CSC 501: COMPUTER NETWORKS II

Lecturer: Dr. J.O.J. Ezike.

Course Content
CSC 501(2 Units) – Computer Networks II
Architecture of computer networks and network protocols, protocol layering, reliable transmission,
congestion control, flow control, naming and addressing, unicast and multicast routing, network security,
network performance, widely used protocols such as Ethernet, wireless LANs, IP, and HTTP. Bus structures
and loop systems, computer network. Examples and design consideration, data switching principles,
broadcast techniques, and network structure for packet switching, protocols, and description of network e.g.
ARPANET, DSC etc. Prerequisite CSC 206 30h (L) 0h(T) 45h(P).

Some Recommended Text Books

• Data Communications and Networking, McGraw-Hill, 2013, by Behrouz A. Forouzan (5th Edition)
• Computer Networks: A Top-Down Approach, McGraw-Hill. 2012, Behrouz A. Forouzan and Firouz
Mosharraf
• Local Area Networks, McGraw-Hill, 2003, Behrouz A. Forounzan
• Distributed Systems Networks, McGraw-Hill. 2000 by William Butchanan
• Introduction to Networking, McGrawHill- 2003, by Richard A. McMahon
• Building a Wireless Office, Auerbach pub. by Gilbert Held -2003
• Fundamentals of Network Security, McGrawHill, 2004, by Eric Maiwald
• Computer Networking -Schaum's Outlines, 2002, by Ed Tittel- 2002

Part 1: Computer Network- Brief Recap

 A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to
share information and resources.
 The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either
cable media or wireless media.
 The best-known computer network is the Internet.

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 Figure 1: Computer Network

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are performance, reliability, and
security.

Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.

 Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
 Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including

 the number of users,

 the type of transmission medium,
 the capabilities of the connected hardware, and
 the efficiency of the software.

Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more
throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to
the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the
network.
Reliability

In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes
a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
Security

Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

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Advantages of Computer Networks
 File sharing
The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and remote file access.
A person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network can easily see files present on
another workstation, provided he is authorized to do so.
 Resource sharing
All computers in the network can share resources such as printers, fax machines, modems, and
scanners.
 Better connectivity and communications
It allows users to connect and communicate with each other easily. Various communication
applications included e-mail and groupware are used. Through e-mail, members of a network can send
message and ensure safe delivery of data to other members, even in their absence.
 Internet access
Computer networks provide internet service over the entire network. Every single computer attached
to the network can experience the high speed internet.
 Entertainment
Many games and other means of entertainment are easily available on the internet.
Furthermore, Local Area Networks (LANs) offers and facilitates other ways of enjoyments, such as
many players are connected through LAN and play a particular game with each other from remote
location.
 Inexpensive system
Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean reduction in memory
requirement, which indirectly means reduction in file storage expenses. A particular software can be
installed only once on the server and made available across all connected computers at once. This
saves the expense of buying and installing the same software as many times for as many users.
 Flexible access
A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the network and access his files. This offers flexibility to
the user as to where he should be during the course of his routine.
 Instant and multiple access
Computer networks are multiply accessed; many of users can access the same information at the same
time. Immediate commands such as printing commands can be made with the help of computer
networks.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks

 Lack of data security and privacy
Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a computer network to get and
share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s security would be always at risk.
There might even be illegal activities that would occur, which you need to be careful about and aware
of.
 Presence of computer viruses and malwares
If even one computer on a network gets affected by a virus, there is a possible threat for the other
systems getting affected too. Viruses can spread on a network easily, because of the interconnectivity
of workstations. Moreover, multiple systems with common resources are the perfect breeding ground
for viruses that multiply.
 Lack of Independence
Since most networks have a centralized server and dependent clients, the client users lack any
freedom whatsoever. Centralized decision making can sometimes hinder how a client user wants to
use his own computer.
 Lack of Robustness
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 As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire system would
become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server that fails, the entire network
would also come to a standstill.
 Need an efficient handler or technical personnel
For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires high technical skills and know-
how of its operations and administration. A person just having basic skills cannot do this job. Take note
that the responsibility to handle such a system is high, as allotting permissions and passwords can be
daunting. Similarly, network configuration and connection is very tedious and cannot be done by an
average technician who does not have advanced knowledge.

