Quantitative Research Designs

Quantitative research is more systematic and controlled than qualitative. However, both research methods have a
statement of the problem to investigate. At this point, it is assumed that you are already done stating your research
problem, the background of the study, scope and delimitation, hypothesis, conceptual framework, and review of related
literature and studies. Each type of research has a unique design to follow that will also lead the direction of sampling
procedure, data gathering, and data analysis. Each research type also aims to answer specific research questions; how it
will be answered is determined by its design. Important considerations also are the variables of the study. The type of
variables provides paradigm (your conceptual framework), which helps the researcher decide on what will be the design
of the study.

Meaning of Quantitative Research Designs

When a man decides to build a house, does not he draw first the blueprint before he will start to do the work? Same with
the conduct of research, the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and data analysis is drawn as a pattern to follow.
Furthermore, research designs enable the researcher to obtain a more valid, objective, reliable, and accurate answers to
the research questions. Research design is defined as the rational and coherent overall strategy that the researcher uses
to incorporate all the vital components of the research study. Hence, in order to find meaning in the overall process of
doing your research study, a step-by-step process will be helpful to you. In quantitative research, you are going to have a
great deal of abstraction and numerical analysis. According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2007, p 15), the research designs in
quantitative research are mostly pre-established. Hence having an appropriate research design in quantitative research,
the researcher will have a clearer comprehension of what he is trying to analyze and interpret.

Types of Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative Research Designs have five general classifications: descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi-
experimental, and experimental.

Descriptive Research

When little is known about the research problem, then it is appropriate to use descriptive research design. It is a design
that is exploratory in nature. The purpose of descriptive research is basically to answer questions such as who, what,
where, when, and how much. So, this design is best used when the main objective of the study is just to observe and
report a certain phenomenon as it is happening.

Correlational Research

The main goal of this design is to determine if variable is to determine if variable increases or decreases as another variable
increases or decreases. This design seeks to establish an association between variables. It does not seek cause and effect
relationship like descriptive research; it measures variables as it occurs. It has two major purposes: (a) to clarify the
relationship between variables and (b) predict the magnitude of the association. However, the extent of the purpose of
correlational research depends on the scope and delimitation of the study.

Ex Post Facto

If the objective of the study is to measure a cause from a pre-existing effect, then Ex Post Facto research design is more
appropriate to use. In this design, the researcher has no control over the variables in the research study. Thus, one cannot
conclude that the changes measured happen during the actual conduct of the study. The last two types of quantitative
research designs are identifiable for the existence of treatment or intervention applied to the current research study.
Intervention or treatment pertains to controlling or manipulating the independent variable in an experiment. It is assumed
that the changes in dependent variables were caused by the independent variable. There are also two groups of subjects,
participants, or respondents in quasi-experimental and experimental research. The treatment group refers to the group
subjected to treatment or intervention. The group not subject to treatment or intervention is called the control group.

Quasi-Experimental

The term means partly, partially, or almost – pronounced as kwahz-eye. This research design aims to measure the causal
relationship between variables. The effect measured is considered to have occurred during the conduct of the current
study. The partiality of quasi-experimental design comes from assigning subjects, participants, or respondents into their
groups. The groups are known to be already established before the study, such as age educational background and
nationality. Since the assignment of subjects, participants, or respondents are not randomly assigned into an experimental
or control groups, the conclusion of results is limited. Experimental Research. This research design is based on the scientific
method called experiment with a procedure of gathering data under a controlled or manipulated environment. It is also
known as true experimental design since it applies treatment and manipulation more extensively compared to quasi-
experimental design. Random assignment of subjects or participants into treatment and control group is done increasing
the validity of the study. Experimental research, therefore, attempts to affect a certain variable by directly manipulating
the independent variable.

Sampling Procedure and the Sample

Population and Sample

The first step in determining the sample size is identifying the population of the topic of interest. The population is the
totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and characteristics under consideration. It is understood that this population
possesses common characteristics about which the research aims to explore. There are two types of population: target
population and accessible population. The actual population is the target population, for example, all Senior High School
Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in the Division of Cagayan de Oro City.
While the accessible population is the portion of the population in which the researcher has reasonable access, for
example all Senior High School enrolled, STEM strand at Marayon Science High School – X. When the whole population is
too costly or time-consuming or impractical to consider, then, a sample representative is identified. Sampling pertains to
the systematic process of selecting the group to be analyzed in the research study. The goal is to get information from a
group that represents the target population. Once a good sample is obtained, the generalizability and applicability of
findings increases. The representative subset of the population refers to the sample. All the 240 Senior High School
Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Strand in a school, for example,
constitute the population; 60 of those students constitute the sample. A good sample should have characteristics of the
represented population – characteristics that are within the scope of the study with fair accuracy. Generally, the larger
the sample, the more reliable the sample be, but still, it will depend on the scope and delimitation and research design of
the study.

Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size

Heuristics

This approach refers to the general rule or rule of the thumb for sample size. This is the earliest established approach for
sample sizes for different research designs.

Literature Review

Another approach is by reading similar or related literature and studies to your current research study. Since you are done
writing your review of related literature and studies, you might want to recall how these studies determine sample size.
Using this approach increases the validity of your sampling procedure.

