relies on vegetative reproduction, particularly runners,

which is needed to propagate the strawberry plants. The problem is that these runners are growing
rapidly, which causes the plant to form underdeveloped leaves and weaker stems. What can you do in
this situation? Is it normal for these plants to undergo this kind of reproduction if it will only cause
problems?

o Strawberries are low-growing herbaceous plants with a fibrous root system and a crown from
which arise basal leaves.
o As a plant ages, the root system becomes woody, and the “mother” crown sends out runners
(e.g., stolons) that touch ground and root, thus enlarging the plant vegetatively.
o Botanically, the strawberry fruit is considered an “accessory fruit” and is not a true berry.

5. Spore formation - this involves the production of spores, which are specialized asexual reproductive
cells. Example is ferns.

Figure 5: Fern

Problem-based scenario: In a well-known greenhouse botanical garden, there is a species known as

ferns that reproduce via spores, however, there is a difficult situation currently that is happening, these
ferns are not able to produce spores, upon investigation, the problem started with the ferns lacking of
sporangia. This can be very threatening since it disrupts their life cycle. What can you possibly do in
this situation? Is there a way to let them reproduce successfully?

o The ferns are extremely diverse in habitat, form, and reproductive methods.
 o The majority of ferns inhabit warm, damp areas of the Earth. Growing profusely in tropical
areas, ferns diminish in number with increasingly higher latitudes and decreasing supplies of
moisture. Few are found in dry, cold places.
o Because of their ability to disperse by spores and their capacity to produce both sex organs
on the same gametophyte and thus to self-fertilize, it would seem logical to assume that ferns
possess higher powers of long-distance dispersal and establishment than do seed plants.

Sexual Reproduction

On the other hand, sexual reproduction involves the union of (i.e., gametes the sperm and the egg cell)
inside or outside the body of an organism. This type of reproduction is exhibited only by higher forms of
organisms, including humans. In this process, the sperm and the egg fuse to create a fertilized egg known as
the zygote, which will eventually become the embryo. Figure 6.1 shows the process necessary for sexual
reproduction to occur.

Figure 6: Sexual Reproduction

Reproductive Traits in Organisms

The reproduction of different organisms plays a vital role in the continuation of their species, as well
as their survival. There are a lot of physical differences in the reproductive systems of plants and animals, but
they also share certain similarities. Plants and animals both use color display for reproduction. Plants use their
physical characteristics to attract pollinators. Some plants have bright-colored flowers to attract insects, and
thus enabling the transfer of pollen from one flower to another.

Figure 7 shows a bee feeding on nectar from a dandelion. As the bee feeds itself, the pollen grains get
attached to its hairy body. When the bee sips nectar from another flower, the pollen grains that previously got
attached to it are then transferred; thus, reproduction happens.
 Figure 7: Pollination

One distinguishing characteristic of animals is, w sexual selection herein some male species compete
with other males to copulate with females. This form of natural selection allows successful transfer of genes
from one generation to the next. Another difference between plants and animals is their method of fertilization.
Sexual reproduction in most animals requires physical interaction with each other in close proximity. In
comparison, plants need a vector, such as an insect or a bird. Thus, animals and plants have different ways of
reproduction, but their main goal is the same: to extend their species.

Some animals also use color display to attract a mate. The peacock in figure 8 shows a magnificent
color display of its feathers during courtship. The peacock does this to attract the female peafowl, the peahen.

Figure 8: A peacock displaying his plumage to a peafowl.

Simple problem-based scenarios (This is an individual tasks):

o Peacocks held in captive started to lose their vibrant green colors. What does this
signify?
o Peahens at a well-known zoo prefers male with extravagant display of colors. How so?

Development

Plants and animals have progressed differently. Based on phylogenetic evidence or the evolutionary
history of organisms, the primitive ancestor of plants and animals was likely a unicellular eukaryote. However,
based on molecular evidence from gene comparisons, there is not much similarity between the genes that make
up the body plan of plants and of animals.
 Figure 9: Comparison between life cycles of animals and plants

Application of these processes:

Figure 10: Butterfly life cycle

Metamorphosis

Is a series of major changes in an animal’s body form as it moves through its life cycle. Butterflies and
moths undergo a complete metamorphosis, which means there are four separate stages in the life cycle (egg,
larva, pupa, and adult). Each stage looks completely different and serves a different purpose in the life of the
insect. Egg Stage: Female Lepidoptera (the group butterflies and moths belong in) often require specific
plants, called host plants, on which to lay eggs. A butterfly usually lays 200-500 eggs which vary in shape and
size depending on the species. Most species hatch in four to five days, while others may take as long as three
weeks. It has six stages known as: egg stage, larva stage, pupa stage, and adult stage.
 Figure 11: Fern life cycle

Fern life cycle

Spores are single cells that germinate and develop under the appropriate conditions into
multicellular plants that produce sex cells or gametes. The gametophytes not only bear the male and female
gametes (spermatozoids and egg cells, respectively) but also serve as the site for fertilization. The completion
of fertilization by the formation of the zygote initiates the diploid phase of the life cycle, the sporophyte. In
both ferns and see plants, the sporophyte is the visibly dominant generation. The gametophyte of seed plants
is very small and develops within special structures of the sporophyte, whereas in ferns the gametophyte,
through tiny, develops and matures independent from the sporophyte.

Final Activities:

Individual Task: Research about morphogenesis

Group task: Base on the scenarios under each type of asexual reproduction and answer them first before
answering the following questions;

Group 1 Problem-based Question: If you were to encounter such problem in real-life, how would you use
your knowledge about this particular concept to prevent and also warn people about its effects?

Group 2 Problem-based Question: In this context, if we really are protecting the biodiversity, why is it
necessary to get rid of some species? And do you think by doing this, other species will thrive successfully?

Group 3 Problem-based Question: If you have this kind of problem in your own barangay, how can you
convince other people that this is a situation that cannot just be ignored? Would you be able to utilize your
past knowledge here? Elaborate.

Group 4 Problem-based Question: If you were to experience the same thing, what will be your advice to
those that sell them for their livelihood, do you think your knowledge about how this particular problem that
occurred can be prevented is enough? Elaborate.

Group 5 Problem-based Question: In this situation, if in case all of the ferns died for failed reproduction, how
do you think this scenario could affect the Earth? Do you think other species will do just fine or becomes
scarce of resources?