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1-4 DBMS

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

32 views511 pages

1-4 DBMS

Uploaded by

Arnav Kumar

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Module 01

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Why Databases?
Module 01: Course Overview
Know Your
Course

Course Outline

Course Text Book

Partha Pratim Das
Module Summary

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.1

Module Objectives PPD

Module 01

Partha Pratim • To understand the importance of database management systems in modern day
Das
applications
Objectives &
Outline • To Know Your Course
Why Databases?

Know Your
Course

Course Outline

Course Text Book

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.2

Module Outline PPD

Module 01

Partha Pratim • Why Databases?

Das
• KYC: Know Your Course
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Course Prerequisite
Why Databases? ◦ Course Outline
Know Your
Course
◦ Course Text Book
Course Outline

Course Text Book

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.3

Why Databases? PPD

Module 01

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Why Databases?

Know Your
Course

Course Outline

Course Text Book

Module Summary

Why Databases?

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.4

Database Management System (DBMS)

Module 01
• DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Collection of interrelated data
Objectives &
◦ Set of programs to access the data
Outline ◦ An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
Why Databases?
• Database Applications:
Know Your
Course
◦ Banking: transactions
Course Outline
◦ Airlines: reservations, schedules
Course Text Book
◦ Universities: registration, grades
Module Summary
◦ Sales: customers, products, purchases
◦ Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
◦ Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
◦ Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
◦ ···
• Databases can be very large
• Databases touch all aspects of our lives
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.5
University Database Example

Module 01

Partha Pratim • Application program examples

Das
◦ Add new students, instructors, and courses
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
Why Databases? ◦ Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages (GPA) and generate
Know Your transcripts
Course

Course Outline • In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of file systems
Course Text Book

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.6

Drawbacks of using file systems to store data

Module 01

Partha Pratim • Data redundancy and inconsistency

Das
◦ Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
Objectives &
Outline • Difficulty in accessing data
Why Databases?
◦ Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
Know Your
Course • Data isolation
Course Outline
◦ Multiple files and formats
Course Text Book

Module Summary • Integrity problems

◦ Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become “buried” in program code
rather than being stated explicitly
◦ Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.7

Drawbacks of using file systems to store data (2)

Module 01
• Atomicity of updates
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out
Objectives &
◦ Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either complete or
Outline not happen at all
Why Databases?
• Concurrent access by multiple users
Know Your
Course
◦ Concurrent access needed for performance
Course Outline
◦ Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
Course Text Book

Module Summary
. Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating it by
withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
• Security problems
◦ Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.8

Know Your Course PPD

Module 01

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Why Databases?

Know Your
Course

Course Outline

Course Text Book

Module Summary

Know Your Course

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.9

Course Prerequisites: Essential PPD

Module 01
• Set Theory
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Definition of a Set
Objectives & . Intensional Definition
Outline
. Extensional Definition
Why Databases?
. Set-builder Notation
Know Your
Course ◦ Membership, Subset, Superset, Power Set, Universal Set
Course Outline
◦ Operations on sets:
Course Text Book

Module Summary
. Union, Intersection, Complement, Difference, Cartesian Product
◦ De Morgan’s Law
◦ Courses
. MOOCs: Discrete Mathematics:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/111/106/111106086/
. Online Degree Foundational Course: Mathematics for Data Science I
https://onlinedegree.iitm.ac.in/course_pages/BSCMA1001.html

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.10

Course Prerequisites: Essential PPD

Module 01
• Relations and Functions
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Definition of Relations
Objectives &
◦ Ordered Pairs and Binary Relations
Outline
. Domain and Range
Why Databases?
. Image, Preimage, Inverse
Know Your
Course . Properties: Reflexive, Symmetric, Antisymmetric, Transitive, Total
Course Outline
◦ Definition of Functions
Course Text Book
◦ Properties of Functions: Injective, Surjective, Bijective
Module Summary
◦ Composition of Functions
◦ Inverse of a Function
◦ Courses
. MOOCs: Discrete Mathematics:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/111/106/111106086/
. Online Degree Foundational Course: Mathematics for Data Science I
https://onlinedegree.iitm.ac.in/course_pages/BSCMA1001.html

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.11

Course Prerequisites: Essential PPD

Module 01
• Propositional Logic
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Truth Values & Truth Tables
Objectives &
◦ Operators: conjunction (and), disjunction (or), negation (not), implication,
Outline equivalence
Why Databases?
◦ Closure under Operations
Know Your
Course ◦ Courses
Course Outline . MOOCs: Discrete Mathematics:
Course Text Book https://nptel.ac.in/courses/111/106/111106086/
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.12

Course Prerequisites: Essential PPD

Module 01
• Predicate Logic
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Predicates
Objectives &
◦ Quantification
Outline
. Existential
Why Databases?
. Universal
Know Your
Course ◦ Courses
Course Outline
. MOOCs: Discrete Mathematics:
Course Text Book
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/111/106/111106086/
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.13

Course Prerequisites: Essential PPD

Module 01
• Data Structures
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Array
Objectives &
◦ List
Outline ◦ Binary Search Tree
Why Databases?
. Balanced Tree
Know Your
Course ◦ B-Tree
Course Outline
◦ Hash Table / Map
Course Text Book
◦ Courses
Module Summary
. MOOCs: Design and Analysis of Algorithms:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/106/106106131/
. MOOCs: Fundamental Algorithms – Design and Analysis:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/105/106105157/

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.14

Course Prerequisites: Essential PPD

Module 01
• Programming in Python
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Courses
Objectives & . Online Degree Foundational Course - Programming in Python
Outline
https://onlinedegree.iitm.ac.in/course_pages/BSCCS1002.html
Why Databases?

Know Your
Course

Course Outline

Course Text Book

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.15

Course Prerequisites: Desirable PPD

Module 01
• Algorithms and Programming in C
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Sorting
Objectives & . Merge Sort
Outline
. Quick Sort
Why Databases?

Know Your
◦ Search
Course
. Linear Search
Course Outline
. Binary Search
Course Text Book

Module Summary
. Interpolation Search
◦ Courses
. MOOCs: Design and Analysis of Algorithms:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/106/106106131/
. MOOCs: Introduction to Programming in C:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/104/106104128/

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.16

Course Prerequisites: Desirable PPD

Module 01
• Object-Oriented Analysis and Design
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Courses
Objectives & . MOOCs: Object-Oriented Analysis and Design:
Outline
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/105/106105153/
Why Databases?

Know Your
Course

Course Outline

Course Text Book

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.17

Course Outline PPD

Module 01

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Why Databases?

Know Your
Course

Course Outline

Course Text Book

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.18

Course Textbook PPD

Module 01
Database System Concepts,
Partha Pratim
Das Sixth Edition,
Objectives &
Outline
Abraham Silberschatz,
Why Databases?
Henry Korth,
Know Your
Course S. Sudarshan,
Course Outline

Course Text Book

Publisher: McGraw Hill Education
Module Summary
ISBN: 0073523321

Website: http://db-book.com/
7th Edition will also do

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.19

Module Summary PPD

Module 01

Partha Pratim • Elucidates the importance of database management systems in modern day applications
Das
• Introduced various aspects of the Course
Objectives &
Outline

Why Databases?

Know Your
Course

Course Outline

Course Text Book

Module Summary
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind permission of the
authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 01.20

Module 02

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Evolution of Data
Management Module 02: Why DBMS?/1
History

Module Summary

Partha Pratim Das

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.1

Module Objectives PPD

Module 02

Partha Pratim • To understand the need for a DBMS from historical perspective
Das

Partha Pratim
Das
• Storage
Objectives &
• Retrieval
Outline
• Transaction
Evolution of Data
Management
• Audit
History

Module Summary
• Archival
For:
• Individual
• Small / Big Enterprise
• Global
There have been two major approaches in this practice:
• Physical
• Electronic
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.5
Data Management: Physical PPD

Module 02

Partha Pratim
Physical Data or Records management, more formally known as Book Keeping, has been
Das using physical ledgers and journals for centuries.
Objectives &
Outline
The most significant development happened when Henry Brown, an American inventor,
Evolution of Data
Management patented a “receptacle for storing and preserving papers” on November 2, 1886.
History

Module Summary
Herman Hollerith adapted the punch cards used for weaving looms to act as the memory
for a mechanical tabulating machine, in 1890.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.6

Data Management: Electronic PPD

Module 02 Electronic Data or Records management moves with the advances in technology -
Partha Pratim especially of memory, storage, computing, and networking.
Das
• 1950s: Computer Programming started
Objectives &
Outline
• 1960s: Data Management with punch card / tapes and magnetic tapes
Evolution of Data
Management • 1970s:
History
◦ COBOL and CODASYL approach was introduced in 1971
Module Summary
◦ On October 14 in 1979, Apple II platform shipped VisiCalc, marking the birth of the
spreadsheet
◦ Magnetic disks became prevalent
• 1980s: RDBMS changed the face of data management
• 1990s: With Internet data management started becoming global
• 2000s: e-Commerce boomed, NoSQL was introduced for unstructured data
management
• 2010s: Data Science started riding high
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.7
Electronic Data Management Parameters PPD

Module 02 Electronic Data or Records management depends on various parameters including:

Partha Pratim
Das
• Durability
Objectives &
• Scalability
Outline
• Security
Evolution of Data
Management
• Retrieval
History

Module Summary
• Ease of Use
• Consistency
• Efficiency
• Cost
• ...

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.8

Book Keeping PPD

Module 02

Partha Pratim
Recall how shop owners used to maintain their accounts.
Das A book register was maintained on which the shop owner wrote the amount received from
Objectives & customers, the amount due for any customer, inventory details and so on.
Outline

Evolution of Data
Management Problems with such an approach of book-keeping:
History
• Durability: Physical damage to these registers is a possibility due to rodents, humidity,
Module Summary
wear and tear
• Scalability: Very difficult to maintain for many years, some shops have numerous
registers spanning over years
• Security: Susceptible to tampering by outsiders
• Retrieval: Time consuming process to search for a previous entry
• Consistency: Prone to human errors
Not only small shops but large organizations also used to maintain their transaction details
in book registers.
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.9
Spreadsheet Files - A better solution PPD

Module 02

Partha Pratim
Spreadsheet Softwares like Google Sheets: Due to the disadvantages of maintaining
Das ledger registers, organizations dealing with huge amount of data shifted to using
Objectives & spreadsheet softwares for maintaining their records in files.
Outline

Evolution of Data
• Durability: These are computer applications and hence data is less prone to physical
Management
damage.
History

Module Summary
• Scalability: Easier to search, insert and modify records as compared to book ledgers
• Security: Can be password-protected
• Easy of Use: Computer applications are used to search and manipulate records in the
spreadsheets leading to reduction in manpower needed to perform routine computations
• Consistency: Not guaranteed but spreadsheets are less prone to mistakes than
registers.

Mostly useful for single user or small enterprise applications

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.10

Why leave filesystems?

Module 02

Partha Pratim
Lack of efficiency in meeting growing needs PPD
Das
• With rapid scale up of data, there has been considerable increase in the time required
Objectives &
Outline
to perform most operations.
Evolution of Data • A typical spreadsheet file may have an upper limit on the number of rows.
Management

History • Ensuring consistency of data is a big challenge.

Module Summary
• No means to check violations of constraints in the face of concurrent processing.
• Unable to give different permissions to different people in a centralized manner.
• A system crash could be catastrophic.
The above limitations of filesystems paved the way for a comprehensive platform dedicated
to management of data - the Database Management Systems.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.11

History of DBMS PPD

Module 02

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Evolution of Data
Management

History

Module Summary

History of DBMS

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.12

History of Database Systems

Module 02

Partha Pratim • 1950s and early 1960s:

Das
◦ Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
Objectives &
Outline . Tapes provided only sequential access
Evolution of Data
Management
◦ Punched cards for input
History • Late 1960s and 1970s:
Module Summary
◦ Hard disks allowed direct access to data
◦ Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
◦ Ted Codd defines the relational data model
. Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
. IBM Research begins System R prototype
. UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
◦ High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.13

Objectives &
Outline

Evolution of Data
Management

History

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.17

Module Summary PPD

Module 02

Partha Pratim • Walk through of evolution of Data and Records Management

Das
• History of DBMS
Objectives &
Outline

Evolution of Data
Management

History

Module Summary

Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 02.18

Module 03

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
File Systems vs
Databases Module 03: Why DBMS?/2
Python viz-a-viz SQL
Parameterized
Comparison

Module Summary
Partha Pratim Das

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 03

Partha Pratim • Evolution of Data and Records Management

Das
• History of DBMS
Objectives &
Outline

File Systems vs
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL
Parameterized
Comparison

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.2

Module Objectives PPD

Module 03

Partha Pratim • Comparison of File based data management and DBMS

Das

Objectives &
Outline

File Systems vs
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL
Parameterized
Comparison

Module Summary

Case study: A bank transaction (2) PPD

Module 03

Partha Pratim
We will use this banking transaction system to compare various features of a file-based
Das (spreadsheet/.csv files) implementation viz-a-viz a DBMS-based implementation
Objectives &
Outline
• Account details are stored in
File Systems vs ◦ Accounts.csv for file-based implementation
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL
◦ Accounts table for DBMS implementation
Parameterized
Comparison • The transaction details are stored in
Module Summary
◦ Ledger.csv file for file-based implementation
◦ Ledger table for DBMS implementation
In the following slides we discuss a fund transfer transaction.

Source: https: // github. com/ bhaskariitm/ transition-from-files-to-db/ tree/ main

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.7

PPD

Module 03

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

File Systems vs
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL
Parameterized
Comparison

Module Summary

Python viz-a-viz SQL

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.8

Bank Transaction: Python viz-a-viz SQL PPD

Module 03 Python SQL

Partha Pratim
Das
def begin_Transaction(creditAcc,
debitAcc, amount):
Objectives &
Outline temp = [] // Handled implicitly by the DBMS
File Systems vs success = 0
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL # Open file handles to retrieve and
Parameterized store transaction data
Comparison

Module Summary f_obj_Account1 =

open(’Accounts.csv’, ’r’)
f_reader1 =
csv.DictReader(f_obj_Account1)
f_obj_Account2 =
open(’Accounts.csv’, ’r’)
f_reader2 =
csv.DictReader(f_obj_Account2)
f_obj_Ledger =
open(’Ledger.csv’, ’a+’)
f_writer =
csv.DictWriter(f_obj_Ledger,
fieldnames=col_name_Ledger)
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.9
Bank Transaction: Python viz-a-viz SQL (2) PPD

Module 03 Python SQL

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.10

Bank Transaction: Python viz-a-viz SQL (3) PPD

Module 03 Python SQL

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.11

Bank Transaction: Python viz-a-viz SQL (4) PPD

Module 03 Python SQL

Partha Pratim
Das try : do $$
for sRec in f_reader1 : begin
Objectives & # CONDITION CHECK FOR ENOUGH BALANCE
Outline
amt = 5000;
if sRec [ " AcctNo " ] == debitAcc and sendVal = ’1800090’;
File Systems vs int ( sRec [ " Balance " ]) > int ( amt ) : recVal = ’1800100’;
Databases
for rRec in f_reader2 : select balance from accounts
Python viz-a-viz SQL
if rRec [ " AcctNo " ] == creditAcc : into sbalance
Parameterized
Comparison sRec [ " Balance " ] = # DEBIT where account_no = sendVal;
Module Summary
str ( int ( sRec [ " Balance " ]) - int ( amt ) ) if sbalance < amt then
temp . append ( sRec ) raise notice "Insufficient balance";
# Critical point else
f_writer . writerow ({ update accounts
" Acct1 " : sRec [ " AcctNo " ] , set balance =
" Acct2 " : rRec [ " AcctNo " ] , balance - amt
" Amount " : amt , " D / C " : " D " }) where account_no = sendVal;
rRec [ " Balance " ] = # CREDIT insert into
str ( int ( rRec [ " Balance " ]) + int ( amt ) ) ledger(sendAc, recAc, amnt, ttype)
temp . append ( rRec ) values(sendVal, recVal, amt, ’D’);
... update accounts
set balance =
balance + amt
where account_no = recVal;
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das ... 03.12
Bank Transaction: Python viz-a-viz SQL (5) PPD