Use (Applications) of Computer Networks

 Financial services
Nowadays, almost all the financial services depend on the computer network. You can access the
financial services across the world. For example, a user can transfer money from one place to another
by using the electronic fund transfer feature. You can use networking in various financial areas such as
ATM, foreign exchange and credit history search.
 Business
Nowadays, most of the works of businesses are done over the computers. To exchange the data
and ideas, you need an effective data and resources sharing features. To do this, you need to
connect the computer with each other through a network. For example, a person of one
department of an organization can share or access the electronic data of other department through
network.
 Email services
A computer network provides you the facility to send or receive mails across the globe in few
seconds.
 Mobile applications
By using the mobile applications, such as cellular or wireless phones, you can communicate
(exchange your views and ideas) with one other.
 Directory services
It provides you the facility to store files on a centralized location to increase the speed of search
operation worldwide.
 Teleconferencing
It contains voice conferencing and video conferencing which are based in networking. In
teleconferencing the participants need not to be presented at the same location.

Classification of Computer Networks

Following are the criteria widely used.

1. Geographical spread
 Local area network (LAN) & Wireless LAN (WLAN)
o Departmental Area Network (DAN)

o Storage Area Network (SAN)

o Wireless LAN (WLAN)
o Virtual (VLAN)
o Home Area Network (HAN)
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  Personal area network (PAN)
 Body area network (BAN) or Wireless BAN (WBAN)
 Campus area network (CAN)
 Metropolitan area network (MAN)
 Wide area network (WAN)
o Enterprise network:
o Global Network
o The Internet
1. Topology
 Bus
 Ring
 Star
 Mesh
 Tree
 Hybrid
2. Ownership
3. Mobility
 Fixed Network
 Mobile Network
o Mobile Adhoc Network
4. Special Purpose
 Storage Area Network (SAN)
 Passive optical local area network (POLAN)
 Enterprise private network (EPN)
 Virtual private network (VPN)
 System-area network (SAN)
5. Others

NETWORK CLASSIFICATION DESCRIPTION

1. Local area network (LAN)
A LAN is the most common network type. It allows users to connect within a short distance in a
common area. Once they connect, users have access to the same resources. For example, you might
use a LAN when you connect your laptop to the internet at your home and print a document from a
printer on the same network
2. Personal area network (PAN)
A PAN, is a small-scale network that revolves around one person or device. A PAN connects just a few
devices in a small localized area. Rather than including many devices, PANs usually operate from one
or two main devices. For example, if you use the Bluetooth functionality on your smartphone to
share a photo with a nearby device, you're using a PAN.

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3. Wireless local area network (WLAN)
A WLAN, operates similarly to a LAN because it transmits data within a small area. It's rarely
necessary to have a wired connection for devices that use a WLAN. While typically less secure and
slightly weaker than other networks, a WLAN provides users with the flexibility to use their devices in
various locations.
4. Campus area network (CAN)
A CAN, is a network used in educational environments such as universities or school districts. While
each department in a school might use its own LAN, all the school's LANs could connect through a
CAN. Campus area networks combine several independent networks into one cohesive unit.
5. Metropolitan area network (MAN)
A MAN, is a medium-sized network that's larger than a CAN. While a MAN is a costly network, it
provides efficient connectivity between devices across a wide geographical range. For example, a city
government might operate with a MAN if it has offices across the entire metropolitan area.
6. Wide area network (WAN)
A wide area network, or a WAN, is an extensive network that's not confined to geographical space.
Corporations and international companies may use WANs to provide a common network with far-
reaching connectivity. For example, remote workers who use the internet to access information from
their company make use of a WAN.
7. Body area network (BAN)
A BAN, also called a wireless body area network (WBAN), a body sensor network (BSN) or a medical
body area network (MBAN), is a wireless network of wearable computing devices. BAN devices may
be embedded inside the body as implants or pills, may be surface-mounted on the body in a fixed
position, or may be accompanied devices which humans can carry in different positions, such as in
clothes pockets, by hand, or in various bags. Devices are becoming smaller, especially in body area
networks.
A Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) connects independent nodes (e.g. sensors and actuators) that are
situated in the clothes, on the body or under the skin of a person. The network typically expands over the
whole human body and the nodes are connected through a wireless communication channel. According to the
implementation, these nodes are placed in a star or multihop topology.