Formulas

Formulas are also being established for the computation of an acceptable sample size. You can use different formulas
depending on what you know and do not know about the population. These tools are also available online. One formula
for determining sample size that you can follow is the Cochran especially if you have large sample size.
Power Analysis

This approach is founded on the principle of power analysis. There are two principles you need to consider if you are going
to use this approach: these are statistical power and effect size.

Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research

Simple Random Sampling. It is a way of choosing individuals in which all members of the accessible population are given
an equal chance to be selected. There are various ways of obtaining samples through simple random sampling. These are
fishbowl technique, roulette wheel, or use of the table of random numbers. This technique is also readily available online.
Visit this link https://www.randomizer.org/ to practice.

Stratified Random Sampling

The same with simple random sampling, stratified random sampling also gives an equal chance to all members of the
population to be chosen. However, the population is first divided into strata or groups before selecting the samples. The
samples are chosen from these subgroups and not directly from the entire population. This procedure is best used when
the variables of the study are also grouped into classes such as gender and grade level. You can simply follow the steps
from this given example:

A population of 600 Junior High School students includes 180 Grade 7, 160 Grade 8, 150 Grade 9, and 110 Grade 10. If the
computed sample size is 240, the following proportionate sampling will be as follows.

The number of members per subgroup is divided by the total accessible sample size. The percentage result of members
per subgroup will be multiplied from the computed total sample size. After obtaining the sample size per strata, then
simple random sampling will be done for the selection of samples from each group.

Cluster Sampling

This procedure is usually applied in large-scale studies, geographical spread out of the population is a challenge, and
gathering information will be very time-consuming. Similar to stratified random sampling, cluster sampling also involves
grouping of the population according to subgroups or clusters. It is a method where multiple clusters of people from the
chosen population will be created by the researcher in order to have homogenous characteristics. For example, a
researcher would like to interview of all public senior high school students across Mindanao. As a researcher cluster will
be selected to satisfy the plan size. In the given example, the first cluster can be by region, the second cluster can be by
division, and the third cluster can be by district. Another way of doing cluster sampling is illustrated on the figure on the
right side. Systematic Sampling. This procedure is as simple as selecting samples every nth (example every 2nd, 5th) of the
chosen population until arriving at a desired total number of sample size. Therefore, the selection is based on a
predetermined interval. Dividing the population size by the sample size, the interval will be obtained. For example, from
a total population of 75, you have 25 samples; using systematic sampling, you will decide to select every 3rd person on
the list of individuals.

Research Instrument, Validity and Reliability

Quantitative Research Instrument

What do you think will happen if tools for building a house is not prepared meticulously? The same thing when getting
information for answers to a research problem, tools, or instruments should be prepared carefully. In constructing a
quantitative research instrument, it is very important to remember that the tools created should require responses or
data that will be numerically analyzed. Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific
research problems. Common instruments are performance tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation checklist.
The first two instruments are usually used in quantitative research, while the last two instruments are often in qualitative
research. However, interviews and observation checklists can still be used in quantitative research once the information
gathered is translated into numerical data.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

Concise

Have you tried answering a very long test, and because of its length, you just pick the answer without even reading it? A
good research instrument is concise in length yet can elicit the needed data.

Sequential

Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from simplest to the most complex. In this
way, the instrument will be more favorable to the respondents to answer.

Valid and reliable

The instrument should pass the tests of validity and reliability to get more appropriate and accurate information.

Easily tabulated

Since you will be constructing an instrument for quantitative research, this factor should be considered. Hence, before
crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure that the variable and research questions are established. These will
be an important basis for making items in the research instruments.

Ways in Developing Research Instrument

There are three ways you can consider in developing the research instrument for your study. First is adopting an
instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous related studies. The second way is modifying an existing
instrument when the available instruments do not yield the exact data that will answer the research problem. And the
third way is when the researcher made his own instrument that corresponds to the variable and scope of his current study.

Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research

Likert Scale

This is the most common scale used in quantitative research. Respondents were asked to rate or rank statements
according to the scale provided. Example: A Likert scale that measures the attitude of students towards distance learning.

Semantic Differential. In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents. This scale seems to be
more advantageous since it is more flexible and easier to construct.
Another important consideration in constructing a research instrument is how to establish its validity and reliability.

Types of Validity of Instrument

Face Validity

It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the instruments as it “appear.” Just by looking at
the instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid.

Content Validity

An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of the study. It is done by checking the statements
or questions if this elicits the needed information. Experts in the field of interest can also provide specific elements that
should be measured by the instrument.

Construct Validity

It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical construct of the study. It is concerning if a specific
measure relates to other measures.

Concurrent Validity

When the instrument can predict results like those similar tests already validated, it has concurrent validity.

Predictive Validity

When the instrument can produce results similar to those similar tests that will be employed in the future, it has predictive
validity. This is particularly useful for the aptitude test.

Reliability of Instrument

Test-retest Reliability

It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of respondents twice. The consistency of the two scores will be
checked.