Module 03
Python SQL
Partha Pratim
try : do $$
Das
for sRec in f_reader1 : begin
# CONDITION CHECK FOR ENOUGH BALANCE amt = 5000;
Objectives & if sRec [ " AcctNo " ] == debitAcc and sendVal = ’1800090’;
Outline int ( sRec [ " Balance " ]) > int ( amt ) : recVal = ’1800100’;
for rRec in f_reader2 : select balance from accounts
File Systems vs if rRec [ " AcctNo " ] == creditAcc : into sbalance
Databases sRec [ " Balance " ] = # DEBIT where account_no = sendVal;
Python viz-a-viz SQL str ( int ( sRec [ " Balance " ]) - int ( amt ) ) if sbalance < amt then
Parameterized temp . append ( sRec ) raise notice "Insufficient balance";
Comparison # Critical point else
f_writer . writerow ({ " Acct1 " : sRec [ " AcctNo " ] , update accounts
Module Summary " Acct2 " : rRec [ " AcctNo " ] , set balance =
" Amount " : amt , " D / C " : " D " }) balance - amt
rRec [ " Balance " ] = # CREDIT where account_no = sendVal;
str ( int ( rRec [ " Balance " ]) + int ( amt ) ) insert into
temp . append ( rRec ) ledger(sendAc, recAc, amnt, ttype)
f_writer . writerow ({ " Acct1 " : rRec [ " AcctNo " ] , values(sendVal, recVal, amt, ’D’);
" Acct2 " : sRec [ " AcctNo " ] , update accounts
" Amount " : amt , " D / C " : " C " }) set balance =
success = success + 1 balance + amt
break where account_no = recVal;
f_ob j_Accoun t1 . seek (0) insert into
next ( f_ obj_Account1 ) ledger(sendAc, recAc, amnt, ttype)
for record in f_reader1 : values(recVal, sendVal, amt, ’C’);
if record [ " AcctNo " ] != temp [0][ " AcctNo " ] and commit;
record [ " AcctNo " ] != temp [1][ " AcctNo " ]: raise notice "Successful";
temp . append ( record ) end if;
except : end; $$
print ( " Wrong input entered !!! " )
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.13
Bank Transaction: Python viz-a-viz SQL (6) PPD

Module 03 Python SQL

Partha Pratim
Das
#Writing back to the file

Objectives & f_obj_Account1.close()

Outline f_obj_Account2.close() // Handled implicitly by the DBMS
File Systems vs
f_obj_Ledger.close()
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL if success == 1:
Parameterized f_obj_Account = open(’Accounts.csv’, ’w+’, newline=’’)
Comparison
f_writer = csv.DictWriter(f_obj_Account,
Module Summary fieldnames=col_name_Account)
f_writer.writeheader()
for data in temp:
f_writer.writerow(data)

f_obj_Account.close()
print("Transaction is successful !!")

else:
print(’Transaction failed : Confirm Account details’)

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.14

Comparison PPD

Module 03
Parameter File Handling via Python DBMS
Partha Pratim Scalability with re- Very difficult to handle insert, update and In-built features to provide high scalability for
Das spect to querying of records a large number of records
amount of data
Objectives &
Outline
Scalability with re- Extremely difficult to change the structure of Adding or removing attributes can be done
spect to changes records as in the case of adding or removing seamlessly using simple SQL queries
File Systems vs in structure attributes
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL
Time of execution In seconds In milliseconds
Parameterized
Persistence Data processed using temporary data struc- Data persistence is ensured via automatic, sys-
Comparison tures have to be manually updated to the file tem induced mechanisms
Module Summary Robustness Ensuring robustness of data has to be done Backup, recovery and restore need minimum
manually manual intervention
Security Difficult to implement in Python (Security at User-specific access at database level
OS level)
Programmer’s Most file access operations involve extensive Standard and simple built-in queries reduce the
productivity coding to ensure persistence, robustness and effort involved in coding thereby increasing a
security of data programmer’s throughput
Arithmetic opera- Easy to do arithmetic computations Limited set of arithmetic operations are avail-
tions able
Costs Low costs for hardware, software and human High costs for hardware, software and human
resources resources

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.15

PPD

Module 03

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

File Systems vs
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL
Parameterized
Comparison

Module Summary

Parameterized Comparison

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.16

Scalability PPD

Module 03 File handling via Python DBMS

Partha Pratim
Das • Number of records: As the # of records • Number of records: Databases are built
increases, the efficiency of flat files to efficiently scale up when the # of
Objectives &
Outline
reduces: records increase drastically.
File Systems vs
Databases ◦ the time spent in searching for the ◦ In-built mechanisms, like indexing, for
Python viz-a-viz SQL
right records quick access of right data.
Parameterized
Comparison
◦ the limitations of the OS in handling • Structural Change: During adding an
Module Summary
huge files attribute, a default value can be defined
• Structural Change: To add an attribute, that holds for all existing records - the
initializing the new attribute of each new attribute gets initialized with the
record with a default value has to be done default value. During deletion, constraints
by program. It is very difficult to detect are used either not to allow the removal
and maintain relationships between or ensure its safe removal
entities if and when an attribute has to be
removed.
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.17
Time and Efficiency PPD

Module 03

Partha Pratim
File handling via Python DBMS
Das
• The effort needed to implement a file • The effort to install and configure a DB
Objectives &
Outline handler is quite less in Python in a DB server is expensive & time
File Systems vs
• In order to process a 1GB file, a program consuming
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL in Python would typically take few • In order to process a 1GB file, an SQL
Parameterized
Comparison seconds. query would typically take few
Module Summary milliseconds.

• If the number of records is very small, the overhead in installing and configuring a
database will be much more than the time advantage obtained from executing the
queries.
• However, if the number of records is really large, then the time required in the
initialization process of a database will be negligible as compared to the time saved in
using SQL queries.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.18

Persistence, Robustness, Security PPD

Module 03 File handling via Python DBMS

Partha Pratim
Das • Persistence: Data processed using • Persistence: Data persistence is ensured
in-memory data structures stay in the via automatic, system mechanisms. The
Objectives &
Outline
memory during processing. After updates, programmer does not have to worry about
File Systems vs
Databases these are manually updated to the file on the data getting lost due to manual errors
Python viz-a-viz SQL
disk • Robustness: Backup, recovery & restore
Parameterized
Comparison
• Robustness: Ensuring consistency, need minimum manual intervention. The
Module Summary
reliability and sanity is manual via backup and recovery plan can be devised
multiple checks. On a system crash, a for automatic recovery on a crash
transaction may cause inconsistency or • Security: DBMS provides user-specific
loss of data. access at the database level with
• Security: Extremely difficult to restriction for to view only access
implement granular security in file
systems. Authentication is at the OS
level.
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.19
Programmer’s Productivity PPD

Module 03 File handling via Python DBMS

Partha Pratim
Das • Building the file handler: Since the • Configuring the database: The
constraints within and across entities installation and configuration of a
Objectives &
Outline
have to be enforced manually, the effort database is specialized job of a DBA. A
File Systems vs
Databases involved in building a file handling programmer, on the other hand, is saved
Python viz-a-viz SQL
application is huge the trouble
Parameterized
Comparison
• Maintenance: To maintain the • Maintenance: DBMS has in-built
Module Summary
consistency of data, one must regularly mechanisms to ensure consistency and
check for sanity of data and the sanity of data being inserted, updated or
relationships between entities during deleted. The programmer does not need
inserts, updates and deletes to do such checks
• Handling huge data: As the data grows • Handling huge data: DBMS can handle
beyond the capacity of the file handler, even terabytes of data - Programmer does
more efforts are needed not have to worry

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.20

Arithmetic Operations PPD

Module 03

Partha Pratim
File handling via Python DBMS
Das
• Extensive support for arithmetic and • Limited support for arithmetic and
Objectives &
Outline logical operations: Extensive arithmetic logical operations: SQL provides limited
File Systems vs and logical operations can be performed arithmetic and logical operations. Any
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL on data using Python. These include other complex computation has to be
Parameterized
Comparison complex numerical calculations and done outside the SQL.
Module Summary recursive computations.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.21

Costs and Complexity PPD

Module 03

Partha Pratim
File handling via Python DBMS
Das
• File systems are cheaper to install and • Large databases are served by dedicated
Objectives &
Outline use. No specialized hardware, software or database servers need large storage and
File Systems vs personnel are required to maintain processing power
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL filesystems. • DBMSs are expensive software that have
Parameterized
Comparison to be installed and regularly updated
Module Summary
• Databases are inherently complex and
need specialized people to work on it -
like DBA
• The above factors lead to huge costs in
implementing and maintaining database
management systems

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.22

Module Summary PPD

Module 03

Partha Pratim • Elucidated the difference between File handling by Python viz-a-viz DBMS through an
Das
Bank Transaction example
Objectives &
Outline • Parameterized Comparison
File Systems vs
Databases
Python viz-a-viz SQL
Parameterized
Comparison

Module Summary

Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 03.23

Module 04

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Levels of
Abstraction Module 04: Introduction to DBMS/1
Schema and
Instance

Data Models

DDL and DML Partha Pratim Das

SQL

Database Design Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Module Summary Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 04

Partha Pratim • Comparison of data management using Python & files and DBMS
Das
• Efficacy and Efficient DBMS highlighted
Objectives &
Outline

Levels of
Abstraction

Schema and
Instance

Data Models

DDL and DML

SQL

Database Design

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.2

Module Objectives PPD

Module 04

Partha Pratim • To familiarize with the basic notions and terminology of database management systems
Das
• To understand the role of data models and languages
Objectives &
Outline • To understand the approaches to database design
Levels of
Abstraction

Schema and
Instance

Data Models

DDL and DML

SQL

Database Design

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.3

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.6

View of Data

Module 04

Partha Pratim
An architecture for a database system
Das

Objectives &
Outline

accounts in a bank and the relationship between them
SQL
. Customer Schema
Database Design

Module Summary . Account Schema

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Levels of
Abstraction

Schema and
Instance

Data Models

DDL and DML

SQL

Database Design

Module Summary
Data Models

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.12

Data Models

Module 04 • A collection of tools for describing

Partha Pratim ◦ Data
Das
◦ Data relationships
Objectives &
Outline
◦ Data semantics
Levels of
◦ Data constraints
Abstraction
• Relational model (we focus in this course)
Schema and
Instance • Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
Data Models
• Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
DDL and DML

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Module 04

Partha Pratim • Specification notation for defining the database schema

Das
◦ Example:
Objectives &
Outline create table instructor (
Levels of ID char(5),
Abstraction
name varchar(20),
Schema and
Instance dept name varchar(20),
Data Models salary numeric(8,2))
DDL and DML
• DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data dictionary
SQL

Database Design • Data dictionary contains metadata (that is, data about data)
Module Summary ◦ Database schema
◦ Integrity constraints
. Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
◦ Authorization
. Who can access what
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.18
Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Module 04

Partha Pratim • Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate data
Das
model
Objectives &
Outline ◦ DML: also known as Query Language
Levels of
Abstraction
• Two classes of languages
Schema and ◦ Pure – used for proving properties about computational power and for optimization
Instance

Data Models
. Relational Algebra (we focus in this course)
DDL and DML . Tuple relational calculus
SQL . Domain relational calculus
Database Design ◦ Commercial – used in commercial systems
Module Summary
. SQL is the most widely used commercial language

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.19

SQL PPD

Data Manipulation Language (DML) and its role in accessing and manipulating data within a database. Let's break it down:

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Module 04 Definition: DML is a subset of SQL (Structured Query Language) used for accessing, inserting, updating, and deleting data in databases.
Purpose: It allows users to perform operations on the data itself, as opposed to defining the structure of the database (which is handled by DDL –
Partha Pratim
Data Definition Language).
Das
Types of DML:
Pure DML (Theoretical/Relational Model Languages):
Objectives &
Outline
Relational Algebra: A procedural query language that uses operators like selection, projection, union, set difference, and Cartesian product to
Levels of manipulate relations (tables).
Abstraction Tuple Relational Calculus: A non-procedural query language where you specify what data you want, not how to retrieve it. Uses tuples (rows) as
variables.
Schema and Domain Relational Calculus: Similar to tuple relational calculus, but uses domain variables (values of attributes) instead of entire tuples.
Instance
These languages are more theoretical and are used for understanding the fundamentals of query processing, query optimization, and the
Data Models computational power of databases.

DDL and DML Commercial DML (Practical, used in DBMS):

SQL
SQL (Structured Query Language): The most widely used commercial language for querying relational databases. It is a standard language used
Database Design for managing and manipulating relational databases in almost all modern DBMS (like MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server, Oracle).
SQL - The Most Widely Used DML
Module Summary
SQL
SQL can be divided into various parts, but the DML portion includes commands like:
SELECT: Retrieves data from one or more tables.
INSERT: Adds new records to a table.
UPDATE: Modifies existing records.
DELETE: Removes records from a table.
In short, DML provides the tools to work with the data, while theoretical models like relational algebra and calculus help optimize and understand
how queries can be structured and processed in a database system.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.20

SQL

Module 04

Partha Pratim • The most widely used commercial language

Das
• SQL is NOT a Turing Machine equivalent language
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Cannot be used to solve all problems that a C program, for example, can solve
Levels of
Abstraction • To be able to compute complex functions, SQL is usually embedded in some
Schema and higher-level language
Instance

Data Models • Application programs generally access databases through one of

DDL and DML ◦ Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
SQL
◦ Application Programming Interface or API (for example, ODBC/JDBC) which allow
Database Design
SQL queries to be sent to a database
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.21

Database Design PPD

Module 04

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Levels of
Abstraction

Schema and
Instance

Data Models

DDL and DML

SQL

Database Design

Module Summary
Database Design

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.22

Database Design

Module 04

Partha Pratim
The process of designing the general structure of the database:
Das
• Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design requires that we
Objectives &
Outline
find a good collection of relation schema
Levels of ◦ Business decision
Abstraction

Schema and
. What attributes should we record in the database?
Instance
◦ Computer Science decision
Data Models

DDL and DML

. What relation schemas should we have and how should the attributes be
SQL distributed among the various relation schemas?
Database Design • Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.23

Database Design (2)

Module 04

Partha Pratim • Is there any problem with this relation?

Das

Objectives &
Outline

Levels of
Abstraction

Schema and
Instance

Data Models

DDL and DML

SQL

Database Design

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.24

Module Summary PPD

Module 04

Partha Pratim • Familiarized with the basic notions and terminology of database management systems
Das
• Introduced the role of data models and languages
Objectives &
Outline • Introduced the approaches to database design
Levels of
Abstraction

Schema and
Instance

Data Models

DDL and DML

SQL

Database Design

Module Summary

Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 04.25

Module 05

Das
• OO Relational Model
Objectives &
Outline • XML
Database Design
Object-Relational • Database Engine
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language
◦ Storage Management
Database Engine
◦ Query Processing
Database System
Internals
◦ Transaction Management
Database Users • Database Internals and Architecture
& Administrators

Module Summary • Database Users and Administrators

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.4

Database Design PPD

Module 05

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals

Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Database Design

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.5

Database Design

Module 05

Partha Pratim
The process of designing the general structure of the database:
Das
• Logical Design
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Deciding on the database schema. Database design requires that we find a good
Database Design collection of relation schema
Object-Relational
Data Models ◦ Business decision
XML: Extensible
Markup Language . What attributes should we record in the database?
Database Engine
Database System
◦ Computer Science decision
Internals
. What relation schemas should we have and how should the attributes be
Database Users
& Administrators distributed among the various relation schemas?
Module Summary
• Physical Design
◦ Deciding on the physical layout of the database

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.6

Database Design (2) PPD

Module 05

Partha Pratim • Is there any problem with this relation?

Das

Objectives &
Outline

Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models redundency
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System same
Internals
data is
Database Users coming
& Administrators multiple
times
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.7

Database Design (3) PPD

Module 05

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals

Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.8

Design Approaches

Module 05

Partha Pratim • Need to come up with a methodology to ensure that each relations in the database is
Das
good
Objectives &
Outline • Two ways of doing so:
Database Design ◦ Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
. Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
Markup Language
. Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram
Database Engine
Database System ◦ Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
Internals

Database Users . Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them
& Administrators

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.9

Object-Relational Data Models PPD

Module 05

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals

Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Object-Relational Data Models

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.10

Object-Relational Data Models

Module 05

Partha Pratim • Relational model: flat, atomic values

Das
• Object Relational Data Models
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Extend the relational data model by including object orientation and constructs to
Database Design deal with added data types
Object-Relational
Data Models ◦ Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-atomic values such
XML: Extensible
Markup Language as nested relations
Database Engine
Database System
◦ Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative access to data, while
Internals
extending modeling power
Database Users
& Administrators ◦ Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.11

XML: Extensible Markup Language PPD

Module 05

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals

Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

XML: Extensible Markup Language

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.12

XML: Extensible Markup Language

Module 05

Partha Pratim • Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)

Das
• Originally intended as a document markup language not a database language
Objectives &
Outline • The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures made XML a great
Database Design
Object-Relational
way to exchange data, not just documents
Data Models
XML: Extensible • XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange formats
Markup Language

Database Engine • A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and querying XML
Database System
Internals
documents/data
Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.13

Database Engine PPD

Module 05

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals

Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Database Engine

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.14

Database Engine PPD

Module 05

Partha Pratim • Storage manager

Das
• Query processing
Objectives &
Outline • Transaction manager
Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals

Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.15

Storage Management

Module 05

Partha Pratim • Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the
Das
low-level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries
Objectives &
Outline
submitted to the system
Database Design • The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
Object-Relational
Data Models ◦ Interaction with the OS file manager
XML: Extensible
Markup Language ◦ Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
Database Engine
Database System • Issues:
Internals

Database Users
◦ Storage access
& Administrators
◦ File organization
Module Summary
◦ Indexing and hashing

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.16

Query Processing

Module 05

Partha Pratim a) Parsing and translation

Das
b) Optimization
Objectives &
Outline c) Evaluation
Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals

Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.17

Query Processing (2)

Module 05

Partha Pratim • Alternative ways of evaluating a given query

Das
◦ Equivalent expressions
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Different algorithms for each operation
Database Design • Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can be enormous
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
• Need to estimate the cost of operations
Markup Language

Database Engine
◦ Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the database
Database System
Internals
must maintain
Database Users
◦ Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of complex
& Administrators
expressions
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.18

Transaction Management

Module 05

Partha Pratim • What if the system fails?