A WBAN offers many promising new applications in the area of remote health monitoring, home/health care,
medicine, multimedia, sports and many other, all of which make advantage of the unconstrained freedom of
movement a WBAN offers. In the medical field, for example, a patient can be equipped with a wireless body
area network consisting of sensors that constantly measure specific biological functions, such as temperature,
blood pressure, heart rate, electrocardiogram (ECG), respiration, etc. The advantage is that the patient doesn’t
have to stay in bed, but can move freely across the room and even leave the hospital for a while. This improves
the quality of life for the patient and reduces hospital costs. In addition, data collected over a longer period
and in the natural environment of the patient, offers more useful information, allowing for a more accurate
and sometimes even faster diagnosis. Figure 2 illustrates a BAN.

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Figure 2: An illustration of a Body Area Network (BAN)

8. NanoN

A nanonetwork or nanoscale network is a set of interconnected nanomachines (devices a few

hundred nanometers or a few micrometers at most in size) which are able to perform only very simple tasks
such as computing, data storing, sensing and actuation. Nanonetworks are expected to expand the capabilities
of single nanomachines both in terms of complexity and range of operation by allowing them to coordinate,
share and fuse information. Nanonetworks enable new applications of nanotechnology in
the biomedical field, environmental research, military technology and industrial and consumer
goods applications.

Home Area Network (HAN)

A home network or home area network (HAN) is a type of computer network that facilitates communication
among devices within the close vicinity of a home. Devices capable of participating in this network, for
example, smart devices such as network printers and handheld mobile computers, often gain
enhanced emergent capabilities through their ability to interact. These additional capabilities can be used to
increase the quality of life inside the home in a variety of ways, such as automation of repetitive tasks,
increased personal productivity, enhanced home security, and easier access to entertainment

Other Special Purpose Networks

9. Storage area network (SAN)

A SAN, is a network that teams use to store mass amounts of sensitive data. It provides a way to centralize
data on a non-localized network that differs from the main operating one. One example of a SAN is if your
team stores customer information on a separate network to maintain the high speeds of your main network

10. Passive optical local area network (POLAN)

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A POLAN, is a low-cost network that can link various locations to one central network. POLANs have the power
to connect multiple entities to one hub of information. For example, if a school district's headquarters needs
to connect with each school in its district, it may implement a POLAN.

11. Enterprise private network (EPN)

An EPN, is an exclusive network that businesses build and operate to share company resources at high speeds.
EPNs are typically unique to a specific company, which ensures the connection is secure. For example, a high-
security technology company might use an EPN to reduce the risk of data breaches.

12. Virtual private network (VPN)

A virtual private network, or VPN, is a private network that's available through the internet. This type of
network functions similarly to an EPN because it provides a secure, private connection. VPNs typically don't
require the same infrastructure as EPNs. Both the general public and companies can use VPNs to ensure
privacy and security.

13. System-area network (SAN)

A system area network, or a SAN, is a broad local network that provides connections in clusters. The various
devices connected to a SAN operate as a single system. SANs are newly developing networks that operate at
high speeds.

Figure 3 illustrates the Classification of computers networks by coverage area (geography)

Figure 3: Classification of Computer Networks based on

Coverage Area (i.e. geographical spread)

More on LAN, MAN & WAN

LAN (Local Area Network)
 It is privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size (see
Figure 4).
 They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and
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 factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
 LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot
 In LAN, all the machines are connected to a single cable.
 Different types of topologies such as Bus, Ring, Star and Tree are used.
 The data transferrates for LAN is up to 10Gbits/s.
 They transfer data at high speeds. High transmission rate are possible in LAN because of the short
distance between various computer networks.
 They exist in a limited geographical area.
Advantages
 LAN transfers data at high speed.
 LAN technology is generally less expensive.

Figure 4: Local Area Network

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 MAN is a larger version of LAN which covers an area that is larger than the covered by LAN but smaller
than the area covered by WAN (see Figure 5).
 A metropolitan area network or MAN covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable
television network available in many cities.
 MAN connects two or more LANs.
 At first, the companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city governments to
wire up an entire city.
 The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only.

Figure 3: Metropolitan Area Network

Figure 5: An illustration of a MAN.

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WAN (Wide Area Network)
 WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or region (see Figure 6).
 WAN links different metropolitan’s countries and national boundaries there by enabling easy
communication.
 t may be located entirely with in a state or a country or it may be interconnected around the world.
 It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs.
 We will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts.
 The communication between different users of WAN is established using leased telephone lines or
satellite links and similar channels.