Equivalent Forms Reliability

It is established by administering two identical tests except for wordings to the same group of respondents.

Internal Consistency Reliability

It determines how well the items measure the same construct. It is reasonable that when a respondent gets a high score
in one item, he will also get one in similar items. There are three ways to measure the internal consistency; through the
split-half coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, and Kuder-Richardson formula.

Research Intervention

Nature of Research Intervention

In experimental research, the researcher decides the nature of intervention or treatment. Intervention pertains to what
is going to happen to the subjects of the study. This decision covers who will receive the intervention and to what extent
it will be applied to them. For example, in a study of determining the effects of special tutorial program to learners at risk
of failing (LARF), researcher decides the group of LARF who will receive intervention. In this example, a special tutorial
program is the research intervention. Furthermore, the extent to which the program will be administered to the learners
is determined.

Steps in Describing the Research Intervention Process

A section that explains the details of research intervention is added in the research paper if it is an experimental design.
In this section, the procedure of research intervention is explained clearly.
Write the Background Information

It is an introductory paragraph that explains the relevance of the intervention to the study conducted. It also includes the
context and duration of the treatment.

Describe the Differences and Similarities between the Experimental and Control Group

State what will happen and what will not both in the experimental and control groups. This will clearly illustrate the
parameters of the research groups.

Describe the Procedures of the Intervention

Describe how will the experimental group receive or experience the condition. It includes how will the intervention
happens to achieve the desired result of the study. For example, how will the special tutorial program will take place?

Explain the Basis of Procedures

The reason for choosing the intervention and process should clear and concrete reasons. The researcher explains why the
procedures are necessary. In addition, the theoretical and conceptual basis for choosing the procedures is presented to
establish the validity of the procedures.

Planning Data Collection Procedure

Quantitative Data

Generally, data are any pieces of information or facts that people have known. Once these data answer the research
problem, it becomes helpful to research. When research data appears to be measurable in the numerical form, it is
considered quantitative data. However, some qualitative data can also be useful to quantitative research once it is given
a numerical value. For example, if you study about adjustment experiences of students to distant learning, if it is
categorized and numbered accordingly, then it can be quantified during analysis. Techniques in Collecting Quantitative
Data The following are the common quantitative data gathering technique. Each technique corresponds to specific
instrument which will be further discussed in Module 5.

Observation

It is gathering information about a certain condition by using senses. The researcher records the observation as seen and
heard. This is done by direct observation or indirect observation using gadgets or apparatus. An observation checklist aids
the researcher in recording the data gathered.

Survey

Data gathering is done through interview or questionnaire. By means of questionnaire you use series of questions or
statements that respondents will have to answer. Basically, respondents write or choose their answer from given choices.
On the other hand, interview is when you ask respondents orally to tell you the responses. Since you are doing quantitative
research, it is expected that responses have numerical value either it is nominal or ordinal in form.

Experiment

When your study is an experimental design, it was already discussed in the previous lesson that it would use treatment or
intervention. After the chosen subjects, participants, or respondents undergone the intervention, the effects of such
treatment will be measured.

Three Phases in Data Collection. In doing research, data collection is a major component of research. Neglecting to clarify
the collection procedure would result in acquiring inaccurate data that will make you research study invalid. Hence, the
data collection procedure is given meticulous attention to gather appropriate data. You are making sure that data you will
gather answers to your research questions. The data gathering procedure is presented in a paragraph format in your
research paper. Basically, the contents are the steps you are going to follow: (1) before you will gather the data, (2) what
to do during the actual gathering of data, and (3) the things to consider after data has been gathered. The following are
the suggested steps but not limited to it, are the procedures in gathering quantitative data.
Planning Data Analysis

Data Analysis

Data analysis in research is a process in which gathered information are summarized in such a manner that it will yield
answers to the research questions. During quantitative data analysis gathered information were break down and ordered
into categories in order to draw trends or patterns in a certain condition. In quantitative research, the numerical data
collected is not taken as a whole. In order to understand it better, it is analyzed into components based on the chosen
research variables and research questions you are going to answer. These numerical data are usually subject to statistical
treatment depending on the nature of data and the type of research problem presented. The statistical treatment makes
explicit the different statistical methods and formulas needed to analyze the research data.

Planning your Data Analysis

Before choosing what statistical test is appropriate for your research study it is important to determine what statistical
formation is applicable to your current study. In immersing yourself into planning your data analysis, you have to decide
what basic descriptive statistical technique you are going to use. Although this technique does not give you the degree of
association or effect between variables, this will help you to code and simply tabulate your data.

Descriptive Statistical Technique provides a summary of the ordered or sequenced data from your research sample.
Examples of these tools are frequency distribution, measure of central tendencies (mean, median, mode), and standard
deviation. Inferential Statistics is used when the research study focuses on finding predictions; testing hypothesis; and
finding interpretations, generalizations, and conclusions. Since this statistical method is more complex and has more
advanced mathematical computations, you can use computer software to aid your analysis. You also must identify types
of statistical analysis of variable in your quantitative research. A univariate analysis means analysis of one variable. Analysis
of two variables such as independent and dependent variables refer to bivariate analysis while the multivariate analysis
involves analysis of the multiple relations between multiple variables. Furthermore, selecting what test to use is basically
done by identifying whether you will use parametric test or non-parametric test. As these were already discussed in your
Statistics and Probability subject, a summary of what to consider is presented below:

In addition, in choosing statistical techniques in quantitative research, the purpose or objective of the research study
should be considered.