Das
• What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same data?
Objectives &
Outline • A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a
Database Design
Object-Relational
database application
Data Models
XML: Extensible • Transaction-management component ensures that the database remains in a
Markup Language
consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating
Database Engine
Database System system crashes) and transaction failures.
Internals

Database Users • Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the concurrent
& Administrators
transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.19

Database System Internals PPD

Module 05

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals

Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Database System Internals

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.20

Database System Internals

Module 05

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.24

Database Users and Administrators

Module 05

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals
Database
Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.25

Module Summary PPD

Module 05

Partha Pratim • Introduced models of database management systems

Das
• Familiarized with major components of a database engine
Objectives &
Outline • Familiarized with database internals and architecture
Database Design
Object-Relational
Data Models
XML: Extensible
Markup Language

Database Engine
Database System
Internals

Database Users
& Administrators

Module Summary

Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 05.26

Module 06

Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Database Management Systems
Outline
Module 06: Introduction to Relational Model/1
Example of a
Relation

Attributes

Schema and
Instance Partha Pratim Das
Keys

Relational Query Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Languages
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Module Summary
[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.1

Week Recap PPD

Example of a Relation

Module 06

Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Example of a
Relation

Attributes

Schema and
Instance

Keys

Relational Query
Languages

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.5

Attributes PPD

Module 06

Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Example of a
Relation

Attributes

Schema and
Instance

Keys

Relational Query
Languages

Module Summary
Attributes

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.6

Attribute Types PPD

Module 06

Partha Pratim • Consider

Das
Students = Roll#, First Name, Last Name, DoB, Passport#, Aadhaar #, Department
Week Recap relation
Objectives &
Outline • The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain of the attribute
Example of a
Relation
◦ Roll #: Alphanumeric string
Attributes ◦ First Name, Last Name: Alpha String
Schema and ◦ DoB: Date
Instance
◦ Passport #: String (Letter followed by 7 digits) – nullable (optional)
Keys

Relational Query
◦ Aadhaar #: 12-digit number
Languages ◦ Department: Alpha String
Module Summary
• Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is, indivisible
• The special value null is a member of every domain. Indicates that the value is unknown
• The null value may cause complications in the definition of many operations

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.7

Attribute Types PPD

Module 06
• For
Partha Pratim
Das
Students = Roll#, First Name, Last Name, DoB, Passport#, Aadhaar #, Department
Week Recap
• And domain of the attributes as:
Objectives & ◦ Roll #: Alphanumeric string
Outline
◦ First Name, Last Name: Alpha String
Example of a
Relation ◦ DoB: Date nullable means that
can be empty, as we
Attributes ◦ Passport #: String (Letter followed by 7 digits) – nullable (optional) can not make any
Schema and
Instance
◦ Aadhaar #: 12-digit number attribute emtpty
e.g we can not let roll
Keys ◦ Department: Alpha String no be empty
Relational Query
Languages

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.8

Schema and Instance PPD

Module 06

Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Example of a
Relation

Attributes

Schema and
Instance

Keys

Relational Query
Languages

Module Summary
Schema and Instance

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.9

Relation Schema and Instance

Module 06

Partha Pratim • A1 , A2 , · · · , An are attributes

Das
• R = (A1 , A2 , · · · , An ) is a relation schema
Week Recap
Example: instructor = (ID, name, dept name, salary )
Objectives &
Outline
• Formally, given sets D1 , D2 , · · · , Dn a relation r is a subset of
Example of a
Relation

Attributes D 1 × D2 × · · · × D n
Schema and
Instance
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) where each ai ∈ Di
Keys

Relational Query
• The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by a table
Languages
• An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table
Module Summary
• Example:
instructor ≡ (String (5) × String × String × Number +), where ID ∈ String (5),
name ∈ String , dept name ∈ String , and salary ∈ Number +

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.10

Relations are Unordered with Unique Tuples

Module 06 • Order of tuples / rows is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order)
Partha Pratim
Das • No two tuples / rows may be identical
Week Recap
• Example: instructor relation with unordered tuples
Objectives &
Outline

Example of a
Relation

Attributes

Schema and
Instance

Keys

Relational Query
Languages

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.11

Keys PPD

Module 06

Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Example of a
Relation

Attributes

Schema and
Instance

Keys

Relational Query
Languages

Module Summary
Keys

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.12

Keys PPD

Module 06

Partha Pratim • Let K ⊆ R, where R is the set of attributes in the relation

Das
• K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique tuple of each
Week Recap
possible relation r (R)
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Example: {ID} and {ID, name} are both superkeys of instructor
Example of a
Relation • Superkey K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Attributes
◦ Example: {ID} is a candidate key for instructor
Schema and
Instance • One of the candidate keys is selected to be the primary key
Keys
◦ Which one?
Relational Query
Languages
• A surrogate key (or synthetic key) in a database is a unique identifier for either an
Module Summary
entity in the modeled world or an object in the database
◦ The surrogate key is not derived from application data, unlike a natural (or
business) key which is derived from application data
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/surrogate-key-in-dbms/

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.13

Keys PPD

Module 06
• Students = Roll#, First Name, Last Name, DoB, Passport#, Aadhaar #, Department
Partha Pratim
Das • Super Key: Roll #, {Roll #, DoB}
Week Recap • Candidate Keys: Roll #, {First Name, Last Name}, Aadhaar#
Objectives &
Outline
◦ Passport # cannot be a key. Why?
Example of a ◦ Null values are allowed for Passport # (a student may not have a passport)
Relation

Attributes
• Primary Key: Roll #
Schema and ◦ Can Aadhaar# be a key?
Instance
◦ It may suffice for unique identification. But Roll# may have additional useful
Keys

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.20

Relational Query Languages PPD

Module 06

Partha Pratim • “Pure” languages:

Das
◦ Relational algebra
Week Recap
◦ Tuple relational calculus
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Domain relational calculus
Example of a
Relation
• The above 3 pure languages are equivalent in computing power
Attributes • We will concentrate on relational algebra
Schema and
Instance ◦ Not Turing-machine equivalent
Keys . Not all algorithms can be expressed in RA
Relational Query
Languages ◦ Consists of 6 basic operations
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.21

Module Summary PPD

Module 06

Partha Pratim • Introduced the notion of attributes and their types

Das
• Taken an overview of the mathematical structure of relational model – schema and
Week Recap
instance
Objectives &
Outline
• Introduced the notion of keys – primary as well as foreign
Example of a
Relation

Attributes

Schema and
Instance

Keys

Relational Query
Languages

Module Summary

Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 06.22
Module 07

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Relational
Operators Module 07: Introduction to Relational Model/2
Aggregation
Operators

Module Summary

Partha Pratim Das

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 07

Partha Pratim • Basic notions of modeling introduced

Das
◦ Attributes and their Types
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Schema and Instance
Relational ◦ Keys and their Categorization
Operators

Aggregation
• Languages for Relation Model introduced
Operators

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.2

Module Objectives PPD

Module 07

Partha Pratim • To understand relational algebra

Das
• To familiarize with the operators of relational algebra
Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Operators

Aggregation
Operators

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.3

Module Outline PPD

Module 07

Partha Pratim • Operations

Das
◦ Select
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Project
Relational ◦ Union
Operators
◦ Difference
Aggregation
Operators ◦ Intersection
Module Summary ◦ Cartesian Product
◦ Natural Join
• Aggregate Operations

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.4

Relational Operators PPD

Module 07

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Operators

Aggregation
Operators

Module Summary

Relational Operators

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.5

Basic Properties of Relations

Module 07 • A relation is set. Hence,

Partha Pratim
Das • Ordering of rows / tuples is inconsequential
Objectives &
Outline A B A B
Relational
Operators
a1 b1 a1 b1
Aggregation a1 b2 is same as: a2 b1
Operators
a2 b1 a2 b2
Module Summary
a2 b2 a1 b2
• All rows / tuples must be distinct

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.11

Joining two relations – Cartesian-product

Module 07

Partha Pratim • Relation r , s

Das

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Operators

Aggregation
Operators

Module Summary

• r ×s

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.12

Cartesian-product – naming issue

Module 07

Partha Pratim • Relation r , s

Das

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Operators

Aggregation
Operators

Module Summary • r ×s

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.13

Renaming a Table

Module 07

Partha Pratim • Allows us to refer to a relation, (say E ) by more than one name.
Das

Objectives & ρX (E )
Outline

Relational
Operators returns the expression E under the name X
Aggregation
Operators
• Relations r
Module Summary

• r × ρs (r )

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.14

Composition of Operations

Module 07

Partha Pratim • Can build expressions using multiple operations

Das
• Example: σA=C (r × s)
Objectives &
Outline • r ×s
Relational
Operators

Aggregation
Operators

Module Summary

• σA=C (r × s)

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.15

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Operators

Aggregation
Operators

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 07.21

Module Summary PPD

Module 07

Partha Pratim • Introduced relational algebra

Das
• Familiarized with the operators of relational algebra
Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Operators

Aggregation
Operators

Module Summary

Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Das
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
Objectives &
Outline • Data Manipulation Language (DML): Query Structure
Outline

History of SQL

Data Definition
Language (DDL)
Create Table
Integrity Constraints
Update Table

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.4

History of SQL PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Outline

History of SQL

Data Definition
Language (DDL)
Create Table
Integrity Constraints
Update Table

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
History of SQL
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.5

History of Query Language PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim • IBM developed Structured English Query Language (SEQUEL) as part of System R
Das
project. Renamed Structured Query Language (SQL: pronounced still as SEQUEL)
Objectives &
Outline • ANSI and ISO standard SQL:
Outline
SQL-86 First formalized by ANSI
History of SQL SQL-89 + Integrity Constraints
Data Definition SQL-92 Major revision (ISO/IEC 9075 standard), De-facto Industry Standard
Language (DDL) SQL:1999 + Regular Expression Matching, Recursive Queries, Triggers, Support for Procedural and
Create Table
Control Flow Statements, Nonscalar types (Arrays), and Some OO features (structured
Integrity Constraints
types), Embedding SQL in Java (SQL/OLB), and Embedding Java in SQL (SQL/JRT)
Update Table
SQL:2003 + XML features (SQL/XML), Window Functions, Standardized Sequences, and Columns
Data with Auto-generated Values (identity columns)
Manipulation
Language (DML): SQL:2006 + Ways of importing and storing XML data in an SQL database, manipulating it within
Query Structure the database, and publishing both XML and conventional SQL-data in XML form
Select Clause SQL:2008 Legalizes ORDER BY outside Cursor Definitions
Where Clause + INSTEAD OF Triggers, TRUNCATE Statement, and FETCH Clause
From Clause
SQL:2011 + Temporal Data (PERIOD FOR)
Module Summary Enhancements for Window Functions and FETCH Clause
SQL:2016 + Row Pattern Matching, Polymorphic Table Functions, and JSON
SQL:2019 + Multidimensional Arrays (MDarray type and operators)

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.6

History of Query Language (2): Compliance PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim • SQL is the de facto industry standard today for relational or structred data systems
Das
• Commercial systems as well as open systems may be fully or partially compliant to one
Objectives &
Outline or more standards from SQL-92 onward
Outline
• Not all examples here may work on your particular system. Check your system’s SQL
History of SQL
documentation
Data Definition
Language (DDL)
Create Table
Integrity Constraints
Update Table

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.7

History of Query Language (3): Alternatives PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim • There aren’t any alternatives to SQL for speaking to relational databases (that is, SQL
Das
as a protocol), but there are many alternatives to writing SQL in the applications
Objectives &
Outline • These alternatives have been implemented in the form of frontends for working with
Outline relational databases. Some examples of a frontend include (for a section of languages):
History of SQL
◦ SchemeQL and CLSQL, which are probably the most flexible, owing to their Lisp
Data Definition
Language (DDL) heritage, but they also look like a lot more like SQL than other frontends
Create Table
Integrity Constraints
◦ LINQ (in .Net)
Update Table ◦ ScalaQL and ScalaQuery (in Scala)
Data
Manipulation
◦ SqlStatement, ActiveRecord and many others in Ruby
Language (DML):
Query Structure
◦ HaskellDB
Select Clause ◦ ...the list goes on for many other languages.
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Source: What are good alternatives to SQL (the language)?

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.8

History of Query Language (4): Derivatives PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim • There are several query languages that are derived from or inspired by SQL. Of these,
Das
the most popular and effective is SPARQL.
Objectives &
Outline ◦ SPARQL (pronounced sparkle, a recursive acronym for SPARQL Protocol and RDF
Outline Query Language) is an RDF query language
History of SQL . A semantic query language for databases - able to retrieve and manipulate data
Data Definition
Language (DDL) stored in Resource Description Framework (RDF) format.
Create Table . It has been standardized by the W3C Consortium as key technology of the
Integrity Constraints
Update Table semantic web
Data . Versions:
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
− SPARQL 1.0 (January 2008)
Select Clause − SPARQL 1.1 (March, 2013)
Where Clause
From Clause . Used as the query languages for several NoSQL systems - particularly the Graph
Module Summary Databases that use RDF as store

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.9

Data Definition Language (DDL) PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Outline

History of SQL

Data Definition
Language (DDL)
Create Table
Integrity Constraints
Update Table

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.10

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Module 08

Partha Pratim
The SQL data-definition language (DDL) allows the specification of information about
Das relations, including:
Objectives &
Outline
• The Schema for each Relation
Outline • The Domain of values associated with each Attribute
History of SQL
• Integrity Constraints
Data Definition
Language (DDL)
• And, as we will see later, also other information such as
Create Table
Integrity Constraints ◦ The set of Indices to be maintained for each relations
Update Table

Data
◦ Security and Authorization information for each relation
Manipulation
Language (DML):
◦ The Physical Storage Structure of each relation on disk
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.11

Domain Types in SQL

Module 08

Partha Pratim • char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n
Das
• varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified maximum length n
Objectives &
Outline • int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent)
Outline

History of SQL
• smallint(n). Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer domain type)
Data Definition • numeric(p, d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p digits, with d
Language (DDL)
Create Table
digits to the right of decimal point. (ex., numeric(3, 1), allows 44.5 to be stores
Integrity Constraints
Update Table
exactly, but not 444.5 or 0.32)
Data • real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision floating point numbers,
Manipulation
Language (DML): with machine-dependent precision
Query Structure
Select Clause • float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at least n digits
Where Clause
From Clause • More are covered in Chapter 4
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.12

Schema Diagram for University Database PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Outline

History of SQL

Data Definition
Language (DDL)
Create Table
Integrity Constraints
Update Table

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.13

Create Table Construct PPD

Module 08
• An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:
Partha Pratim
Das create table r (A1 D1 , A2 D2 , . . . , An Dn ),
Objectives &
(integrity -constraint1 ),
Outline
...
Outline
(integrity -constraintk ));
History of SQL

Data Definition
◦ r is the name of the relation
Language (DDL) ◦ each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r
Create Table
Integrity Constraints ◦ Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute Ai
Update Table

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.14

Create Table Construct (2) PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Outline create table instructor (

History of SQL ID char(5),
Data Definition
Language (DDL) name varchar(20)
Create Table
Integrity Constraints dept name varchar(20)
Update Table

Data salary numeric(8, 2));

Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause
length of number
Module Summary upto decimal

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.15

Create Table Construct (3): Integrity Constraints PPD

Module 08
• not null
Partha Pratim
Das • primary key (A1 , . . . , An )
Objectives &
Outline
• foreign key (Am , . . . , An ) references r
not null ensure that
Outline
attribute(name) should
create table instructor ( create table instructor ( not be left emtpty.
History of SQL

Data Definition ID char(5), ID char(5),

Language (DDL)
(dept_name) must exist in
Create Table name varchar(20) name varchar(20) not null, department table
Integrity Constraints

dept name varchar(20), i.e constrain which is used

Update Table
dept name varchar(20) here (in foreign key) must
Data be avilable in reference
Manipulation salary numeric(8, 2)); salary numeric(8, 2),
Language (DML):
Query Structure primary key (ID),
Select Clause
Where Clause
foreign key (dept name) references department));
From Clause

Module Summary
primary key declaration on an attribute automatically ensures not null

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.16

University Schema PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Outline

History of SQL

Data Definition
Language (DDL)
Create Table
Integrity Constraints
Update Table

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.17

Create Table Construct (4): More Relations PPD

create table student ( create table takes (

Module 08
ID varchar(5), ID varchar(5),
Partha Pratim
Das
name varchar(20) not null, course id varchar(8), sec id varchar(8),
Objectives & dept name varchar(20), semester varchar(6), year numeric(4, 0),
Outline