Figure 6: Wide Area Network

Internet
 The internet is a type of world-wide computer network.
 he internet is the collection of infinite numbers of connected computers that are spread across the
world.
 We can also say that the Internet is a computer network that interconnects hundreds of millions of
computing devices throughout the world.
 It is established as the largest network and sometimes called network of networks that consists of
numerous academic, business and government networks, which together carry various information.
 Internet is a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities,
consisting of interconnected networks using standardized communication protocols.
 When two computers are connected over the Internet, they can send and receive all kinds of
information such as text, graphics, voice, video, and computer programs.

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 Figure5

Figure 7: Some pieces of the Internet

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COMPONENTS OF A DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

 A computer network is basically a Data Communication system.

 For systems on a computer network to communicate, the following five components must be
available: (i) Sender (ii) Receiver (iii) Message (iv) Message (v) Transmission medium. Figure 8
Illustrates this process.

Figure 8: An illustration of the five component of a Data communication network.

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video
2. Sender: Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on
3. Transmission Medium: Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on
4. Receiver: Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves
5. Protocols: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

Data Flow in A Device-Device or A Network Connection

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in Figure 1.2.

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Figure 9: Data Flow (Simplex, Half-duplex, and full-deplex)

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on
a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure 9a).

Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input;
the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data
in one direction.

Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device
is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (see Figure 9b).

The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are traveling in
one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a
channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB
(citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Full-Duplex

In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure 9c).

The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In full-
duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in the other
direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission
paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals
traveling in both directions.

One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of
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the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

CONNECTION TYPES
 A network is two or more devices connected through links.
 A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is
simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between two points.
 For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are
two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point

A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved
for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible (see Figure 10a). When we
change television channels by infrared remote control, we are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television’s control system.

Multipoint

A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link (see
Figure 10b).

Figure 10: Types of connections: point-to-poin and multipoint

In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially

or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared

connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

PART 2: NETWORK ARCHITECTURE, PROTOCOLS, &

PROTOCOL LAYERING

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE & THE NETWORK EDGE

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The Network Edge
 It defines those computers of the network used at the edge (end)of the network. These computers are
known as hosts or end system.
 Host can be classified into the following two types: Clients and Servers.
Clients: Refer to the computer systems that request servers for the completion of a task. The clients are
generally called desktop PCs or workstations.

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 Servers: Refer to the computer systems that receive requests from the clients and process them. After
the processing is complete, the servers send a reply to the clients who sent the request.
 The concept of clients and servers is essential in the network design, i.e. Network Architecture

Network Architecture
1. It is basically the physical and logical design which refers to the software, hardware, protocols and the
media of transmission of data. It refers to how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated
among these computers.
2. It is the design of a communication network. It is a framework for the specification of a
network's physical components and their functional organization and configuration, its operational
principles and procedures, as well as data formats used.
3. Network Architecture is the complete framework of an organization's computer network. The diagram
of the network architecture provides a full picture of the established network with detailed view of all
the resources accessible. It includes hardware components used for communication, cabling and
device types, network layout and topologies, physical and wireless connections, implemented areas
and future plans. In addition, the software rules and protocols also constitute to the network
architecture. This architecture is always designed by a network manager/administrator with
coordination of network engineers and other design engineers.
4. Network Architecture provides the detail overview of a network. It is used to classify all the network
layers step-by-step in logical form by describing each step in detail. It is also based on the complete
working definitions of the protocols. The architecture is emphasized in a distributed computing
environment and its complexity cannot be understood without a framework. Therefore, there is a
need to develop applications or methods to layout an overview of a network before implementation.

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Figure 11: A Sample Network Architecture.

Designing a computer network to meet various network requirements involves a lot of complexities. The
Network design showing the general blueprints, i.e. the network architectures, guides the design and
implementation of the Computer network.

The network architecture of the Internet is predominantly expressed by its use of the Internet Protocol Suite,
rather than a specific model for interconnecting networks or nodes in the network, or the usage of specific types
of hardware links

Classification of Network Architecture

Network architectures are often classified into two broad categories:
1. Client-server architectures
2. Peer-to-Peer architectures
This is illustrated in Figure 12.