Test of Relationship between Two Variables

➢ Pearson’s r (parametric)

➢ Phi coefficient (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)

➢ Spearman’s rho (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from One Group

➢ T-test for dependent samples (parametric)

➢ McNemar change test (non-parametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)

➢ Wilcoxon signed-rank test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from Two Different Groups

➢ T-test for independent samples (parametric)

➢ Two-way chi-square (non-parametric for nominal variable)

➢ Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric for ordinal variable)

Test More than Two Population Means

➢ Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (parametric)

Test the Strength of Relation or Effect or Impact

➢ Regression (parametric)

Presenting Research Methodology

Indeed, designing the research methodology in quantitative research is quite challenging. At this point, it is assumed that
you are now ready to present your written output. You need to consider the parts of your research methodology; these
are:

✓ Research Design
✓ Research Population and Sample
✓ Sampling Procedure
✓ Research Instruments
✓ Validity and Reliability of Instruments
✓ Research Intervention (if applicable)
✓ Data Collection Procedure
✓ Data Analysis

All of these are written in paragraph format as part of your research methodology. In this lesson, you will be given
guidelines in presenting this research portion. After presentation, the most exciting part follows; and that is gathering
your data.

Data Collection Instruments

Collecting data is the first step you need to perform before you proceed in writing your data analysis and interpretation.
Data Collection involves obtaining relevant information regarding the specified research questions or objectives. This can
be done by utilizing research instruments that are either developed or adopted. There is no best way to collect data, your
decision depends on:

A. What you need to know - numbers or stories

B. Where the data is found - environment, files, people

C. Resources and time available

D. Complexity of the data to be collected

E. Frequency of data collection

Data Collection General Rules

A. Use available data if they already exist

B. If using available data, be sure to find out how they:

o collected the data

o defined the variables

o ensured accuracy of the data

C. If you must collect original data:

o establishes procedures and follow them

o maintains accurate records of definitions and coding

o pre-test, pre-test, pre-test

o verifies accuracy of coding, data input

Key Issues in Data Collection

Credibility

➢ How trustworthy or believable is your data collection?

Are the data you are collecting giving you information about the actual

situation?

➢ Make sure that you are collecting relevant data.

Validity

➢ Does the measurement actually measure what it is supposed to?

Two kinds of validity

a) face validity - contents of the test or procedure should measure what

is supposed to be measured.

b) content validity - content of the test or procedure adequately

represents all that is required for validity

Reliability

➢ Reliability refers to the degree to which measuring tool produces consistent

results, when repeated measurements are made.

Examples:

o in sports, speed measured by stopwatch

o birth weights of newborn infants

o attendance rates at schools

Precision

➢ How the language used in the data collection matches the measure

Example:

if the question is about countries, the measures must be at the national level if the question is about people, the measures
must be on the individual level

Quantitative Data Collection Procedure

Data collection or data gathering is defined as the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest.
The quantitative data collection method relies on random sampling and structured data collection instruments, that fit
diverse experiences, into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare
and generalize. Quantitative research methods describe and measure the level of occurrences based on numbers and
calculations. Moreover, the questions of “how many” and “how often” are often asked in quantitative studies. Accordingly,
quantitative data collection methods are based on random sampling and structured data collection instruments.
Quantitative research can be described as ‘entailing the collection of numerical data and exhibiting the view of relationship
between theory and research as deductive, a predilection for natural science approach, and as having an objectivist
conception of social reality. In other words, quantitative studies mainly examine relationships between numerically
measured variables with the application of statistical techniques.
Guidelines in Using Questionnaires for Data Collection

1) Choose the method of administering the questionnaire.

a) Face-to-face Method. Use this when you need to capture the emotions, behavior, and non-verbal cues of the
participants

b) Online Method. Use this when behavior and non-verbal cues need not to be taken

2) Divide your questionnaire into two or three parts.

a) Personal information. This section which contains background information of the participants. (Names are optional)

b) Main section. This lists the specific questions or indicators.

c) Open-ended question section. This contains additional information that might be needed. (This applied only for
quantitative research)

3) Make sure to craft questions and choices that are aligned with the specific research questions or objectives.

4) Provide specific and clear directions for respondents in answering the questionnaire.
5) Use routing (directing) technique if there is a need to skip some items in the questionnaire.

6) Begin with the general questions first followed by the specific ones.

7) Prefer to have brief, clear, and concise questionnaire. Use simple terms.

8) Predetermined responses or choices should match the nature of the questions.

a) If the content is about belief, use agreement (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree)

b) If the questionnaire is about behavior, use extent (very great extent, great extent, moderate extent, small extent,
none at all)

c) If questions are about frequency, use frequency (always, frequently, sometimes, seldom, never)

d) If the content is about quality, use quality (excellent, very good, good, poor)

Later, these responses will be translated into numerical values (e.g., five-point Likert scale)

9) Avoid negative statements unless necessary.