Outline tot cred numeric(3, 0), grade varchar(2),

History of SQL primary key (ID), primary key (ID, course id, sec id, semester, year ),
Data Definition
Language (DDL)
foreign key (dept name) foreign key (ID) references student
Create Table references department);
Integrity Constraints
foreign key (course id, sec id, semester, year )
Update Table
create table course ( references section);
Data course id varchar(8), • Note: sec id can be dropped from primary key above,
Manipulation
Language (DML): title varchar(50), to ensure a student cannot be registered for two
Query Structure sections of the same course in the same semester
Select Clause dept name varchar(20),
Where Clause
From Clause credits numeric(2, 0),
Module Summary primary key (course id),
foreign key (dept name)
references department);
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.18
Update Tables

Module 08 • Insert (DML command)

Partha Pratim
Das
◦ insert into instructor values (‘10211’, ‘Smith’, ‘Biology’, 66000);
Objectives &
• Delete (DML command)
Outline
◦ Remove all tuples from the student relation
Outline
delete from student
History of SQL

Data Definition
• Drop Table (DDL command)
Language (DDL)
Create Table
◦ drop table r
Integrity Constraints
Update Table
• Alter (DDL command)
Data ◦ alter table r add A D
Manipulation
Language (DML): . Where A is the name of the attribute to be added to relation r and D is the domain of A
Query Structure . All existing tuples in the relation are assigned null as the value for the new attribute
Select Clause
Where Clause ◦ alter table r drop A
From Clause
. Where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
Module Summary . Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.19

Data Manipulation Language (DML): Query Structure PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Outline

History of SQL

Data Definition
Language (DDL)
Create Table
Integrity Constraints
Update Table

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Data Manipulation Language (DML):
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause
Query Structure
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.20

Basic Query Structure

Module 08
• A typical SQL query has the form:
Partha Pratim
Das select A1 , A2 , . . . , An ,
Objectives &
from r1 , r2 , ..., rm
Outline where P
Outline
◦ Ai represents an attribute from ri ’s
History of SQL
◦ ri represents a relation
Data Definition
Language (DDL) ◦ P is a predicate
Create Table
Integrity Constraints • The result of an SQL query is a relation
Update Table

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.21

Select Clause

Module 08
• The select clause lists the attributes desired in the result of a query
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra
Objectives & • Example: find the names of all instructors:
Outline

Outline
select name,
History of SQL
from instructor
Data Definition • NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (that is, you may use upper-case or lower-case
Language (DDL)
Create Table letters)
Integrity Constraints
Update Table ◦ Name ≡ NAME ≡ name
Data ◦ Some people use upper case wherever we use bold font
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.22

Select Clause (2)

Module 08
• SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results!!!
Partha Pratim
Das • To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct after select
Objectives &
Outline
• Find the department names of all instructors, and remove duplicates
Outline
select distinct dept name
History of SQL
from instructor
Data Definition
Language (DDL)
• The keyword all specifies that duplicates should not be removed
Create Table select all dept name
Integrity Constraints
Update Table
from instructor
Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.23

Select Clause (3)

Module 08
• An asterisk in the select clause denotes all attributes
Partha Pratim
Das select *
Objectives &
from instructor
Outline
• An attribute can be a literal with no from clause
Outline
select ’437’
History of SQL

Data Definition
◦ Results is a table with one column and a single row with value ’437’
Language (DDL)
Create Table
◦ Can give the column a name using:
Integrity Constraints select ’437’ as FOO
Update Table

Data • An attribute can be a literal with from clause

Manipulation
Language (DML): select ’A’
Query Structure
Select Clause
from instructor
Where Clause
From Clause
◦ Result is a table with one column and N rows (number of tuples in the instructors
Module Summary
table), each row with value ’A’

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.24

Select Clause (4)

Module 08 The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the operation, +, –, *, and
Partha Pratim /, and operating on constants or attributes of tuples
Das

Objectives &
• The query:
Outline select ID, name, salary/12
Outline from instructor
History of SQL

Data Definition
• Would return a relation that is the same as the instructor relation, except that the
Language (DDL) value of the attribute salary is divided by 12
Create Table
Integrity Constraints • Can rename “salary /12” using the as clause:
Update Table

Data
select ID, name, salary/12 as monthly salary
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.25

Where Clause

Module 08
• The where clause specifies conditions that the result must satisfy
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra
Objectives & • To find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept
Outline

Outline
select name
History of SQL
from instructor
Data Definition
where dept name = ’Comp. Sci.’
Language (DDL)
Create Table • Comparison results can be combined using the logical connectives and, or, and not
Integrity Constraints
Update Table ◦ To find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept with salary > 80000
Data select name
Manipulation
Language (DML): from instructor
Query Structure
Select Clause
where dept name = ’Comp. Sci.’ and salary > 80000
Where Clause
From Clause • Comparisons can be applied to results of arithmetic expressions
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.26

From Clause

Module 08
• The from clause lists the relations involved in the query
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the relational algebra
Objectives & • Find the Cartesian product instructor X teaches
Outline

Outline
select *
History of SQL
from instructor , teaches
Data Definition ◦ Generates every possible instructor-teaches pair, with all attributes from both
Language (DDL)
Create Table
relations
Integrity Constraints
Update Table
◦ For common attributes (for example, ID), the attributes in the resulting table are
Data
renamed using the relation name (for example, instructor.ID)
Manipulation
Language (DML): • Cartesian product not very useful directly, but useful combined with where-clause
Query Structure
Select Clause
condition (selection operation in relational algebra)
Where Clause
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.27

Cartesian Product

Module 08

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Outline

History of SQL

Data Definition
Language (DDL)
Create Table
Integrity Constraints
Update Table
valid as inst.id=teches.id

Data
Manipulation
Language (DML):
Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause not valid as inst.id=teches.id
From Clause

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 08.28

Module Summary PPD

Module 08

Partha Pratim • Introduced relational query language

Das
• Familiarized with data definition and basic query structure
Objectives &
Outline

Outline

History of SQL

Objectives &
Outline

Additional Basic
Operations
Cartesian Product
Rename AS
Operation
String Values
Order By Clause
Select Top / Fetch
Clause
Where Clause
Predicates
Duplicates

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 09.7

Examples PPD

Module 09 • Find the names of all instructors who have taught some course and the course id
Partha Pratim
Das
select name, course id
from instructor , teaches
Objectives &
Outline where instructor .ID = teaches.ID
Additional Basic
Operations
◦ Equi-Join, Natural Join
Cartesian Product
Rename AS
Operation
String Values
Order By Clause
Select Top / Fetch
Clause
Where Clause
Predicates
Duplicates

Module Summary

here we can see that all invalid

tuples get eliminated.
using where

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 09.8

Examples PPD

Module 09

Partha Pratim • Find the names of all instructors in the Art department who have taught some course
Das
and the course id
Objectives &
Outline
select name, course id
Additional Basic
from instructor , teaches
Operations
Cartesian Product
where instructor .ID = teaches.ID and instructor.dept name = ’Art’
Rename AS
Operation
String Values
Order By Clause
Select Top / Fetch
Clause
Where Clause
Predicates
Duplicates

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 09.9

Rename AS Operation

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 09.18

Duplicates (2)

Module 09

Partha Pratim • Example: Suppose multiset relations r1 (A, B) and r2 (C ) are as follows:
Das
r1 = {(1, a)(2, a)} r 2 = {(2), (3), (3)}
Objectives &
Outline • Then ΠB (r1 ) would be {(a), (a)}, while ΠB (r1 ) x r2 would be
Additional Basic {(a, 2), (a, 2), (a, 3), (a, 3), (a, 3), (a, 3)}
Operations
Cartesian Product • SQL duplicate semantics:
Rename AS
Operation select A1 , A2 , . . . , An
String Values
Order By Clause from r1 , r2 , . . . , rm
Select Top / Fetch
Clause where P
Where Clause
Predicates is equivalent to the multiset version of the expression:
Duplicates

Module Summary ΠA1 ,A2 ,...,An (σP (r1 × r2 × . . . × rm ))

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 09.19

Module Summary PPD

Module 09

Partha Pratim • Completed the understanding of basic query structure

Das

Objectives &
Outline

Additional Basic
Operations
Cartesian Product
Rename AS
Operation
String Values
Order By Clause
Select Top / Fetch
Clause
Where Clause
Predicates
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
Duplicates permission of the authors.
Module Summary Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 09.20

Module 10

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Set Operations
Module 10: Introduction to SQL/3
Null Values
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
Functions
Group By
Having
Partha Pratim Das
Null Values

Module Summary Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Completed the understanding of basic query structure

Das

Objectives &
Outline

Set Operations

Null Values
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
Functions
Group By
Having
Null Values

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.2

Module Objectives PPD

Module 10

Partha Pratim • To familiarize with set operations, null values and aggregation
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Set Operations

Null Values
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
Functions
Group By
Having
Null Values

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.3

Module Outline PPD

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Set Operations: union, intersect, except

Das
• Null Values
Objectives &
Outline • Aggregate Functions: avg, min, max, sum, and count
Set Operations
◦ Group By
Null Values
Three Valued Logic ◦ Having
Aggregate ◦ Null Values
Functions
Group By
Having
Null Values

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.4

Set Operations PPD

Module 10

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Set Operations

Null Values
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
Functions
Group By
Having
Null Values

Module Summary
Set Operations

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.5

Set Operations

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Find courses that ran in Fall 2009 or in Spring 2010
Das
(select course id from section where sem = ’Fall’ and year = 2009)
Objectives &
Outline
union
Set Operations
(select course id from section where sem = ’Spring’ and year = 2010)
Null Values • Find courses that ran in Fall 2009 and in Spring 2010
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
(select course id from section where sem = ’Fall’ and year = 2009)
Functions intersect
Group By
Having (select course id from section where sem = ’Spring’ and year = 2010)
Null Values

Module Summary
• Find courses that ran in Fall 2009 but not in Spring 2010
(select course id from section where sem = ’Fall’ and year = 2009)
except
(select course id from section where sem = ’Spring’ and year = 2010)

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.6

Set Operations (2)

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Find the salaries of all instructors that are less than the largest salary
Das
select distinct T .salary
Objectives &
Outline
from instructor as T, instructor as S
Set Operations
where T .salary < S.salary
Null Values • Find all the salaries of all instructors
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
select distinct salary
Functions from instructor
Group By
Having • Find the largest salary of all instructors
Null Values

Module Summary
(select “second query” )
except
(select “first query”)

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.7

Set Operations (3)

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Set operations union, intersect, and except

Das
◦ Each of the above operations automatically eliminates duplicates
Objectives &
Outline • To retain all duplicates use the corresponding multiset versions union all, intersect all,
Set Operations and except all.
Null Values
Three Valued Logic • Suppose a tuple occurs m times in r and n times in s, then, it occurs:
Aggregate
Functions
◦ m + n times in r union all s
Group By ◦ min(m, n) times in r intersect all s
Having
Null Values
◦ max(0, m − n) times in r except all s
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.8

Null Values PPD

Module 10

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Set Operations

Null Values
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
Functions
Group By
Having
Null Values

Module Summary
Null Values

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.9

Null Values

Module 10

Partha Pratim • It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some of their attributes
Das
• null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist
Objectives &
Outline • The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null
Set Operations
◦ Example: 5 + null returns null
Null Values
Three Valued Logic • The predicate is null can be used to check for null values
Aggregate
Functions ◦ Example: Find all instructors whose salary is null
Group By
Having
select name
Null Values from instructor
Module Summary where salary is null
• It is not possible to test for null values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>
We need to use the is null and is not null operators instead

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.10

Null Values (2): Three Valued Logic

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Three values – true, false, unknown

Das
• Any comparison with null returns unknown
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Example: 5 < null or null <> null or null = null
Set Operations
• Three-valued logic using the value unknown:
Null Values
Three Valued Logic ◦ OR: (unknown or true) = true,
Aggregate
Functions
(unknown or false) = unknown
Group By (unknown or unknown) = unknown
Having
Null Values
◦ AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
Module Summary (false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
◦ NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
◦ “P is unknown“ evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates to unknown
• Result of where clause predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.11

Aggregate Functions PPD

Module 10

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Set Operations

Null Values
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
Functions
Group By
Having
Null Values

Module Summary
Aggregate Functions

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.12

Aggregate Functions

Module 10

Partha Pratim • These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of a relation, and return
Das
a value
Objectives &
Outline avg: average value
Set Operations min: minimum value
Null Values max: maximum value
Three Valued Logic
sum: sum of values
Aggregate
Functions count: number of values
Group By
Having
Null Values

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.13

Aggregate Functions (2)

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Find the average salary of instructors in the Computer Science department
Das
select avg (salary )
Objectives &
Outline
from instructor
Set Operations
where dept name = ’Comp. Sci’;
Null Values • Find the total number of instructors who teach a course in the Spring 2010 semester
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
select count (distinct ID)
Functions from teaches
Group By
Having where semester = ’Spring’ and year = 2010;
Null Values

Module Summary
• Find the number of tuples in the course relation
select count (*)
from courses;

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.14

Aggregate Functions (3): Group By

Module 10

Partha Pratim
• Find the average salary of instructors in each department
Das
select dept name, avg(salary ) as avg salary
Objectives & from instructor
Outline
group by dept name;
Set Operations

Null Values
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
Functions
Group By
Having
Null Values

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.15

Aggregate Functions (4): Group By

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions must appear in group by list
Das
/* erroneous query */
Objectives &
Outline
select dept name, ID, avg(salary )
Set Operations
from instructor
Null Values group by dept name;
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
Functions
Group By
Having
Null Values

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.16

Aggregate Functions (5): Having Clause

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Find the names and average salaries of all departments whose average salary is greater
Das
than 42000
Objectives &
Outline
select dept name, avg(salary )
Set Operations
from instructor
Null Values group by dept name
Three Valued Logic
having avg(salary ) > 42000;
Aggregate
Functions Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the formation of groups whereas
Group By
Having predicates in the where clause are applied before forming groups
Null Values

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.17

Null Values and Aggregates

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Total all salaries

Das
select sum (salary )
Objectives &
Outline
from instructor ;
Set Operations ◦ Above statement ignores null amounts
Null Values ◦ Result is null if there is no non-null amount
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
• All aggregate operations except count(*) ignore tuples with null values on the
Functions
Group By
aggregated attributes
Having
Null Values
• What if collection has only null values?
Module Summary ◦ count returns 0
◦ all other aggregates return null

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.18

Module Summary PPD

Module 10

Partha Pratim • Completed the understanding of set operations, null values, and aggregation
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Set Operations

Null Values
Three Valued Logic

Aggregate
Functions
Group By
Having
Null Values
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
Module Summary
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 10.19

Module 11

Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Database Management Systems
Outline
Module 11: SQL Examples
SQL Examples
SELECT
Cartesian Product /
AS
WHERE: AND / OR
String Partha Pratim Das
ORDER BY
IN
Set Department of Computer Science and Engineering
UNION Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
INTERSECT
EXCEPT [email protected]
Aggregation
AVG
MIN
MAX
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.1

Week Recap PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim • Basic notions of Relational Database Models

Das
◦ Attributes and their types
Week Recap
◦ Mathematical structure of relational model
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Schema and Instance
SQL Examples ◦ Keys, primary as well as foreign
SELECT
Cartesian Product /
AS
• Relational algebra with operators
WHERE: AND / OR
String
• Relational query language
ORDER BY
IN
◦ DDL (Data Definition)
Set ◦ DML (Basic Query Structure)
UNION
INTERSECT • Detailed understanding of basic query structure
EXCEPT
Aggregation • Set operations, null values, and aggregation
AVG
MIN
MAX
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.2

Module Objectives PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim • To recap various basic SQL features through example workout
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

SQL Examples
SELECT
Cartesian Product /
AS
WHERE: AND / OR
String
ORDER BY
IN
Set
UNION
INTERSECT
EXCEPT
Aggregation
AVG
MIN
MAX
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.3

Module Outline PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim • Examples of basic SQL

Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

SQL Examples
SELECT
Cartesian Product /
AS
WHERE: AND / OR
String
ORDER BY
IN
Set
UNION
INTERSECT
EXCEPT
Aggregation
AVG
MIN
MAX
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.4

Select distinct PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim • From the classroom relation in the figure, find the names of buildings in which every
Das
individual classroom has capacity less than 100 (removing the duplicates).
Week Recap

Objectives & ◦ Query:

Outline

SQL Examples
select distinct building
SELECT from classroom
Cartesian Product /
AS where capacity < 100;
WHERE: AND / OR
String ◦ Output :
ORDER BY
IN building
Set
Painter
UNION Figure: classroom relation
INTERSECT
Taylor
EXCEPT Watson
Aggregation
AVG
MIN
MAX
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.5

Select all PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim • From the classroom relation in the figure, find the names of buildings in which every
Das
individual classroom has capacity less than 100 (without removing the duplicates).
Week Recap

Objectives & ◦ Query:

Outline

SQL Examples
select all building
SELECT from classroom
Cartesian Product /
AS where capacity < 100;
WHERE: AND / OR
String ◦ Output:
ORDER BY
IN
building
Set Painter
UNION Figure: classroom relation Taylor
INTERSECT
Watson
EXCEPT
Watson
Aggregation
AVG
MIN • Note that duplicate retention is the default and hence it is a common practice to skip
MAX
COUNT
all immediately after select.
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.6

Cartesian Product PPD

Module 11
• Find the list of all students of departments which have a
Partha Pratim
Das budget < $0.1million
Week Recap
select name, budget
Objectives & from student, department name budget
Outline
where student.dept name = department.dept name and Brandt 50000.00
SQL Examples Peltier 70000.00
SELECT
budget < 100000;
Cartesian Product /
Levy 70000.00
AS • The above query first generates every possible student- Sanchez 80000.00
WHERE: AND / OR
String
department pair, which is the Cartesian product of stu- Snow 70000.00
ORDER BY
dent and department. Then, it filters all the rows with Aoi 85000.00
IN
Bourikas 85000.00
Set student.dept name = department.dept name and budget <
UNION
Tanaka 90000.00
INTERSECT
100000.
EXCEPT
Aggregation
• The common attribute dept name in the resulting table are
AVG
renamed using the relation name - student.dept name and
MIN
MAX department.dept name)
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.7

Rename AS Operation PPD

Module 11
• The same query in the previous slide can be framed by
Partha Pratim
Das renaming the tables as shown below.
Week Recap
select S.name as studentname, budget as deptbud-
studentname deptbudget
Objectives & get
Outline Brandt 50000.00
from student as S, department as D Peltier 70000.00
SQL Examples
SELECT
where S.dept name = D.dept name and budget < Levy 70000.00
Cartesian Product /
AS
100000; Sanchez 80000.00
WHERE: AND / OR Snow 70000.00
String
• The above query renames the relation student as S and Aoi 85000.00
ORDER BY
IN
the relation department as D Bourikas 85000.00
Set
• It also displays the attribute name as StudentName and Tanaka 90000.00
UNION
INTERSECT budget as DeptBudget.
EXCEPT
Aggregation • Note that the budget attribute does not have any prefix
AVG
MIN
because it occurs only in the department relation.
MAX
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.8

Where: AND and OR PPD

Module 11
• From the instructor and department relations in the figure, find out the names of all instructors whose
Partha Pratim department is Finance or whose department is in any of the following buildings: Watson, Taylor.
Das
instructor ◦ Query:
Week Recap
select name
Objectives & from instructor I, department D
Outline
where D.dept name = I.dept name
SQL Examples
SELECT and (I.dept name = ’Finance’
Cartesian Product /
AS
or building in (‘Watson’,‘Taylor’));
WHERE: AND / OR
String
◦ Output:
ORDER BY
name
IN
Set Srinivasan
UNION department Wu
INTERSECT Einstein
EXCEPT Gold
Aggregation
Katz
AVG
Singh
MIN
MAX
Crick
COUNT Brandt
SUM Kim
Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.9
String Operations PPD

Module 11
• From the course relation in the figure, find the titles of all courses whose course id has
Partha Pratim
Das three alphabets indicating the department.
◦ Query:
Week Recap
select title
Objectives &
Outline
from course
where course id like ‘ -%’;
SQL Examples
SELECT ◦ Output:
Cartesian Product /
AS
title
WHERE: AND / OR
String Intro. to Biology
ORDER BY Genetics
IN Computational Biology
Set Investment Banking
UNION
World History
INTERSECT Figure: course relation Physical Principles
EXCEPT
Aggregation
AVG • The course id of each department has either 2 or 3 alphabets in the beginning, followed
MIN
MAX
by a hyphen and then followed by a 3-digit number. The above query returns the
COUNT names of those departments that have 3 alphabets in the beginning.
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.10

Order By PPD

Module 11
• From the student relation in the figure, obtain the list of all students in alphabetic order of departments
Partha Pratim and within each department, in decreasing order of total credits.
Das
◦ Query:
Week Recap
select name, dept name, tot cred
Objectives &
Outline from student
SQL Examples
order by dept name ASC, tot cred DESC;
SELECT
Cartesian Product /
◦ Output:
AS
name dept name tot cred
WHERE: AND / OR
Tanaka Biology 120
String
Zhang Comp. Sci. 102
ORDER BY
Brown Comp. Sci. 58
IN Williams Comp. Sci. 54
Set Shankar Comp. Sci. 32
UNION
Figure: student relation Bourikas Elec. Eng. 98
INTERSECT Aoi Elec. Eng. 60
Chavez Finance 110
EXCEPT
Aggregation
◦ The list is first sorted in alphabetic order Brandt History 80
Sanchez Music 38
AVG of dept name. Peltier Physics 56
MIN
MAX
◦ Within each dept, it is sorted in decreas- Levy
Snow
Physics
Physics
46
0
COUNT ing order of total credits.
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.11

In Operator PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim • From the teaches relation in the figure, find the IDs of all courses taught in the Fall or
Das
Spring of 2018.
Week Recap ◦ Query:
Objectives &
Outline
select course id
SQL Examples from teaches
SELECT
Cartesian Product /
where semester in (‘Fall’,‘Spring’)
AS
WHERE: AND / OR
and year =2018;
String
ORDER BY
◦ Output:
IN course id
Set
UNION
CS-315
INTERSECT FIN-201
EXCEPT Figure: teaches relation MU-199
Aggregation HIS-351
AVG CS-101
MIN Note: We can use distinct to remove CS-319
MAX
COUNT duplicates. CS-319
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.12

Set Operations: union PPD

Module 11 • For the same question in the previous slide, we can find the solution using union
Partha Pratim operator as follows.
Das
◦ Query:
Week Recap select course id
Objectives & from teaches
Outline where semester=‘Fall’
SQL Examples and year =2018
SELECT
Cartesian Product / union
AS
select course id
WHERE: AND / OR
String
from teaches
ORDER BY where semester=‘Spring’
IN
Set
and year =2018
UNION ◦ Output:
INTERSECT
EXCEPT Figure: teaches relation course id
Aggregation CS-101
AVG
CS-315
MIN ◦ Note that union removes all duplicates. If we use union CS-319
MAX all instead of union, we get the same set of tuples as FIN-201
COUNT
SUM
in previous slide. HIS-351
Module Summary
MU-199
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.13
Set Operations (2): intersect PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim • From the instructor relation in the figure, find the names of all instructors who taught
Das
in either the Computer Science department or the Finance department and whose salary
Week Recap is < 80000.
Objectives & ◦ Query:
Outline
select name
SQL Examples from instructor
SELECT
Cartesian Product /
where dept name in (‘Comp. Sci.’,‘Finance’)
AS intersect
WHERE: AND / OR
String
select name
ORDER BY from instructor
IN where salary < 80000;
Set
UNION ◦ Output:
INTERSECT
name
EXCEPT Figure: instructor relation
Aggregation Srinivasan
AVG Katz
MIN
MAX • Note that the same can be achieved using the query:
COUNT
select name from instructor where dept name in(‘Comp. Sci.’, ‘Finance’) and salary < 80000;
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.14

Set Operations (3): except PPD

Module 11
• From the instructor relation in the figure, find the names of all instructors who taught
Partha Pratim
Das
in either the Computer Science department or the Finance department and whose salary
is either ≥ 90000 or ≤ 70000.
Week Recap

Aggregate functions (4): count PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim • From the section relation given in the figure, find the number of courses run in each
Das
building.
Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline
◦ Query:
SQL Examples
select building,
SELECT
Cartesian Product / count(course id) as course count
AS
WHERE: AND / OR from section
String group by building ;
ORDER BY
IN ◦ Output:
Set
building course count
UNION
INTERSECT Taylor 5
EXCEPT Packard 4
Aggregation Painter 3
AVG
Watson 3
MIN
MAX
Figure: section relation
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.19

Aggregate functions (5): sum PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim • From the course relation given in the figure, find the total credits offered by each
Das
department.
Week Recap

Objectives &
◦ Query:
Outline select dept name,
SQL Examples
sum(credits) as sum credits
SELECT
Cartesian Product / from course
AS
WHERE: AND / OR
group by dept name;
String ◦ Output:
ORDER BY
IN dept name sum credits
Set Finance 3
UNION
History 3
INTERSECT
Physics 4
EXCEPT
Aggregation
Music 3
AVG Comp. Sci. 17
MIN Figure: course relation Biology 11
MAX Elec. Eng. 3
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.20

Module Summary PPD

Module 11

Partha Pratim
• SQL Examples have been practiced for
Das
◦ Select
Week Recap ◦ Cartesian Product / as
Objectives & ◦ Where: and / or
Outline

SQL Examples
◦ String Matching
SELECT ◦ Order by
Cartesian Product /
AS ◦ in
WHERE: AND / OR
String
◦ Set Operations: union, intersect, except
ORDER BY ◦ Aggregate Functions: avg, min, max, count, sum
IN
Set
UNION
INTERSECT
EXCEPT
Aggregation
AVG
MIN
MAX
COUNT
SUM

Module Summary Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 11.21

Module 12

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Nested
Subqueries Module 12: Intermediate SQL/1
Subqueries in the
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
From Clause
Subqueries in the
Select Clause
Partha Pratim Das
Modifications of
the Database

Module Summary
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 12

Partha Pratim • SQL Examples Practiced

Das

Das
• A subquery is a select-from-where expression that is nested within another query
Objectives &
Outline • The nesting can be done in the following SQL query
Nested
Subqueries
select A1 , A2 , . . . , An
Subqueries in the
Where Clause
from r1 , r2 , . . . , rm
Subqueries in the
From Clause
where P
Subqueries in the
Select Clause
as follows:
Modifications of ◦ Ai can be replaced by a subquery that generates a single value
the Database
◦ ri can be replaced by any valid subquery
Module Summary
◦ P can be replaced with an expression of the form:
B <operation> (subquery)
where B is an attribute and <operation> to be defined later

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.6

Module 12

Partha Pratim
Das

Definition of ”some” Clause

Module 12

Partha Pratim • F <comp> some r ⇔ ∃t ∈ r such that (F <comp> t )

Das
where <comp> can be: <, ≤, >, ≥, =, 6=
Objectives &
Outline • some represents existential quantification
Nested
Subqueries
Subqueries in the
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
From Clause
Subqueries in the
Select Clause

Modifications of
the Database

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.12

Set Comparison – “all” Clause

Module 12

Partha Pratim • Find the names of all instructors whose salary is greater than the salary of all
Das
instructors in the Biology department
Objectives &
Outline
select name
Nested
from instructor
Subqueries
Subqueries in the
where salary > all (select salary
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
from instructor
From Clause
Subqueries in the
where dept name = ’Biology’);
Select Clause

Modifications of
the Database

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.13

Definition of “all” Clause

Module 12

Partha Pratim • F <comp> all r ⇔ ∀t ∈ r such that (F <comp> t )

Das
Where <comp> can be: <, ≤, >, ≥, =, 6=
Objectives &
Outline • all represents universal quantification
Nested
Subqueries
Subqueries in the
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
From Clause
Subqueries in the
Select Clause

Modifications of
the Database

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.14

Complex Queries using With Clause

Module 12

Partha Pratim • Find all departments where the total salary is greater than the average of the total
Das
salary at all departments
Objectives &
Outline
with dept total (dept name, value) as
Nested
select dept name, sum(salary )
Subqueries
Subqueries in the
from instructor
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
group by dept name,
From Clause
Subqueries in the
dept total avg(value) as
Select Clause
(select avg(value)
Modifications of
the Database
from dept total)
Module Summary select dept name
from dept total, dept total avg
where dept total.value > dept total avg.value;

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.22

Module 12

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Nested
Subqueries
Subqueries in the
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
From Clause
Subqueries in the
Select Clause

Modifications of
the Database

Module Summary Subqueries in the Select Clause

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.23

Scalar Subquery

Module 12

Partha Pratim • Scalar subquery is one which is used where a single value is expected
Das
• List all departments along with the number of instructors in each department
Objectives &
Outline select dept name,
Nested (select count(*)
Subqueries
Subqueries in the from instructor
Where Clause
Subqueries in the where department.dept name = instructor.dept name)
From Clause
Subqueries in the as num instructors
Select Clause
from department;
Modifications of
the Database
• Runtime error if subquery returns more than one result tuple
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.24

Modifications of the Database PPD

Module 12

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Nested
Subqueries
Subqueries in the
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
From Clause
Subqueries in the
Select Clause

Modifications of
the Database

Module Summary Modifications of the Database

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.25

Partha Pratim • Increase salaries of instructors whose salary is over $100,000 by 3%, and all others by a
Das
5%
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Write two update statements:
Nested
Subqueries
update instructor
Subqueries in the set salary = salary ∗ 1.03
Where Clause
Subqueries in the where salary > 100000;
From Clause
Subqueries in the update instructor
Select Clause

Modifications of
set salary = salary ∗ 1.05
the Database where salary <= 100000;
Module Summary
• The order is important
• Can be done better using the case statement (next slide)

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.31

Case Statement for Conditional Updates

Module 12

Partha Pratim • Same query as before but with case statement

Das
update instructor
Objectives &
Outline
set salary = case
Nested
when salary <= 100000
Subqueries
Subqueries in the
then salary ∗ 1.05
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
else salary ∗ 1.03
From Clause
Subqueries in the
end
Select Clause

Modifications of
the Database

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.32

Updates with Scalar Subqueries

Module 12

Partha Pratim • Recompute and update tot creds value for all students
Das
update student S
Objectives &
Outline
set tot creds = (select sum(credits)
Nested
from takes, course
Subqueries
Subqueries in the
where takes.course id = course.course id and
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
S.ID = takes.ID and
From Clause
Subqueries in the
takes.grade <> ’F’ and
Select Clause
takes.grade is not null);
Modifications of
the Database • Sets tot creds to null for students who have not taken any course
Module Summary
• Instead of sum(credits), use:
case
when sum(credits) is not null then sum(credits)
else 0
end

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 12.33

Module Summary PPD

Module 12

Partha Pratim • Introduced nested subquery in SQL

Das
• Introduced data modification
Objectives &
Outline

Nested
Subqueries
Subqueries in the
Where Clause
Subqueries in the
From Clause
Subqueries in the
Select Clause

Modifications of
the Database

Module Summary
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Das
• Views
Objectives &
Outline

Join Expressions
Cross Join
Inner Join
Outer Join
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Join
Full Outer Join

Views
View Expansion
View Update
Materialized Views

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.4

Join Expressions PPD

Module 13

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Join Expressions
Cross Join
Inner Join
Outer Join
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Join
Full Outer Join

Views
View Expansion
View Update
Materialized Views
Join Expressions
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.5

Joined Relations

Module 13

Partha Pratim • Join operations take two relations and return as a result another relation
Das
• A join operation is a Cartesian product which requires that tuples in the two relations
Objectives &
Outline match (under some condition).
Join Expressions
Cross Join
• It also specifies the attributes that are present in the result of the join
Inner Join
Outer Join
• The join operations are typically used as subquery expressions in the from clause
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Join
Full Outer Join

Views
View Expansion
View Update
Materialized Views

Das

Objectives &
Outline

Join Expressions
Cross Join
Inner Join
Outer Join
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Join • Relation prereq
Full Outer Join

Views
View Expansion
View Update
Materialized Views

Module Summary

• Observe that
prereq information is missing for CS-315 and
course information is missing for CS-347
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.9
Inner Join PPD

Module 13

Partha Pratim
• course inner join prereq
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Join Expressions
Cross Join
Inner Join
Outer Join • If specified as natural, the 2nd course id field is skipped
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Join
Full Outer Join

Views PPD

Module 13

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Join Expressions
Cross Join
Inner Join
Outer Join
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Join
Full Outer Join

Views
View Expansion
View Update
Materialized Views
Views
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.18

Views

Module 13

Partha Pratim • In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to see the entire logical model (that is, all
Das
the actual relations stored in the database.)
Objectives &
Outline • Consider a person who needs to know an instructors name and department, but not the
Join Expressions salary. This person should see a relation described, in SQL, by
Cross Join
Inner Join
select ID, name, dept name
Outer Join
from instructor
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Join
Full Outer Join
• A view provides a mechanism to hide certain data from the view of certain users
Views • Any relation that is not of the conceptual model but is made visible to a user as a
View Expansion
View Update
“virtual relation” is called a view.
Materialized Views

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.19

View Definition

Module 13

Das
create view physics fall 2009 watson as
Objectives &
Outline
(select course id, room number
Join Expressions
from (select course.course id, building, room number
Cross Join from course, section
Inner Join
Outer Join where course.course id = section.course id
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Join
and course.dept name = ’Physics’
Full Outer Join and section.semester = ’Fall’
Views and section.year = ’2009’)
View Expansion
View Update where building = ’Watson’);
Materialized Views