Figure 12: Network Edge-Client/Server Network and Peer to Peer

Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 In Peer-to-Peer network (architecture), a group of computers is connected together so that users can
share resources and information.
 Each peer or computational nodes are considered equal and all have the same abilities to use the
resources available on this network; each peer have equivalent capabilities and responsibilities or roles
in contrast to a client-server architectural model, where client and server nodes are divided into server
and client roles. No real hierarchy exist.

 There is no central location (server) for authenticating users, storing files, or accessing resources.
 This means that users must remember which computers in the workgroup have the shared resource or
information that they want to access.
 In Peer to Peer architecture task is allocated to every device on a network.
 All of them are considered to be equal as there is no hierarchy in this network.
 It is mostly used in file sharing
 Each computer has its running software that allows communication between all the other computers.
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  First P2P network was Napster.

An example of a peer-to-peer architecture is a system of intelligent agents that collaborate to collect,

filter, and correlate information.

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network

i. Does not require a dedicated server which means it’s less costly.
ii. If one computer stops working, the other computers connected to the network will continue working.
iii. Installation and setup is quite painless because of the built-in support in modern operating systems.
iv. It is easy to setup.
v. There is no need of any committed server as each peer acts as both server and client.
vi. The network implementation is quite cheap.
vii. The resources of a peer can be shared with other peers very easily in the network.
viii. if one computer stops working then other will continue working

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network

i. Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.
ii. As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network... performance, security, and access
becomes a major headache.
iii. The speed of the network decreases due to heavy usage.
iv. It is not easy to keep track of information on each computer.
v. There is no central backup of files and folders.
vi. Network and data security are weak.
vii. Lack of central device posses a problem in this network.

Client/Server Architecture
 In the client-server architectural model, a system is decomposed into client and server processors or
processes. Servers provide computational resources (or services), which clients consume. Typically, a
server provides services to many clients. It is also common for clients to consume services from
multiple servers. Stated otherwise, there is generally a 1:M relationship between a server and its
clients, and it is sometimes the case that there is a 1:M relationship between a client and the servers
that it uses. The client-server architectural model supports the separation of functionality based on
the service concept.
 A client/server network is a system where one or more computers called clients connect to a central
computer named as server to share or use resources.
 The client requests a service from server, which may include running an application, querying
database, printing a document, performing a backup or recovery procedure. The request made by the
client is handled by server.
 A client/server network is that in which the files and resources are centralized. This means that the
server can hold them and other computers (Client) can access them.
 In the figure above, we have several clients that wants access from sever.
 Server is a central device that provides services and data to the clients requesting such from the
server.
 Servers are basically computer with fast speed and large memory.
 Clients provides services to the end user by taking or consuming services from server.

Advantages of a client/server network

i. Resources and data security are controlled through the server.

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 ii. The client/server network is not restricted to a small number of computers, i.e. it can be scaled up to
accomdate hundreds and thousands of computers.
iii. Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms.
iv. The server system holds the shared files.
v. The server system can be scheduled to take the file backups automatically.
vi. Network access is provided only to authorize users through user security at the server.
vii. The server system is a kind of central repository for sharing printer with clients.
viii. Internet access, e-mail routing and such other networking tasks are quite easily managed by the
server.
ix. The software applications shared by the server are accessible to the clients
Disadvantages of a client/server network
i. The implementation of the network is quite expensive, due to the need of a server as well as
networking devices such as hubs, routers, and switches.
ii. A NOS (Network Operating System) is essential and contributes to the cost.
iii. If and when the server goes down, the entire network crashes.
iv. Technical staff is needed to maintain and ensure the network functions efficiently.
v. There may be congestion if more than one client requests for a service at the same time.

Network Application Architecture

 This is different from Computer Network Architecture.
 It referes to the design approach of the application that is to run on a computer netwok.
 Two paradigm for this are (i) Peer-to Peer and (ii) Client Server.
 Client-server architectures are commonly organized into layers referred to as “tiers”.