10) Avoid leading and biased, double-barreled, and very sensitive questions.

11) Do not split the questions or choices over two pages.

12) If possible, schedule an appointment before distributing the questionnaires.

13) Attach a cover letter to the questionnaire especially for agency connected respondents.

14) Make a follow-up on the participants who did not to return the questionnaire.

15) Tally and encode the data immediately once you have collected them and archive them digitally.

Guidelines in Conducting an Observation

Before the Observation

o Clarify the research objectives.

o Be ready with observation checklist.

o Determine your time of observation and collection technique.

o Record only relevant information.

o Prepare consent form for human observation.

During the Observation

o Make sure to note the date, time, and place where the observation is conducted.

o Limit the person who will observe.

o Explain the purpose of the observation to participants if applicable.

o Avoid causing disruptions while observing.

o Make sure to guarantee anonymity of participants.

o Make use of multiple recording schemes such as taking notes, videos, audios, and photos but with proper ethical
considerations.

After the Observation

o Code or arrange the data gathered according to the variables of the study.

o Tabulate the data, use numerical value for quantitative research.

o Review the data gathered to determine the gaps before proceeding.

Ethical Considerations in Data Collection of Quantitative Research

Ethical considerations should always be practiced especially when human participants are involved. Researchers should
ensure that participants are treated properly, especially during data collection. The use of consent form respects the right
of every participant to be informed and to make voluntary participation. Informed Consent Form is a document that
provides the participants with the information they need in deciding whether they will participate or not in your study.
The informed consent form must be accomplished before gathering data from the participants. This document must be
signed both by the researcher and the participant as they agree to the conditions during the actual conduct of the data
collection process. It usually contains the following:

1) Background of your study (Title of the Study, Purpose of the Study)

2) Name of Researchers and the Institution you are affiliated with

3) Data Collection Procedure

4) Possible discomfort or risk factors

5) Anonymity of the participants and their responses

6) Termination of Research (may refuse to participate anytime)

7) Authorization of the Participants (participants acknowledge the conditions that they will be subject to the study)

To obtain reliable information that will help answer the research questions, follow these steps:

1) Determine the objective of the study you are undertaking.

2) Define the population of interest.

3) Choose the variables that you will measure in the study.

4) Decide on an appropriate design for producing data.

5) Collect the data.

6) Determine the appropriate descriptive and/or inferential data analysis techniques.

Strategies for Collecting Data

1) Non-probability methods

These include:

o Convenience sampling (haphazard) for example surveying students as they pass by the school canteen.

o Gathering volunteers like inviting people to participate in the study.

2) Probability methods

o Simple random sampling – making selections from a population where each subject in the population has an equal
chance of being selected.

o Stratified random sampling – identify population of interest then divide this population into strata or groups based on
some characteristics then perform simple random sample from each stratum.

o Cluster sampling – where a random cluster of subjects is taken from the population of interest.

o Systematic sampling – individuals are chosen at regular intervals from the sampling frame. For this method you
randomly select a number to tell you where to start selecting individuals from the list.

o multi-stage sampling – procedure is carried out in phases and usually involves more than one sampling method.

Data presentation and analysis is one of the most essential part in your research study. An excellent data presentation
can be potential for winning the hearts of the panelists, clients, or simply the readers. No matter how good your data, if
it is not well presented, you will not be able to earn the preferences of those whom you are trying to persuade. Good
data presentation matters.

Presentation and Interpretation of Data

To be able to create and present an organized picture of information from a research report, it is important to use
certain techniques to communicate findings and interpretations of research studies into visual form. The common
techniques being used to display results are tabular, textual and graphical methods.

Data Tables or Tabular Presentation

A table facilitates representation of even large amounts of data in an attractive, easy to read and organized manner. The
data is organized in rows and columns. This is one of the widely used forms of presentation of data since data tables are
easy to construct and read. The purpose of a table is to simplify the presentation and to facilitate comparisons.

Parts of a Table:

The various parts of a table may vary depending upon the given data, but a good table must contain at least the
following parts:

1) Table number – Each table should be numbered. It is given for reference purposes.

2) Title of the table – Every table must have a suitable title. It is a brief explanation of content of the table. A complete
title must answer the questions what, where and when in that sequence. These are placed above the table. The title is
usually written right after the table number.

3) Caption – A word or phrase that explains the content of a column of a table, i.e., it explains what the column
represents. It may consist of one or more column headings.

4) Stub – Stubs explain contents of row of a table, i.e., stubs are the designation of the rows or row headings. They are at
the extreme left.

5) Body of the table – Most important part of table as it contains data.

6) Headnote – Head note is inserted to convey complete information of the title.

7) Footnote – It is used for pointing exceptions to the data. Anything in a table which the reader may find difficult to
understand from the title, captions and stubs should be explained in footnotes.

To interpret the tables, one needs to do the following:

1) Analyze the connections among the details of the headings.

2) Check the unusual pattern of the data and determine the reason behind these.

3) Begin with the table number and the title.

4) Present the significant figures (overall results, high and low values, the unusual pattern).