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.23

Views Defined Using Other Views

Module 13

Partha Pratim • One view may be used in the expression defining another view
Das
• A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view relation v2 if v2 is used in the
Objectives &
Outline expression defining v1
Join Expressions
Cross Join
• A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if either v1 depends directly on
Inner Join v2 or there is a path of dependencies from v1 to v2
Outer Join
Left Outer Join • A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself
Right Outer Join
Full Outer Join

Views
View Expansion
View Update
Materialized Views

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.24

View Expansion*

Module 13

Partha Pratim • A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms of other views
Das
• Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may itself contain uses of view relations
Objectives &
Outline • View expansion of an expression repeats the following replacement step:
Join Expressions
Cross Join
repeat
Inner Join Find any view relation vi in e1
Outer Join
Left Outer Join
Replace the view relation vi by the expression defining vi
Right Outer Join
Full Outer Join
until no more view relations are present in e1
Views • As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop will terminate
View Expansion
View Update
Materialized Views

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.25

Update of a View

Module 13

Views
View Expansion
View Update
Materialized Views

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.29

Module Summary PPD

Module 13

Partha Pratim • Learnt SQL expressions for Join and Views

Das

Objectives &
Outline

Join Expressions
Cross Join
Inner Join
Outer Join
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Join
Full Outer Join

Views
View Expansion Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
View Update
Materialized Views
permission of the authors.
Module Summary Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 13.30

Module 14

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Transactions
Module 14: Intermediate SQL/3
Integrity
Constraints
Referential Integrity

SQL Data Types

and Schemas
Built-in Types
Partha Pratim Das
Index
UDT
Domains
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Large Object
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Authorization
[email protected]
Privileges
Revocation
Roles

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 14

Partha Pratim • SQL expressions for Join and Views

Module 14

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Transactions

Integrity
Constraints
Referential Integrity

SQL Data Types

and Schemas
Built-in Types
Index
UDT
Domains
Large Object
Transactions
Authorization
Privileges
Revocation
Roles

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.5

Transactions

Module 14

Partha Pratim • Unit of work

Das
• Atomic transaction
Objectives &
Outline ◦ either fully executed or rolled back as if it never occurred
Transactions
• Isolation from concurrent transactions
Integrity
Constraints
Referential Integrity
• Transactions begin implicitly
SQL Data Types ◦ Ended by commit work or rollback work
and Schemas
Built-in Types • But default on most databases: each SQL statement commits automatically
Index
UDT ◦ Can turn off auto commit for a session (for example, using API)
Domains
Large Object
◦ In SQL:1999, can use: begin atomic ... end
Authorization . Not supported on most databases
Privileges
Revocation
Roles

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.6

Integrity Constraints PPD

Module 14

Partha Pratim
Das

Das
• Ensure that semester is one of fall, winter, spring or summer:
Objectives &
Outline

Transactions create table section (

Integrity
Constraints
course id varchar(8),
Referential Integrity sec id varchar(8),
SQL Data Types
and Schemas
semester varchar(6),
Built-in Types year numeric(4,0),
Index
UDT
building varchar(15),
Domains room number varchar(7),
Large Object

Authorization
time slot id varchar(4),
Privileges primary key (course id, sec id, semester, year ),
Revocation
Roles
check (semester in (’Fall’, ’Winter’, ’Spring’, ’Summer’))
Module Summary );

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.11

Referential Integrity

Module 14

Partha Pratim • Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of attributes also
Das
appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation
Objectives &
Outline • Example: If “Biology” is a department name appearing in one of the tuples in the
Transactions instructor relation, then there exists a tuple in the department relation for “Biology”
Integrity
Constraints • Let A be a set of attributes. Let R and S be two relations that contain attributes A and
Referential Integrity
where A is the primary key of S. A is said to be a foreign key of R if for any values of
SQL Data Types
and Schemas A appearing in R these values also appear in S
Built-in Types
Index
UDT
Domains
Large Object

Authorization
Privileges
Revocation
Roles

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.12

Cascading Actions in Referential Integrity PPD

Module 14 • With cascading, you can define the actions that the Database Engine takes when a user
Partha Pratim tries to delete or update a key to which existing foreign keys point
Das
• create table course (
Objectives &
Outline course id char(5) primary key,
Transactions title varchar(20),
Integrity dept name varchar(20) references department
Constraints
Referential Integrity )
SQL Data Types
and Schemas
• create table course (
Built-in Types ...
Index
UDT dept name varchar(20),
Domains
Large Object
foreign key (dept name) references department
Authorization on delete cascade
Privileges
on update cascade,
Revocation
Roles ...
Module Summary )
• Alternative actions to cascade: no action, set null, set default
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.13
Integrity Constraint Violation During Transactions

Module 14

Partha Pratim • create table person (

Das
ID char(10),
Objectives &
Outline
name char(40),
Transactions
mother char(10),
Integrity father char(10),
Constraints
Referential Integrity
primary key ID,
SQL Data Types foreign key father references person,
and Schemas
Built-in Types
foreign key mother references person)
Index
UDT
• How to insert a tuple without causing constraint violation?
Domains
Large Object
◦ Insert father and mother of a person before inserting person
Authorization ◦ OR, Set father and mother to null initially, update after inserting all persons (not
Privileges
possible if father and mother attributes declared to be not null)
Revocation
Roles ◦ OR Defer constraint checking (will discuss later)
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.14

SQL Data Types and Schemas PPD

Module 14

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Transactions

Integrity
Constraints
Referential Integrity

SQL Data Types

and Schemas
Built-in Types
Index
UDT
Domains
Large Object
SQL Data Types and Schemas
Authorization
Privileges
Revocation
Roles

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.15

Built-in Data Types in SQL

Objectives &
Outline

Privileges in SQL

Module 14

Partha Pratim • select: allows read access to relation, or the ability to query using the view
Das
◦ Example: grant users U1 , U2 , and U3 select authorization on the instructor relation:
Objectives &
Outline grant select on instructor to U1 , U2 , U3
Transactions • insert: the ability to insert tuples
Integrity
Constraints • update: the ability to update using the SQL update statement
Referential Integrity

SQL Data Types

• delete: the ability to delete tuples.
and Schemas
Built-in Types • all privileges: used as a short form for all the allowable privileges
Index
UDT
Domains
Large Object

Authorization
Privileges
Revocation
Roles

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.24

Revoking Authorization in SQL

Module 14

Partha Pratim • The revoke statement is used to revoke authorization

Das
revoke <privilege list>
Objectives &
Outline
on <relation name or view name> from <user list>
Transactions • Example:
Integrity
Constraints
revoke select on branch from U1 , U2 , U3
Referential Integrity
• <privilege-list> may be all to revoke all privileges the revokee may hold
SQL Data Types
and Schemas • If <revokee-list> includes public, all users lose the privilege except those granted it
Built-in Types
Index explicitly
UDT
Domains • If the same privilege was granted twice to the same user by different grantees, the user
Large Object
may retain the privilege after the revocation
Authorization
Privileges • All privileges that depend on the privilege being revoked are also revoked
Revocation
Roles

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.25

Roles

Module 14

Partha Pratim • create role instructor ;

Das
grant instructor to Amit;
Objectives &
Outline • Privileges can be granted to roles:
Transactions grant select on takes to instructor ;
Integrity
Constraints • Roles can be granted to users, as well as to other roles
Referential Integrity
create role teaching assistant
SQL Data Types
and Schemas grant teaching assistant to instructor ;
Built-in Types
Index
◦ Instructor inherits all privileges of teaching assistant
UDT
Domains
• Chain of roles
Large Object
◦ create role dean;
Authorization
Privileges ◦ grant instructor to dean;
Revocation
Roles
◦ grant dean to Satoshi;
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.26

Authorization on Views

Module 14

Partha Pratim • create view geo instructor as

Das
(select *
Objectives &
Outline
from instructor
Transactions
where dept name = ’Geology’);
Integrity grant select on geo instructor to geo staff
Constraints
Referential Integrity • Suppose that a geo staff member issues
SQL Data Types
and Schemas
select *
Built-in Types from geo instructor ;
Index
UDT • What if
Domains
Large Object ◦ geo staff does not have permissions on instructor ?
Authorization ◦ creator of view did not have some permissions on instructor ?
Privileges
Revocation
Roles

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.27

Other Authorization Features

Module 14

Partha Pratim • references privilege to create foreign key

Das
grant reference (dept name) on department to Mariano;
Objectives &
Outline ◦ why is this required?
Transactions • Transfer of privileges
Integrity
Constraints ◦ grant select on department to Amit with grant option;
Referential Integrity
◦ revoke select on department from Amit, Satoshi cascade;
SQL Data Types
and Schemas ◦ revoke select on department from Amit, Satoshi restrict;
Built-in Types
Index
UDT
Domains
Large Object

Authorization
Privileges
Revocation
Roles

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.28

Module Summary PPD

Module 14

Partha Pratim • Introduced transactions

Das
• Learnt SQL expressions for integrity constraints
Objectives &
Outline • Familiarized with more data types in SQL
Transactions

Integrity
• Discussed authorization in SQL
Constraints
Referential Integrity

SQL Data Types

and Schemas
Built-in Types
Index
UDT
Domains
Large Object

Authorization
Privileges
Revocation
Roles
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
Module Summary
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 14.29
Module 15

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Functions and
Procedural Module 15: Advanced SQL
Constructs

Triggers
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance
Partha Pratim Das
Module Summary

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Transactions

Das
• Integrity Constraints
Objectives &
Outline • More Data Types in SQL
Functions and
Procedural • Authorization in SQL
Constructs

Triggers
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.2

Module Objectives

Module 15

Partha Pratim • To familiarize with functions and procedures in SQL

Das
• To understand the triggers and their performance issues
Objectives &
Outline

Functions and
Procedural
Constructs

Triggers
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.3

Module Outline

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Functions and Procedural Constructs

Das
• Triggers
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Functionality vs Performance
Functions and
Procedural
Constructs

Triggers
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.4

Module 15

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Functions and
Procedural
Constructs

Triggers
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance

Module Summary

Functions and Procedural Constructs

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.5

Native Language← →Query Language

Module 15

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Functions and
Procedural
Constructs

Triggers
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.6

Functions and Procedures

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Functions / Procedures and Control Flow Statements were added in SQL:1999
Das
◦ Functions/Procedures can be written in SQL itself, or in an external
Objectives &
Outline programming language (like C, Java)
Functions and ◦ Functions written in an external languages are particularly useful with specialized
Procedural
Constructs data types such as images and geometric objects
Triggers . Example: Functions to check if polygons overlap, or to compare images for
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance
similarity
Module Summary ◦ Some database systems support table-valued functions, which can return a
relation as a result
• SQL:1999 also supports a rich set of imperative constructs, including loops,
if-then-else, and assignment
• Many databases have proprietary procedural extensions to SQL that differ from
SQL:1999

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.7

SQL Functions

Module 15 • Define a function that, given the name of a department, returns the count of the
Partha Pratim
Das
number of instructors in that department:
create function dept count (dept name varchar(20))
Objectives &
Outline returns integer
Functions and begin
Procedural
Constructs declare d count integer;
Triggers select count (*) into d count
Triggers :
Functionality vs from instructor
Performance

Module Summary
where instructor.dept name = dept name
return d cont;
end
• The function dept count can be used to find the department names and budget of all
departments with more that 12 instructors:
select dept name, budget
from department
where dept count (dept name ) > 12
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.8
SQL functions (2)

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Compound statement: begin . . . end

Das
May contain multiple SQL statements between begin and end.
Objectives &
Outline • returns – indicates the variable-type that is returned (for example, integer)
Functions and
Procedural
• return – specifies the values that are to be returned as result of invoking the function
Constructs

Triggers
• SQL function are in fact parameterized views that generalize the regular notion of
Triggers : views by allowing parameters
Functionality vs
Performance

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.9

Table Functions

Module 15
• Functions that return a relation as a result added in SQL:2003
Partha Pratim
Das • Return all instructors in a given department:
Objectives &
create function instructor of (dept name char(20))
Outline
returns table (
Functions and
Procedural ID varchar(5),
Constructs
name varchar(20),
Triggers
Triggers :
dept name varchar(20)
Functionality vs
Performance salary numeric(8, 2) )
Module Summary returns table
(select ID, name, dept name, salary
from instructor
where instructor.dept name = instructor of.dept name)
• Usage
select *
from table (instructor of (‘Music’))
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.10
SQL Procedures

Module 15 • The dept count function could instead be written as procedure:

Partha Pratim
Das
create procedure dept count proc (
in dept name varchar (20), out d count integer)
Objectives &
Outline begin
Functions and select count(*) into d count
Procedural
Constructs from instructor
Triggers where instructor.dept name = dept count proc.dept name
Triggers :
Functionality vs end
Performance

Module Summary • Procedures can be invoked either from an SQL procedure or from embedded SQL,
using the call statement.
declare d count integer;
call dept count proc(‘Physics’, d count);
• Procedures and functions can be invoked also from dynamic SQL
• SQL:1999 allows overloading - more than one function/procedure of the same name as
long as the number of arguments and / or the types of the arguments differ
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.11
Language Constructs for Procedures and Functions

Module 15

Partha Pratim • SQL supports constructs that gives it almost all the power of a general-purpose
Das
programming language.
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Warning: Most database systems implement their own variant of the
Functions and standard syntax
Procedural
Constructs • Compound statement: begin . . . end
Triggers
Triggers :
◦ May contain multiple SQL statements between begin and end.
Functionality vs
Performance ◦ Local variables can be declared within a compound statements
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.12

Language Constructs (2): while and repeat

Module 15
• while loop:
Partha Pratim
Das while boolean expression do
Objectives &
sequence of statements;
Outline end while;
Functions and
Procedural • repeat loop:
Constructs
repeat
Triggers
Triggers : sequence of statements;
Functionality vs
Performance until boolean expression
Module Summary end repeat;

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.13

Language Constructs (3): for

Module 15

Partha Pratim • for loop

Das
◦ Permits iteration over all results of a query
Objectives &
Outline • Find the budget of all departments:
Functions and
Procedural
declare n integer default 0;
Constructs for r as
Triggers
Triggers :
select budget from department
Functionality vs
Performance
do
Module Summary set n = n + r.budget
end for;

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.14

Language Constructs (4): if-then-else

Module 15 • Conditional statements

Partha Pratim ◦ if-then-else
Das
◦ case
Objectives &
Outline • if-then-else statement
Functions and if boolean expression then
Procedural
Constructs sequence of statements;
Triggers elseif boolean expression then
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance
sequence of statements;
Module Summary ···
else
sequence of statements;
end if;
• The if statement supports the use of optional elseif clauses and a default else clause.
• Example procedure: registers student after ensuring classroom capacity is not exceeded
◦ Returns 0 on success and -1 if capacity is exceeded
◦ See book (page 177) for details
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.15
Language Constructs (5): Simple case

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Simple case statement

Das
case variable
Objectives &
Outline
when value1 then
Functions and
sequence of statements;
Procedural
Constructs
when value2 then
Triggers sequence of statements;
Triggers :
Functionality vs
···
Performance
else
Module Summary
sequence of statements;
end case;
• The when clause of the case statement defines the value that when satisfied
determines the flow of control

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.16

Language Constructs (6): Searched case

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Searched case statement

Das
case
Objectives &
Outline
when sql-expression = value1 then
Functions and
sequence of statements;
Procedural
Constructs
when sql-expression = value2 then
Triggers sequence of statements;
Triggers :
Functionality vs
···
Performance
else
Module Summary
sequence of statements;
end case;
• Any supported SQL expression can be used here. These expressions can contain
references to variables, parameters, special registers, and more.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.17

Language Constructs (7): Exception

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Signaling of exception conditions, and declaring handlers for exceptions
Das

Objectives &
Outline
declare out of classroom seats condition
Functions and
declare exit handler for out of classroom seats
Procedural
Constructs
begin
Triggers ...
Triggers :
Functionality vs
signal out of classroom seats
Performance
...
Module Summary
end
◦ The handler here is exit – causes enclosing begin . . . end to be terminate and exit
◦ Other actions possible on exception

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.18

External Language Routines*

Module 15 • SQL:1999 allows the definition of functions / procedures in an imperative programming

Partha Pratim language, (Java, C#, C or C++) which can be invoked from SQL queries
Das
• Such functions can be more efficient than functions defined in SQL, and computations
Objectives &
Outline that cannot be carried out in SQL can be executed by these functions
Functions and
Procedural
• Declaring external language procedures and functions
Constructs

Triggers
Triggers :
create procedure dept count proc(
Functionality vs
Performance
in dept name varchar(20),
Module Summary out count integer)
language C
external name ’/usr/avi/bin/dept count proc’

create function dept count(dept name varchar(20))

Module 15

Triggering Events and Actions in SQL

Module 15
• Triggering event can be an insert, delete or update
Partha Pratim
Das • Triggers on update can be restricted to specific attributes
Objectives & ◦ For example, after update of grade on takes
Outline