Tiered Architectures (for Network Applications)

 Two-tier architecture. The system architecture consists of a data server layer and an application client
layer. Data access computation is associated with the data server layer, and the user interface is
associated with the client application layer. If most of the application logic is associated with the client
application logic, it is sometimes referred to as a “fat client.” If it is associated with the data access
server, the application client layer is sometimes referred to as a “thin client.”
 Three-tier architecture. The system architecture consists of data server layer, an application server
layer and a client application layer. The application server layer facilitates the separation of application
logic from presentation, and promotes distributed processing.
 Multi-tier (n-tier) architecture. The system architecture is a superset of a three-tier architecture, and
includes additional layers for data and/or application servers.
 Sometimes layered (“tiered”) and peer-to-peer architectures are combined, where the nodes in
particular layers are in peer-to-peer relationships. For example, a multi-tiered architecture might
include an enterprise management layer, consisting of peer nodes for such things as network
management, event management, database management, Web server management, and workload
balancing.

Protocols & Protocols Layering

Protocol
 A protocol is a set of rules that governs (manages) data communications. It defines the rules that both
the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate
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 effectively.
 Protocols defines methods of communication, how to communicate, when to communicate etc.
 A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed.
 Important elements of protocols are
1. Syntax 2. Semantics 3. Timing
Syntax: -Syntax means format of data or the structure of how it is presented e.g. first eight bits are for sender
address, next eight bits are for receiver address and rest of the bits for message data.
Semantics: -Semantics is the meaning of each section of bits e.g. the address bit means the route of
transmission or final destination of message.
Timing: -Timing means, at what time data can be sent and how fast data can be sent.
Some protocols also support message acknowledgement and data compression designed for reliable
and/or high-performance network communication.
Example: HTTP, IP, FTP etc…

Figure 13: A human protocol and a computer network protocol

NOTE:
 The data communications between different networks are not possible if there are no common rules
for transmitting and receiving the packets of data. These rules are known as protocols. Example of
protocols are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).
 Anyone working with computer systems and communication, understanding the fundamental
structures of networking is very important.

PROTOCOL LAYERING

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 When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol; when the communication is
complex, we may need to divide the task between different layers, in which case we need a protocol at
each layer.
 Having a protocol at each layer is know results in a layer of protocols and is called protocol layering.
 Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and simpler tasks.
 A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with inputs and outputs, without concern about how inputs
are changed to outputs (i.e. the implementation).
Advantages of Protocol Layering

1. it allows us to separate the services from the implementation. A layer needs to be able to receive a set of
services from the lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer; we don’t care about how the layer
is implemented.
2. Network communication does not always use only two end systems; there are intermediate systems that
need only some layers, but not all layers (eg, switches, routers). If we did not use protocol layering, we
would have to make each intermediate system as complex as the end systems, which makes the whole
system more expensive.
3. Give other advantaes

Disadvantage of Protocol Layering

1. Having a single layer MAY make the job easier. There is no need for each layer to provide a service to the
upper layer and give service to the lower layer.
2. Give other disadvantages

Principles of Protocol Layering

Two principles of protocol layering are as follows:
First Principle: if we want bidirectional communication, we need to make each layer so that it is able to perform two
opposite tasks, one in each direction, e.g a layer that handles encryption in one direction should be able to decrypt in the
other direction (i.e. talk and listen, or listen and talk).
Second Principle: the two objects under each layer at both sites (senders side and receivers side) should be identical.

Protocols layers and their Service models:

The ISO-OSI and the TCP/IP Models

 Data communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data. Two layered network
communication models (or computer networking models) are available. These are:
1. the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model, and
2. the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model.
 These models work as frameworks for organizing and understanding how data moves from one device to
another across networks.

 While both models aim to achieve similar goals, they differ in their approach, their layer organization, and
their practical application within computer networking.
 The ISO-OSI model serves as a reference model, while the TCP/IP model is the operational model in use.
 The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model (Explain).

The OSI Model

 Sending data over a network is complex because various hardware and software technologies must
work cohesively across geographical and political boundaries.
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 OSI model is a conceptual framework that characterizes and standardizes how different software and hardware
components involved in a network communication should divide labor and interact with one another. The
framework divides network communication function into seven layer.
 The OSI data model provides a universal language for computer networking, so diverse technologies
can communicate using standard protocols or rules of communication.
 Every technology in a specific layer must provide certain capabilities and perform specific functions to
be useful in networking.
 Technologies in the higher layers benefit from abstraction as they can use lower-level
technologies without having to worry about underlying implementation details.
 OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first
step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers. It was revised in
1995.
 The model is called the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with
connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems.