5) Refrain from repeating again what’s inside the table.

6) Support your findings with literature and studies that confirms or contrasts your results.

7) Establish the practical implications of the results. This will add value to your research findings.

8) End with a brief generalization.

Graphs

Graphs focuses on how a change in one variable relates to another. Graphs use bars, lines, circles, and pictures in
representing the data. It is a visual representation of a relationship between, but not restricted to, two variables.
Commonly consists of two axes called the x-axis (horizontal) and the y-axis (vertical). To interpret a graph or chart, read
the title, look at the key, read the labels. Then study the graph to understand what it shows. Read the title of the graph or
chart. The title tells what information is being displayed. In choosing what type of graph to use, determine the specific
purpose of the presentation.

Things to Remember in Making a Graph

1) Accurately shows the facts

2) Grabs the reader’s attention

3) Has titles and labels

4) Simple and uncluttered

5) Clearly shows any trends or differences in data

6) Visually accurate

Types of Graphs

1) Line Graph - Scale line graph represents frequency distributions over time

Y-axis represents frequency.

X-axis represents time.

2) Bar Graph - Uses differently colored or patterned bars to represent different classes.

Y-axis represents frequency.

X-axis may represent time or different classes.

3) Clustered Bar Graph - Bars can be presented as clusters of sub-groups in clustered bar charts. These are useful to
compare values across categories. They are sometimes called stacked bar charts.

4) Histogram - A histogram is a chart that shows frequencies for. intervals of values of a metric variable.

Height represents corresponding frequency

Width of bar represents class intervals

5) Pie Chart - It is usually used to show how parts of a whole is compare to each other and to the whole. The entire circle
represents the total and the parts are proportional to the amount of the total they represent.

6) Scatter Plot - also called a scatterplot, scatter graph, scatter chart, scatter gram, or scatter diagram) is a type of plot or
mathematical diagram using Cartesian coordinates to display values for typically two variables for a set of data.

7) Pictogram - A pictogram, also called a pictogramme, pictograph, or simply picto, and in computer usage an icon, is a
graphic symbol that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object.

Steps for Data Interpretation:

1) Revisit the main and sub-problems.

2) Describe the data

3) Plan for an appropriate way to present the data collected through tabular, graphical or any other way.

4) Plug in additional information

5) Have closure or concluding statement in every data interpretation.

Basic Statistical Tool

There are different statistical tools that is available, some of them are simple, some are complicated and specific for certain
purposes. Statistical tests is a major part of data interpretation so that a researcher can compare groups of data to
determine the probability that differences between results are based on chance, thus can conclude the validity of the
hypothesis. Two types of statistical methods are used in analyzing data: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics are used to synopsize data from a sample exercising the mean or standard deviation. Inferential
statistics are used when data is viewed as a subclass of a specific population.
Common Statistical Tools

1. Mean or average – the middlemost value of your list of values. It is useful in determining the overall trend of a data set.
It is very easy and quick to calculate, simply getting the sum of a list of number divided by the number of items on the list.

2. Percentage - is any proportion from the whole. One of the most frequent ways to represent statistics is by percentage.
Percent simply means "per hundred" and the symbol used to express percentage is %.

3. Standard deviation - (often abbreviated as "Std Dev" or "SD") provides an indication of how far the individual responses
to a question vary or "deviate" from the mean. SD tells the researcher how spread out the responses are. It tells how
measurements for a group are spread out from the average (mean or expected value). A low standard deviation means
that most of the numbers are close to the average, while a high standard deviation means that the numbers are more
spread out.

4. Correlation Analysis (Pearson’s r) – used to find a correlation between at least two continuous variables. It is a method
used to estimate the strength of relationship between two quantitative variables. The value for such correlation lies
between 0.00 (no correlation) and 1.00 (perfect correlation)

5. Regression Analysis can be used to explain the relationship between dependent and independent variables.

Three major uses:

a. Causal analysis -shows you the possible causation of changes in Y by changes X.

b. Forecasting an Effect- allows you estimate and predict the value of Y given the value of X.

c. Linear Trend Forecasting- helps you trace the line best fit to tine series

6. T-Test - The t-test assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other. This analysis is
appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups, and especially appropriate as the analysis for the
posttest-only two-group randomized experimental design.

7. Chi-square test - is the statistical test for bivariate analysis of nominal variables, specifically, to test the null hypothesis.
It tests whether or not a relationship exists between or among variables and tells the probability that the relationship is
caused by chance. This cannot in any way show extent of the association between two variables.

8. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) - is a set of statistical methods used mainly to compare the means of two or
more samples. Estimates of variance are the key intermediate statistics calculated, hence the reference to variance in the
title ANOVA. The different types of ANOVA reflect the different experimental designs and situations for which they have
been developed.

You can perform statistical analysis with the help of Excel. It is used by most of the data scientists who require the
understanding of statistical concepts and behavior of the data. If you need to develop complex statistical analyses, you
can save steps and time by using the Analysis Tool Pak. You provide the data and parameters for each analysis, and the
tool uses the appropriate statistical or engineering macro functions to calculate and display the results in an output table.
Some tools generate charts in addition to output tables. The Analysis Tool Pak includes the tools described in the following
sections. To access these tools, click Data Analysis in the Analysis group on the Data tab. If the Data Analysis command is
not available, you need to load the Analysis Tool Pak add-in program.