Functions and • Values of attributes before and after an update can be referenced
Procedural
Constructs ◦ referencing old row as : for deletes and updates
Triggers ◦ referencing new row as : for inserts and updates
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance • Triggers can be activated before an event, which can serve as extra constraints.
Module Summary For example, convert blank grades to null.
create trigger setnull trigger before update of takes
referencing new row as nrow
for each row
when (nrow.grade = ‘ ‘)
begin atomic
set nrow.grade = null;
end;
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.27
Trigger to Maintain credits earned value

Module 15

Partha Pratim
create trigger credits earned after update of grade on (takes)
Das referencing new row as nrow
Objectives & referencing old row as orow
Outline
for each row
Functions and
Procedural when nrow.grade <>’F’ and nrow.grade is not null
Constructs

Triggers
and (orow.grade = ’F’ or orow.grade is null)
Triggers : begin atomic
Functionality vs
Performance update student
Module Summary
set tot cred= tot cred +
(select credits
from course
where course.course id=nrow.course id)
where student.id = nrow.id;
end;

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.28

How to use triggers? PPD

Module 15

Partha Pratim • The optimal use of DML triggers is for short, simple, and easy to maintain write
Das
operations that act largely independent of an applications business logic.
Objectives &
Outline • Typical and recommended uses of triggers include:
Functions and
Procedural
◦ Logging changes to a history table
Constructs ◦ Auditing users and their actions against sensitive tables
Triggers
Triggers :
◦ Adding additional values to a table that may not be available to an application (due
Functionality vs
Performance
to security restrictions or other limitations), such as:
Module Summary . Login/user name
. Time an operation occurs
. Server/database name
◦ Simple validation
Source: SQL Server triggers: The good and the scary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.29

How not to use triggers? PPD

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Triggers are like Lays: Once you pop, you can’t stop
Das
• One of the greatest challenges for architects and developers is to ensure that
Objectives &
Outline ◦ triggers are used only as needed, and
Functions and
Procedural
◦ to not allow them to become a one-size-fits-all solution for any data needs that
Constructs happen to come along
Triggers
Triggers : • Adding triggers is often seen as faster and easier than adding code to an application,
Functionality vs
Performance but the cost of doing so is compounded over time with each added line of code
Module Summary
Source: SQL Server triggers: The good and the scary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.30

How to use triggers? (2) PPD

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Triggers can become dangerous when:

Das
◦ There are too many
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Trigger code becomes complex
Functions and ◦ Triggers go cross-server - across databases over network
Procedural
Constructs ◦ Triggers call triggers
Triggers ◦ Recursive triggers are set to ON. This database-level setting is set to off by default
Triggers :
Functionality vs ◦ Functions, stored procedures, or views are in triggers
Performance

Module Summary
◦ Iteration occurs
Source: SQL Server triggers: The good and the scary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.31

Module Summary PPD

Module 15

Partha Pratim • Familiarized with functions and procedures in SQL

Das
• Understood the triggers
Objectives &
Outline • Familiarized with some of the performance issues of triggers
Functions and
Procedural
Constructs

Triggers
Triggers :
Functionality vs
Performance

Module Summary

Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 15.32

Module 16

Partha Pratim
Das

Das
• Procedural language
Week Recap

Objectives &
• Six basic operators
Outline
◦ select: σ
Relational
Algebra ◦ project: Π
Select
Project
◦ union: ∪
Union
◦ set difference: −
Difference
Intersection ◦ Cartesian product: x
Cartesian Product
Rename
◦ rename: ρ
Division
• The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a new relation as a result
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.7

Select Operation PPD

Module 16
• Notation: σp (r )
Partha Pratim
Das • p is called the selection predicate
Week Recap • Defined as:
Objectives &
Outline
σp (r ) = {t|t ∈ r and p(t)}
Relational
Algebra where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of
Select
terms connected by : ∧ (and), ∨ (or), ¬ (not)
Project
Union Each terms is one of:
Difference
Intersection
Cartesian Product
Rename < attribute > op < attribute > or < constant >
Division

Module Summary
where op is one of: =, 6=, >, ≥ . < . ≤

• Example of selection:
σdept name = ’Physics’ (instructor )
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.8
Project Operation PPD

Module 16

Partha Pratim
• Notation: ΠA1 ,A2 ,...Ak (r)
Das where A1 , A2 are attribute names and r is a relation
Week Recap • The result is defined as the relation of k columns
Objectives &
Outline
obtained by erasing the columns that are not listed
Relational
Algebra
• Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations
Select are sets
Project
Union • Example: To eliminate the dept name attribute of
Difference
Intersection
instructor
Cartesian Product
Rename
ΠID,name,salary (instructor )
Division

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.9

Union Operation PPD

Module 16
• Notation: r ∪ s
Partha Pratim
Das • Defined as: r ∪ s = {t|t ∈ r or t ∈ s}
Week Recap • For r ∪ s to be valid.
Objectives &
Outline a) r, s must have the same arity (same number of
Relational attributes)
Algebra
Select
b) The attribute domains must be compatible (ex-
Project
Union
ample: 2nd column of r deals with the same
Difference type of values as does the 2nd column of s)
Intersection
Cartesian Product
c) Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall
Rename 2009 semester, or in the Spring 2010 semester,
Division

Module Summary
or in both
Πcourse id (σsemester =“Fall”∧year =2009 (section)) ∪ Πcourse id (σsemester =“Spring ”∧year =2010 (section))

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.10

Difference Operation PPD

Module 16
• Notation r − s
Partha Pratim
Das • Defined as: r − s = {t|t ∈ r and t ∈
/ s}
Week Recap • Set differences must be taken between compatible
Objectives &
Outline
relations
Relational ◦ r and s must have the same arity
Algebra
Select
◦ attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
Project
Union • Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2009
Difference
Intersection
semester, but not in the Spring 2010 semester
Cartesian Product
Rename
Division
Πcourse id (σsemester =“Fall”∧year =2009 (section))−
Module Summary Πcourse id (σsemester =“Spring ”∧year =2010 (section))

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.11

Intersection Operation

Module 16

Partha Pratim
• Notation: r ∩ s
Das
• Defined as:
Week Recap

Division Examples PPD

Module 16

Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Algebra
Select
Project
Union
Difference
Intersection
Cartesian Product
Rename
Division

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.16

Division Examples (2) PPD

Module 16

Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Algebra
Select
Project
Union
Difference
Intersection
Cartesian Product
Rename
Division

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.17

Division Examples (3) PPD

Module 16

Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Algebra
Select
Project
Union
Difference
Intersection
Cartesian Product
Rename
Division

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.18

Division Example (4) PPD

Module 16
• Relations r, s:
Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Algebra
Select
Project
Union
Difference
Intersection
Cartesian Product
Rename
Division

Module Summary
e.g. A is customer name
B is branch-name
1 and 2 here show two specific branch-names
(Find customers who have an account in all
branches of the bank)
• r ÷ s:
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.19
Division Example (5) PPD

Module 16
• Relations r, s:
Partha Pratim
Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Algebra
Select
Project
Union
Difference
Intersection
Cartesian Product
Rename e.g. Students who have taken both “a” and “b”
Division courses, with instructor “1”
Module Summary
(Find students who have taken all courses given
• r ÷ s: by instructor 1)

Source: db.fcngroup.nl/silberslides/Divsion
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.20
Module Summary

Module 16

Partha Pratim • Discussed relational algebra with examples

Das

Week Recap

Objectives &
Outline

Relational
Algebra
Select
Project
Union
Difference
Intersection
Cartesian Product Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
Rename
Division
permission of the authors.
Module Summary Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 16.21

Module 17

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Predicate Logic
Module 17: Formal Relational Query Languages/2
Tuple Relational
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Partha Pratim Das
Algebra and
Calculus
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Module Summary Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 17

Partha Pratim • Relational Algebras and its Operations

Das

Objectives &
Outline

Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.2

Module Objectives PPD

Module 17

Partha Pratim • To understand formal calculus-based query language through relational algebra
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Calculus

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.5

PPD

Module 17

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary Predicate Logic

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.6

Predicate Logic

Module 17

Partha Pratim
Predicate Logic or Predicate Calculus is an extension of Propositional Logic or
Das Boolean Algebra.
Objectives &
Outline
It adds the concept of predicates and quantifiers to better capture the meaning of
Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
statements that cannot be adequately expressed by propositional logic.
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Tuple Relational Calculus and Domain Relational Calculus are based on Predicate
Calculus
Calculus
Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.7

Predicate

Module 17

Partha Pratim • Consider the statement, “x is greater than 3”. It has two parts. The first part, the
Das
variable x, is the subject of the statement. The second part, “is greater than 3”, is the
Objectives &
Outline
predicate. It refers to a property that the subject of the statement can have.
Predicate Logic • The statement “x is greater than 3” can be denoted by P(x) where P denotes the
Tuple Relational
Calculus
predicate “is greater than 3” and x is the variable.
Domain • The predicate P can be considered as a function. It tells the truth value of the
Relational
Calculus statement P(x) at x. Once a value has been assigned to the variable x, the statement
Equivalence of P(x) becomes a proposition and has a truth or false value.
Algebra and
Calculus
• In general, a statement involving n variables x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn can be denoted by
Module Summary
P(x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn ). Here P is also referred to as n-place predicate or a n-ary predicate.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.8

Quantifiers

Module 17

Partha Pratim
In predicate logic, predicates are used alongside quantifiers to express the extent to which a
Das predicate is true over a range of elements. Using quantifiers to create such propositions is
Objectives & called quantification. There are two types of quantifiers:
Outline

Predicate Logic
• Universal Quantifier
Tuple Relational
Calculus
• Existential Quantifier
Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.9

Universal Quantifier

Module 17

Partha Pratim
Universal Quantification: Mathematical statements sometimes assert that a property is
Das true for all the values of a variable in a particular domain, called the domain of discourse
Objectives &
Outline
• Such a statement is expressed using universal quantification.
Predicate Logic • The universal quantification of P(x) for a particular domain is the proposition that
Tuple Relational
Calculus
asserts that P(x) is true for all values of x in this domain
Domain • The domain is very important here since it decides the possible values of x
Relational
Calculus
• Formally, The universal quantification of P(x) is the statement “P(x) for all values of x
Equivalence of
Algebra and in the domain”.
Calculus

Module Summary
• The notation ∀P(x) denotes the universal quantification of P(x). Here ∀ is called the
universal quantifier. ∀P(x) is read as “for all x P(x)”.
• Example: Let P(x) be the statement “x + 2 > x“. What is the truth value of the
statement ∀x P(x)?
Solution: As x + 2 is greater than x for any real number, so P(x) ≡ T for all x or
∀x P(x) ≡ T
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.10
Existential Quantifier

Module 17

Partha Pratim
Existential Quantification: Some mathematical statements assert that there is an
Das element with a certain property. Such statements are expressed by existential
Objectives & quantification. Existential quantification can be used to form a proposition that is true if
Outline
and only if P(x) is true for at least one value of x in the domain.
Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational • Formally, the existential quantification of P(x) is the statement ”There exists an
Calculus
element x in the domain such that P(x)”.
Domain
Relational
Calculus
• The notation ∃P(x) denotes the existential quantification of P(x). Here ∃ is called the
Equivalence of existential quantifier. ∃P(x) is read as “There is atleast one such x such that P(x)”
Algebra and
Calculus • Example: Let P(x) be the statement “x > 5”. What is the truth value of the
Module Summary statement ∃xP(x)?
Solution: P(x) is true for all real numbers greater than 5and false for all real numbers
less than 5. So ∃x P(x) ≡ T

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.11

PPD

Module 17

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary Tuple Relational Calculus

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.12

Tuple Relational Calculus

Module 17

Partha Pratim
TRC is a non-procedural query language, where each query is of the form
Das

Objectives & {t | P(t)}

Outline

Predicate Logic where t = resulting tuples,

Tuple Relational
Calculus
P(t) = known as predicate and these are the conditions that are used to fetch t.
Domain
P(t) may have various conditions logically combined with OR (∨), AND (∧), NOT(¬).
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and It also uses quantifiers:
Calculus
∃t ∈ r (Q(t)) = “there exists” a tuple in t in relation r such that predicate Q(t) is true.
Module Summary
∀t ∈ r (Q(t)) = Q(t) is true “for all” tuples in relation r.

• {P | ∃S ∈ Students and (S.CGPA > 8 ∧ P.name = S.sname ∧ P.age = S.age)} :

returns the name and age of students with a CGPA above 8.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.13

Predicate Calculus Formula

Module 17

Partha Pratim a) Set of attributes and constants

Das
b) Set of comparison operators: (e.g ., <, ≤, =, 6=, >, ≥)
Objectives &
Outline c) Set of connectives: and (∧), or (∨), not (¬)
Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
d) Implication (⇒) : x ⇒ y , if x if true, then y is true
Calculus x ⇒ y ≡ ¬x ∨ y
Domain
Relational
e) Set of quantifiers:
Calculus
• ∃t ∈ r (Q(t)) ≡ “there exists” a tuple in t in relation r such that predicate Q(t) is true
Equivalence of
Algebra and
• ∀t ∈ r (Q(t)) ≡ Q is true “for all” tuples t in relation r
Calculus

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.14

TRC Example

Module 17
Solution:
Partha Pratim
Das
Student {t.Fname | Student(t) ∧ t.age > 21}
Fname Lname Age Course
Objectives & David Sharma 27 DBMS
Outline {t.Fname | t ∈ Student ∧ t.age > 21}
Aaron Lilly 17 JAVA
Predicate Logic
Sahil Khan 19 Python
Tuple Relational
Calculus Sachin Rao 20 DBMS
Varun George 23 JAVA {t | ∃s ∈ Student(s.age > 21 ∧ t.Fname = s.Fname)}
Domain
Relational Simi Verma 22 JAVA
Calculus Fname
Equivalence of David
Algebra and Q.1 Obtain the first name of students whose
Calculus
Varun
age is greater than 21. Simi
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.15

TRC Example (2)

Module 17
Consider the relational schema
Partha Pratim
Das
student(rollNo, name, year , courseId)
course(courseId, cname, teacher )
Objectives &
Outline Q.2 Find out the names of all students who have taken the course name ‘DBMS’.
Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational • {t | ∃s ∈ student ∃c ∈ course(s.courseId = c.courseId ∧ c.cname = ‘DBMS’ ∧t.name = s.name)}

Calculus

Domain
Relational
• {s.name | s ∈ student ∧ ∃c ∈ course(s.courseId = c.courseId ∧ c.cname= ‘DBMS’ )}
Calculus

Equivalence of Q.3 Find out the names of all students and their rollNo who have taken the course name ‘DBMS’.
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary
• {s.name, s.rollNo | s ∈ student ∧ ∃c ∈ course(s.courseId = c.courseId ∧ c.cname = ‘DBMS’ )}
• {t | ∃s ∈ student ∃c ∈ course(s.courseId = c.courseId ∧ c.cname =‘DBMS’
∧t.name = s.name ∧ t.rollNo = s.rollNo)}

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.16

TRC Example (3)

Module 17
Consider the following relations:
Partha Pratim
Das
Flights(flno, from, to, distance, departs, arrives)
Aircraft(aid, aname, cruisingrange)
Objectives & Certified(eid, aid)
Outline
Employees(eid, ename, salary)
Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational Q.4. Find the eids of pilots certified for Boeing aircraft.
Calculus

Domain RA
Relational
Calculus
Πeid (σaname=‘Boeing 0 (Aircraft n
o Certified))
Equivalence of
TRC
Algebra and
Calculus
• {C .eid | C ∈ Certified ∧ ∃A ∈ Aircraft(A.aid = C .aid ∧ A.aname = ‘Boeing’)}
Module Summary
• {T | ∃C ∈ Certified∃A ∈ Aircraft(A.aid = C .aid ∧ A.aname = ‘Boeing’
∧T .eid = C .eid)}

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.17

TRC Example (4)

Tuple Relational Q.5. Find the names and salaries of certified pilots working on Boeing aircrafts.
Calculus

Domain RA
Relational
Calculus
Πename,salary (σaname=‘Boeing ‘ (Aircraft n
o Certified n
o Employees))
Equivalence of
TRC
Algebra and {P | ∃E ∈ Employees ∃C ∈ Certified ∃A ∈ Aircraft(A.aid = C .aid ∧ A.aname=
Calculus
‘Boeing’∧E .eid = C .eid ∧ P.ename = E .ename ∧ P.salary = E .salary )}
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.18

TRC Example (5)

Tuple Relational Q.6 Identify the flights that can be piloted by every pilot whose salary is more than $100,000.
Calculus
(Hint: The pilot must be certified for at least one plane with a sufficiently large cruising range.)
Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
• {F .flno | F ∈ Flights ∧ ∃A ∈ Aircraft∃C ∈ Certified∃E ∈ Employees(A.cruisingrange >
Algebra and F .distance ∧ A.aid = C .aid ∧ E .salary > 100, 000 ∧ E .eid = C .eid)}
Calculus