The seven layers of the OSI model is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: The Seven Layers of the OSI Model

Open System
Interconnection (OSI) Brief Summary of Their Functions
Model
Responsible for providing services to the user. It enables end user’s
Application Lalyer application to access the network.
Takes care fo the sysntax and semantics of the information
Presentation Layer exchange between two communication systems. It converst data
into an understandable format and encrypts it.
It establishes, maintain, synchronizes and terminate the interaction
Session Layer between sender and receiver, theat is, it Enables and manages
sessions of communication between computers
Responsible for process to process delivery of data, that is, it ensure
Transport Layer reliable transfer of data of packets between users.
Responsible for delivery of individual packets from source to
Network layer destination. Determines the transmission path of data using routing
protocols.
Responsible for moving frames from one hop to next hop, that is, it
DataLink Layer formats data on the network and sends it from node to node.
Responsible for moving individual bits from one device to the next
Physical Layer device. Manages the relationship between physical device and the
transmission medium, be it wireless or cable.

Why is the OSI model important?

The layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model encapsulate every type of network
communication across both software and hardware components. The model was designed to allow
two standalone systems to communicate via standardised interfaces or protocols based on the
current layer of operation.

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The benefits of the OSI model are as follows:

Shared understanding of complex systems

 Engineers can use the OSI model to organize and model complex networked system
architectures.
 They can separate the operating layer of each system component according to its main
functionality.
 The ability to decompose a system into smaller, manageable parts via abstraction makes it easier
for people to conceptualize it as a whole.

Faster research and development

 With the OSI reference model, engineers can understand their work better. They know which
technological layer (or layers) they’re developing for when they create new, networked systems that need
to communicate with each other.
 Engineers can develop networked systems and take advantage of a series of repeatable processes and
protocols.

Flexible standardization
 The OSI model does not specify the protocols to use between levels, but rather the tasks that protocols
perform.
 It standardizes network communication development so people can rapidly understand, build, and
decompose highly complex systems—all without prior knowledge of the system.

 It also abstracts details, so engineers don’t require the understanding of every aspect of the
model. In modern applications, the lower levels of networking and protocols are abstracted away
to simplify system design and development.

Data Flow and Communication between Layers in OSI Model

 For two systems to communicate using going by the OSI-ISO model, the must run the same set of protols.
 Communication is indicated by the follow of data from sender to the receiver
 The process of data flow in the OSI model involves encapsulation at each layer (on the sender’s
side) where each layer added a specific information (a header) to the message as the data goes
down the layer; this is to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly and reliaiably (see
Figure 14).
 The attached header information by each layer of the sending system is meant for the corresponding layer
of the receiving system. The informationis used for communication between similar layers across the
sending and the receiving systems. Figure __ illustrates this principle.
 Upon arrival at the destination, the process is reversed, i.e. the data is decapsulation (at the
reseivers side) as it travels upward the layers.
 Each Layer has two interfaces with the layers above and two intergace with the layers beneat.
One interface for receiving and data and the other for sending.

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Figure 14: An illustration of how data moves down and up the layers and of logical communication
between layers of the network model.

NOTE:
1. Application Layer: Applications create the data.
2. Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
3. Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
4. Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
5. Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
6. Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
7. Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.

Consider a simple example: John (using System or Host A) sends an email to his friend
Betty on Host B.

Step 1: John interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his email to send. (This
happens in Layer 7: Application layer)
Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for
transmission. (This happens in Layer 6: Presentation Layer)
Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the internet. (This
happens in Layer 5: Session Layer)
Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and error-checking
information to maintain the reliability of the information. (This happens in Layer 4: Transport
Layer)
Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer. (This happens
in Layer 3: Network Layer)
Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for local devices and
then it checks for error using error detection. (This happens in Layer 2: Data Link Layer)

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Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over a physical network
medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Betty, the process will reverse and decrypt the e-mail
content. At last, the email will be shown on Bettey’s email client.

Figure 15: OSI Reference Model

Table 2: protocol data unit (PDU) being processed in different layers.]