Draws Conclusions from Patterns and Themes

A conclusion is like the final chord in a song. It is the section in a research report where the researcher finds a chance of
leaving a lasting impression. It usually includes a comprehensive summary of the findings. The key points are highlighted
briefly based on the analysis or results of the study. Important implications applied to practice are specifically noted.
Furthermore, the conclusion points out to what were factually learned from the inquiry. This section elucidates o drawing
and writing the conclusion of the research paper. You have to state your conclusion in clear, simple language. No new
information should be added to the conclusion. It is in the conclusion where you describe the value of your research.

Summary

Wrap up/summarize the study’s argument by:

1. Writing a brief recapitulation of Chapters 1 and 2 by restating the objectives and specific problems of the study and
methodology; and

2. Presenting salient findings /results based on the formulated specific problems.

Findings

In one-to – one correspondence and in numbered format, indicate the findings of the study. One sentence will do for each
problem.

Conclusions

Characteristics of Conclusions

1. Conclusions are references, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations, general statements and/or
generalizations based upon findings.

2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the investigation in the order
they are given under the statement of the problem.

3. Conclusion should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.

Purposes of a Conclusion

Conclusion does the following:

1. Stress the importance of thesis statement.

2. Give the written work a sense of completeness

3. Leave a final impression on the reader

4. Demonstrates a good organization

Strategies in Writing Conclusions

• Echoing your introduction, or simply reiterate or link ideas expressed in the other sections of research.

• Conclusion should be formulated concisely that is, brief and short, yet they convey all necessary information resulting
from the investigation.

• A conclusion must state generalization based on the findings.

• Observe “one finding: one conclusion.” Match the findings with the conclusions. Use numbers in the format.

• Flexibility may be considered in making conclusions on a one-to-one correspondence with the specific problems and the
findings as some or all variable can be subsumed in one paragraph. The process of drawing conclusions begin as early you
code your data. As you review and code your data, begin to form ideas about the important phenomena they indicate as
well generate the propositions about them and the relationships among them. Once the data are coded, you will look over
the propositions to write your conclusions. In drawing and verifying conclusions from qualitative data among the most
useful in the analysis are:

• Noting patterns and theme. These are recurring themes which put together many separate pieces of data. The data may
be grouped together according to theme. It however happens that evidence, may be applicable to one or more themes.

• Making contrasts and comparisons. Comparison is a classic way to test a conclusion. The responses gathered form the
parents, students, teachers and other groups can be compared and contrasted so that the differences can be noted. When
conflicting information comes up, then you can refer to the sources of the different data.

• Clustering. The process refers to the grouping of data, then conceptualizing information that has similar patterns or
characteristics. It is called categorizing because the steps must be taken to ensure that other information are considered
or included.

• Counting. Qualitative research is basically descriptive and goes beyond how much something to describe the subject or
topic under investigation. However, the number of times something occurs or is reported tells something about how
important or how significant an item is.

• Avoid using phrases like “in conclusion”, “in summary” and “in closing”. The se expressions can be useful and welcome
in oral presentations.

Formulating Recommendations Based on Conclusions

Why writes a recommendation

The reader is looking for insightful comments to demonstrate that you have been engaged with your research, that you
understand your findings and that you gained knowledge form the experience of conducting your research.
How to write recommendations

The following should be considered in writing recommendations.

• Brief- write concisely; any reasons for recommendation should only be given if necessary.

• Clear- do not ambiguous as to how the recommendation will be implemented

• Precise- vague recommendations usually result from insufficient research analysis.

• They must be logical by making sure that they flow sensibly from the conclusion

• It is also important to consider the different levels within your set of recommendations such as a) for academic, b) for
the policymakers, c) for practitioners, and d) for the training/education.

• Point out direction/s for future investigation

• Cite also a recommendation that can help your field of study, or strand.

Techniques in Listing References

Part of the responsibilities of a good researcher is to recognize or cite all the resources print or non-print at the resource
page. American Psychological Association (APA) and Modern Language Association (MLA) are just two of the well-known
methods of citation. The way the references section in a research work is written is very similar to that of a bibliography.
Every credible body of research work must have one.

Resource Page: APA and MLA Styles

A resource page (references or works cited) is something similar to a bibliography although there are some differences
between the two. A bibliography is often used in books and refers to all sources used whether referenced or not in the
process of writing the work. On the one hand, a reference or works cited is where researchers acknowledge other
researchers and bodies of literature that are actually cited and helped them write their research paper. References and
Works Cited are used differently depending on the style used. References is used in APA Style while Works Cited is used
in MLA Style.

APA and MLA Styles Compared and Contrasted (California State University– Chico)

APA stands for American Psychological Society and MLA stands for Modern Language Association. These two methods of
citation are the ones more frequently used by educational institutions in the country. Below is a table showing the
similarities and differences in formatting the APA reference list and MLA works cited.

The Process of Writing a Research Report

A research report is an example of an informational text. This type of text is written in a specific format designed to be
direct to the point. It is a written document or oral presentation based on a written document that communicates the
purpose, scope, objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally, recommendations of a research
project to others. Here is an outline that you can follow for your presentation.

• What is your problem?

• What is your research design/methodology?

• Present your discussion of results and findings.

• State your conclusions and present your recommendations.

Characteristics of a Research Report

1. Use of easy-to-understand words

Not everyone who will be reading your work is a scientist or has the same technical background as you have. To make
more people easily know and comprehend the ideas you want to present, use simple and easy-to-understand words. Your
research work is not a place to show off your extensive vocabulary. The use of highly technical words (unless necessary)
and unfamiliar words must be avoided. Technical words, if used, should be defined operationally in the Definition of Terms
section.
2. Good organization

To show good organization, your paper must be consistent and cohesive. In order to show consistency, your discussions
should focus solely on your research topic, never deviating from it. Each discussion should lead to the outcome or results
of your study in order to show cohesion.

3. Comprehensive

One characteristic of a well-written research work is being comprehensive. It means discussing every angle or perspective,
supported by valid data, leaving no areas unclarified. You must not let any stone go unturned.

4. Direct to the point

This is not a venue to showcase your creative writing prowess. The use of figures of speech and other expressions must
be avoided as they could lead to misinterpretations. Hence, your research report must be direct to the point, not beating
around the bush.

5. The paper is thoroughly proofread

Misspellings, grammatical errors, and other errors related to writing conventions can tarnish the quality of your paper and
undermine the effort you put in writing your paper. To avoid this, have someone thoroughly proofread your paper.

Presentation of Research Output

The following are to be expected when conducting your research presentation:

1. Own your research paper.

You must know the entirety of your paper starting from the background all the way up to the results and references. Study
it very well. If you ‘re working in groups, make sure that everyone knows the paper. Remember that you will be graded
not only based on the paper itself, but more importantly on your knowledge of the research process. Your knowledge of
your research paper will not only become evident during the presentation, but more so in answering the questions after
the presentation. Pause and think thoroughly before answering the questions. If there are suggestions or
recommendations, humbly accept them. The judges are there to help you improve your paper and not to antagonize you.
Take note of their comments and suggestions.

2. Be on time and look presentable. Observe proper dress code.

3. Use aids. This can be in the form of the usual cartolina or Manila paper, a slide presentation, or any other computer
aided program available. Do not justplace everything or merely ―copy and paste the entire paper to your presentation.
Select only important items or words which will serve as your discussion guide. Present the key points in an outline so you
would easily know what comes next. Present the following chapters: background of the study, methodology, results and
discussion, and summary, conclusion, and recommendations.

4. Reflect all comments and suggestions of the panel of judges when you revise your paper.

Finalizing and Presenting Best Design

The research report entails the application of all the rule and guidelines to be observed in putting the paper together.
They are now reflected in the different chapters that compose the whole research paper. The following presents what
could be consider as the best design.

General Considerations

Research papers usually have five chapters with well-established sections in each chapter. Readers of the paper will be
looking for these chapters and sections so you should not deviate from the standard format unless you are specifically
requested to do so by the research sponsor. The most commonly used style for writing research reports is called “APA”
and the rules are describes in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Any library or bookstore
will have it readily available. Avoid the use of first-person pronouns. Refer to yourself or the research team in third person.
Instead of saying “I will...” or “We will...”, say something like “The researcher will...” or “the research team will...”.

Format on Appendices

1. Contents include: communications, sample questionnaires, sample computations, computation of test reliability (if
applicable) or other complex computational/scoring procedures.

2. Each appendix should be written on a separate page and affixed with the appropriate heading.
Addenda:

1. Writing style

a. Be brief and straightforward (all paragraphs, phrases and words should count). Deliver the ideas in the shortest possible
prose.

b. Be guided by the rules on the use of language, grammar, syntax, punctuation marks, etc. appropriate to research writing.

2. Academic writers’ virtues

a. Seek collegial opinion for both content and prose (avail of an outsider’s eye—research adviser).

Additional Guidelines on Format

Title page:

a. The title is written in all capital letters and in 2 to 3 lines using the inverted pyramid format

b. All text items are centered; double spaced.

c. The title of the study and name of the researcher are written in bold letters.

Page layout:

Left margin: 1 ½ ”

Right margin: 1”

Top margin: 1”

Bottom margin: 1”

Spacing:

Unless otherwise specified, all texts should be 1.5 in spacing.

Type and size of paper: Copy/book paper (substance 20); 8 ½ in x11 in

Typeface and Font size: Bookman Old Style; 11 (your teacher can propose another)

Indentations: Paragraph indentations should be 5-7 spaces or the normal tab default

Justification/Alignment: All text must be fully justified, i.e., left and right aligned.

Pagination:

a. The page number should be at the top of page (The header should be ser at 1.0 inch).

b. Hide page numbers on papers with major center headings (e.g. first page of every Chapter should not be numbered;
but should be counted).

c. Page layout must be set to 0 before and after.