Protocol Data Unit

Model Type OSI Layers TCP/IP Layers
(PDU)
Application Layer
Presentation Layer Data Application Layer
Host Layers Session Layer
Segment (TCP) /
Transport Layer Transport Layer
Datagram (UDP)
Media Layers Network Layer Packet Internet Layer
Data Link Layer Frame Network Access Layer
Physical Layer Bit

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FUNCTION OF EACH LAYERS OF THE ISO-OSI MODEL

Application Layer
 The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access network
services.
 This layer contains a variety of commonly needed functions:
1. Resource sharing and device redirection
2. Remote file access
3. Remote printer access
4. Inter-process communication
5. Network management
6. Directory services
7. Electronic messaging (such as mail)
8. Network virtual terminals

Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can be viewed as
the translator for the network. This layer may translate data from a format used by the application
layer into a common format at the sending station, then translate the common format to a format
known to the application layer at the receiving station.
 The presentation layer provides:
 Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
 Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
 Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.

Session Layer
 The session layer allows session establishment between processes running on different stations.
It provides:
 Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application processes
on different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session.
 Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate over the
network, performing security, name recognition, logging, and so on.

Transport Layer
 The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or
duplications. It relieves (release) the higher layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data
between them and their peers.
 The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get from the
network layer. For a reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer is
required. If the network layer is unreliable and/or only supports datagrams, the transport protocol
should include extensive error detection and recovery.
 The transport layer provides:
 Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the
message into smaller units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the
network layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
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  Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
 Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers
are available.
 Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict message
size limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer. Consequently, the transport layer must
break up the messages into smaller units, or frames, prepending a header to each frame.
 The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as
message start and message end flags, to enable the transport layer on the other end to
recognize message boundaries.
 In addition, if the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the transport header must contain
sequence information to enable the transport layer on the receiving end to get the pieces back
together in the right order before handing the received message up to the layer above.

Network Layer
 The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the data should
take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors.
 To do this, the data link layer provides:
 Routing: routes frames among networks.
 Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a sending
station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer fills up.
 Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum transmission unit
(MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for transmission and
reassembly at the destination station.
 Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses or names, into physical
addresses.
 Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded by
subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information.

Data link Layer

 The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the
physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume virtually error-free transmission over the link.
 To do this, the data link layer provides:
 Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between two
nodes.
 Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off"(stop)when no frame buffers are
available.
 Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
 Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and recovers
from errors that occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and
handling duplicate frame receipt.
 Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
 Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
 Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the physical
medium.

Physical Layer
 The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and reception
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 of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium/communication channel.
 It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium, and
carries the signals for all of the higher layers. The design issues have to do with making sure that when
one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
 Typical questions here are
o how many volts should be used to represent a 1 and how many for a 0,
o how many nanoseconds a bit lasts,
o whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions,
o how the initial connection is established and how it is torn down when both sides are finished?
o How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for.
 The design issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, and the physical
transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.

 It provides:
 Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to better
accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit and frame
synchronization.
 Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by
baseband(digital) or broadband (analog) signaling.
 Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate for
the physical medium.

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Factors to Consider at the Physical Layer
To summarize, the physical layer has to take into account the following factors:
 Signal encoding: How are the bits 0 and 1 to be represented?
 Medium: What is the medium used, and what are its properties?
 Bit synchronization: Is the transmission asynchronous or synchronous?
 Transmission type: Is the transmission serial or parallel?
 Transmission mode: Is the transmission simplex, half-duplex or full duplex?
 Topology: What is the topology (mesh, star ring, bus or hybrid) used?
 Multiplexing: Is multiplexing used, and if so, what is its type (FDM, TDM)?
 Interface: How are the two closely linked devices connected?
 Bandwidth: Which of the two baseband or broadband communication is being used?
 Signal type: Are analog signals or digital?

Physical Layer Services

The physical layer provides the following services:
 Modulates the process of converting a signal from one form to another so that it can be
physically transmitted over a communication channel
 Bit-by-bit delivery
 Line coding, which allows data to be sent by hardware devices that are optimized for digital
communications that may have discreet timing on the transmission link
 Bit synchronization for synchronous serial communications
 Start-stop signaling and flow control in asynchronous serial communication
 Circuit switching and multiplexing hardware control of multiplexed digital signals
 Carrier sensing and collision detection, whereby the physical layer detects carrier availability and
avoids the congestion problems caused by undeliverable packets
 Signal equalization to ensure reliable connections and facilitate multiplexing
 Forward error correction/channel coding such as error correction code
 Bit interleaving to improve error correction
 Auto-negotiation
 Transmission mode control

Examples of protocols that use physical layers include:

 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
 Infrared Data Association (IrDA)
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
 Bluetooth
 Controller Area Network (CAN)
 Ethernet

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