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.19

Safety of Expressions

Module 17

Partha Pratim • It is possible to write tuple calculus expressions that generate infinite relations
Das
• For example,{t | ¬t ∈ r } results in an infinite relation if the domain of any attribute of
Objectives &
Outline relation r is infinite
Predicate Logic
• To guard against the problem, we restrict the set of allowable expressions to safe
Tuple Relational
Calculus expressions
Domain
Relational
• An expression {t | P(t)} in the tuple relational calculus is safe if every component of t
Calculus
appears in one of the relations, tuples, or constants that appear in P.
Equivalence of
Algebra and ◦ NOTE: this is more than just a syntax condition
Calculus
◦ E.g. {t | t[A] = 5 ∨ true} is not safe — it defines an infinite set with attribute
Module Summary
values that do not appear in any relation or tuples or constants in P

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.20

PPD

Module 17

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary Domain Relational Calculus

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.21

Domain Relational Calculus

Module 17

Partha Pratim • A non-procedural query language equivalent in power to the tuple relational calculus
Das
• Each query is an expression of the form:
Objectives &
Outline

Predicate Logic {< x1 , x2 , . . . , xn > |P(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )}

Tuple Relational
Calculus
◦ x1 , x2 , . . . , xn represent domain variables
Domain
Relational ◦ P represents a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC PPD

Module 17

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary

Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv Notations.pdf

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.31
Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC PPD

Module 17

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary

Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv Notations.pdf

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.32

Module Summary

Module 17

Partha Pratim • Introduced tuple relational and domain relational calculus

Das
• Illustrated equivalence of algebra and calculus
Objectives &
Outline

Predicate Logic

Tuple Relational
Calculus

Domain
Relational
Calculus

Equivalence of
Algebra and
Calculus

Module Summary
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 17.33

Module 18

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
Design Process
Abstraction
Module 18: Entity-Relationship Model/1
Models
Design Approach

ER Model
Attributes
Entity Sets
Partha Pratim Das
Relationship
Cardinality
Constraints Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Weak Entity Sets Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Module Summary
[email protected]

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 18

Partha Pratim • Predicate Calculus

Das
• Tuple Relational and Domain Relational Calculus
Objectives &
Outline • Equivalence of Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus
Design Process
Abstraction
Models
Design Approach

ER Model
Attributes
Entity Sets
Relationship
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.2

Module Objectives PPD

Module 18

Partha Pratim • To understand the Design Process for Database Systems

Das
• To study the E-R Model for real world representation
Objectives &
Outline

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.6

Role of Abstraction

Module 18 • Disorganized Complexity results from

Partha Pratim
Das
◦ Storage (STM) limitations of human brain – an individual can simultaneously
comprehend of the order of seven, plus or minus two chunks of information
Objectives &
Outline ◦ Speed limitations of human brain – it takes the mind about five seconds to accept a
Design Process new chunk of information
Abstraction
Models • Abstraction provides the major tool to handle Disorganized Complexity by chunking
Design Approach
information
ER Model
Attributes • Ignore inessential details, deal only with the generalized, idealized model of the world
Entity Sets
Relationship
Cardinality Consider: A binary number 110010101001
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary Hard to remembers. Right?

Try the octal form: (110)(010)(101)(001) ⇒ 6251

Or the hex form: (1100)(1010)(1001) ⇒ CA9

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.7
Model Building

Module 18
• Physics • Electrical Circuits
Partha Pratim
Das
◦ Time-Distance Equation ◦ Kirchoff’s Loop Equations
Objectives & ◦ Quantum Mechanics ◦ Time Series Signals and FFT
Outline
◦ Transistor Models
Design Process • Chemistry
◦ Schematic Diagram
Abstraction
Models
◦ Valency-Bond Structures ◦ Interconnect Routing
Design Approach
• Geography • Building & Bridges
ER Model
Attributes ◦ Maps ◦ Drawings – Plan, Elevation, Side view
Entity Sets
Relationship
◦ Projections ◦ Finite Element Models
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets • Models are common in all engineering disciplines
Module Summary • Model building follows principles of decomposition, abstraction, and hierarchy
• Each model describes a specific aspect of the system
• Build new models upon old proven models

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.8

Design Approach

Module 18 • Requirement Analysis: Analyse the data needs of the prospective database users
Partha Pratim
Das
◦ Planning
◦ System Definition
Objectives &
Outline • Database Designing: Use a modeling framework to create abstraction of the real world
Design Process
◦ Logical Model
Abstraction
Models ◦ Physical Model
Design Approach
• Implementation
ER Model
Attributes ◦ Data Conversion and Loading
Entity Sets
Relationship
◦ Testing
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.9

Design Approach (2): Database Designing

Module 18 • Logical Model: Deciding on a good database schema

Partha Pratim
Das
◦ Business Decision: What attributes should we record in the database?
◦ Computer Science Decision: What relation schema should we have and how should
Objectives &
Outline the attributes be distributed among the various relation schema?
Design Process • Physical Model: Deciding on the physical layout of the database
Abstraction
Models
Design Approach

ER Model
Attributes
Entity Sets
Relationship
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.10

Design Approach (3): Database Designing: Logical Model

Module 18

Partha Pratim • Entity Relationship Model

Das
◦ Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
Objectives &
Outline . Entity: A distinguishable “thing” or “object” in the enterprise
Design Process
Abstraction
− Described by a set of attributes
Models
Design Approach
. Relationship: An association among multiple entities
ER Model ◦ Represented by an Entity-Relationship or ER Diagram
Attributes
Entity Sets • Database Normalization (Chapter 8)
Relationship
Cardinality
◦ Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.11

PPD

Module 18

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Design Process
Abstraction
Models
Design Approach

ER Model
Attributes
Entity Sets
Relationship
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets Entity Relationship (ER) Model
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.12

ER Model: Database Modeling

Module 18

Partha Pratim • The ER data model was developed to facilitate database design by allowing specification
Das
of an enterprise schema that represents the overall logical structure of a database
Objectives &
Outline • The ER model is useful in mapping the meanings and interactions of real-world
Design Process enterprises onto a conceptual schema
Abstraction
Models • The ER data model employs three basic concepts:
Design Approach

ER Model
◦ Attributes
Attributes ◦ Entity sets
Entity Sets
Relationship ◦ Relationship sets
Cardinality
Constraints • The ER model also has an associated diagrammatic representation, the ER diagram,
Weak Entity Sets
which can express the overall logical structure of a database graphically
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.13

Attributes

Module 18

Partha Pratim • An Attribute is a property associated with and entity / entity set. Based on the values
Das
of certain attributes, an entity can be identified uniquely
Objectives &
Outline • Attribute types:
Design Process ◦ Simple and Composite attributes
Abstraction
Models ◦ Single-valued and Multivalued attributes
Design Approach

ER Model
. Example: Multivalued attribute: phone numbers
Attributes ◦ Derived attributes
Entity Sets
Relationship . Can be computed from other attributes
Cardinality
Constraints . Example: age, given date of birth
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary • Domain: Set of permitted values for each attribute

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.14

Attributes (2): Composite

Module 18

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Design Process
Abstraction
Models
Design Approach

ER Model
Attributes
Entity Sets
Relationship
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.15

Entity Sets

Module 18

Partha Pratim • An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects.
Das
◦ Example: specific person, company, event, plant
Objectives &
Outline • An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share the same properties.
Design Process
Abstraction
◦ Example: set of all persons, companies, trees, holidays
Models
Design Approach
• An entity is represented by a set of attributes; i.e., descriptive properties possessed by
ER Model all members of an entity set.
Attributes
Entity Sets
◦ Example:
Relationship
instructor = (ID, name, street, city, salary )
Cardinality
Constraints course= (course id, title, credits)
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary • A subset of the attributes form a primary key of the entity set; that is, uniquely
identifying each member of the set.
◦ Primary key of an entity set is represented by underlining it

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.16

Entity Sets – instructor and student

Module 18

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Design Process
Abstraction
Models
Design Approach

ER Model
Attributes
Entity Sets
Relationship
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.17

Relationship Sets

Module 18

Partha Pratim • A relationship is an association among several entities

Das
Example:
Objectives &
Outline
44553 (Peltier) advisor 22222 (Einstein)
Design Process
student entity relationship set instructor entity
Abstraction
Models
• A relationship set is a mathematical relation among n ≥ 2 entities, each taken from
Design Approach
entity sets
ER Model
Attributes
{(e1 , e2 , . . . en ) | e1 ∈ E1 , e2 ∈ E2 , . . . , en ∈ En }
Entity Sets
Relationship where (e1 , e2 , . . . en ) is a relationship.
Cardinality
Constraints ◦ Example: (44553, 22222) ∈ advisor
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.18

Relationship Set (2) advisor

Module 18

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Das
◦ instructor, with attributes: ID, name, dept name, salary
Objectives &
Outline ◦ department, with attributes: dept name, building, budget
Design Process • We model the fact that each instructor has an associated department using a
Abstraction
Models relationship set inst dept
Design Approach

ER Model
• The attribute dept name appears in both entity sets. Since it is the primary key for the
Attributes entity set department, it replicates information present in the relationship and is
Entity Sets
Relationship therefore redundant in the entity set instructor and needs to be removed
Cardinality
Constraints • BUT: When converting back to tables, in some cases the attribute gets reintroduced, as
Weak Entity Sets
we will see later
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.22

Mapping Cardinality Constraints

Module 18

Partha Pratim • Express the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a
Das
relationship set.
Objectives &
Outline • Most useful in describing binary relationship sets.
Design Process
Abstraction
• For a binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be one of the following types:
Models
Design Approach
◦ One to one
ER Model
◦ One to many
Attributes ◦ Many to one
Entity Sets
Relationship ◦ Many to many
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.23

Mapping Cardinalities

Module 18

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Design Process
Abstraction
Models
Design Approach

ER Model
Attributes
Entity Sets
Relationship
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any elements in the other set
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.24
Mapping Cardinalities

Module 18

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

Design Process
Abstraction
Models
Design Approach

ER Model
Attributes
Entity Sets
Relationship
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary

Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any elements in the other set

Module Summary

Module 18

Partha Pratim • Introduced the Design Process for Database Systems

Das
• Elucidated the E-R Model for real world representation with entities, entity sets,
Objectives &
Outline attributes, and relationships
Design Process
Abstraction
Models
Design Approach

ER Model
Attributes
Entity Sets
Relationship
Cardinality
Constraints
Weak Entity Sets

Module Summary
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/ with kind
permission of the authors.
Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 18.30

Module 19

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline Database Management Systems
ER Diagram
Entity Sets
Module 19: Entity-Relationship Model/2
Relationship Sets
Cardinality
Constraints
Participation
Bounds
Partha Pratim Das
ER Model to
Relational
Schema
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Entity Sets
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
[email protected]
Attributes
Redundancy

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 19.1

Module Recap PPD

Module 19

Partha Pratim • Design Process for Database Systems

ER Model to
Relational
Schema
Entity Sets
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
Attributes
Redundancy

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 19.6

Relationship Sets

Module 19

Partha Pratim • Diamonds represent relationship sets.

Das

Objectives &
Outline

ER Diagram
Entity Sets
Relationship Sets
Cardinality
Constraints
Participation
Bounds

ER Model to
Relational
Schema
Entity Sets
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
Attributes
Redundancy

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 19.7

Relationship Sets with Attributes

Module 19

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

ER Diagram
Entity Sets
Relationship Sets
Cardinality
Constraints
Participation
Bounds

ER Model to
Relational
Schema
Entity Sets
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
Attributes
Redundancy

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 19.8

Roles

Module 19

Partha Pratim • Entity sets of a relationship need not be distinct Each occurrence of an entity set plays
Das
a “role” in the relationship
Objectives &
Outline • The labels “course id” and “prereq id” are called roles.
ER Diagram
Entity Sets
Relationship Sets
Cardinality
Constraints
Participation
Bounds

ER Model to
Relational
Schema
Entity Sets
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
Attributes
Redundancy

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 19.9

Cardinality Constraints

Module 19

ER Model to
Relational
Schema
Entity Sets
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
Attributes
Redundancy
Instructor can advise 0 or more students.
Module Summary
A student must have 1 advisor; cannot have multiple advisors

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 19.15

Notation to Express Entity with Complex Attributes

Module 19

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

ER Diagram
Entity Sets
Relationship Sets
Cardinality
Constraints
Participation
Bounds

ER Model to
Relational
Schema
Entity Sets
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
Attributes
Redundancy

Reduction to Relation Schema

Module 19

Partha Pratim • Entity sets and relationship sets can be expressed uniformly as relation schemas that
Das
represent the contents of the database
Objectives &
Outline • A database which conforms to an ER diagram can be represented by a collection of
ER Diagram schemas
Entity Sets
Relationship Sets • For each entity set and relationship set there is a unique schema that is assigned the
Cardinality
Constraints name of the corresponding entity set or relationship set
Participation
Bounds • Each schema has a number of columns (generally corresponding to attributes), which
ER Model to
Relational
have unique names
Schema
Entity Sets
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
Attributes
Redundancy

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 19.20

Representing Entity Sets

Module 19

Partha Pratim • A strong entity set reduces to a schema with the same attributes
Das

Objectives &
student(ID, name, tot cred)
Outline

ER Diagram
• A weak entity set becomes a table that includes a column for the primary key of the
Entity Sets
Relationship Sets identifying strong entity set
Cardinality
Constraints
Participation section (course id, sec id, sem, year )
Bounds

ER Model to
Relational
Schema
Entity Sets
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
Attributes
Redundancy

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 19.21

Representing Relationship Sets

Module 19

Partha Pratim • A many-to-many relationship set is represented as a schema with attributes for the
Das
primary keys of the two participating entity sets, and any descriptive attributes of the
Objectives &
Outline
relationship set.
ER Diagram • Example: schema for relationship set advisor
Entity Sets
Relationship Sets
Cardinality
advisor = (s id, i id)
Constraints
Participation
Bounds

ER Model to
Relational
Schema
Entity Sets
Relationship
Composite Attributes
Multivalued
Attributes
Redundancy

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 19.22

Representation of Entity Sets with Composite Attributes

Das
• Discussed translation of ER Models to Relational Schema
Objectives &
Outline

ER Diagram
Entity Sets
Relationship Sets
Cardinality
Constraints
Participation
Bounds

Non-binary Relationship Sets

Module 20

Partha Pratim • Most relationship sets are binary

Das
• There are occasions when it is more convenient to represent relationships as non-binary
Objectives &
Outline • ER Diagram with a Ternary Relationship
ER Features
Non-binary
Relationship
Specialization
Specialization as
Schema
Generalization
Aggregation

Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.6

Cardinality Constraints on Ternary Relationship

Module 20

Partha Pratim • We allow at most one arrow out of a ternary (or greater degree) relationship to indicate
Das
a cardinality constraint
Objectives &
Outline • For example, an arrow from proj guide to instructor indicates each student has at most
ER Features one guide for a project
Non-binary
Relationship
Specialization
• If there is more than one arrow, there are two ways of defining the meaning.
Specialization as
Schema
◦ For example, a ternary relationship R between A, B and C with arrows to B and C
Generalization could mean
Aggregation

Design Issues a) Each A entity is associated with a unique entity from B and C or
Entities vs Attributes
b) Each pair of entities from (A, B) is associated with a unique C entity, and each
Entities vs
Relationship pair (A ,C ) is associated with a unique B
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions ◦ Each alternative has been used in different formalisms
ER Notation

Module Summary
◦ To avoid confusion we outlaw more than one arrow

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.7

Specialization: ISA

Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.12

Design Constraints on a Specialization / Generalization

Module 20

Partha Pratim
• Completeness constraint: Specifies whether or not an entity in the higher-level entity
Das
set must belong to at least one of the lower-level entity sets within a generalization
Objectives & ◦ total: an entity must belong to one of the lower-level entity sets
Outline
◦ partial: an entity need not belong to one of the lower-level entity sets
ER Features
Non-binary • Partial generalization is the default. We can specify total generalization in an ER
Relationship
Specialization diagram by adding the keyword total in the diagram and drawing a dashed line from
Specialization as
Schema the keyword to the corresponding hollow arrow-head to which it applies (for a total
Generalization
Aggregation
generalization), or to the set of hollow arrow-heads to which it applies (for an
Design Issues
overlapping generalization).
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
• The student generalization is total. All student entities must
Binary vs Non-Binary be either graduate or undergraduate. Because the higher-
Design Decisions
ER Notation level entity set arrived at through generalization is generally
Module Summary composed of only those entities in the lower-level entity sets,
the completeness constraint for a generalized higher-level en-
tity set is usually total.
Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.13
Aggregation

Module 20 • Consider the ternary relationship proj guide, which we saw earlier
Partha Pratim
Das
• Suppose we want to record evaluations of a student by a guide on a project
Objectives &
Outline

ER Features
Non-binary
Relationship
Specialization
Specialization as
Schema
Generalization
Aggregation

Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.14

Aggregation (2)

Module 20
• Relationship sets eval for and proj guide represent overlapping information
Partha Pratim
Das ◦ Every eval for relationship corresponds to a proj guide relationship
Objectives &
◦ However, some proj guide relationships may not correspond to any eval for
Outline
relationships
ER Features
Non-binary . So we cannot discard the proj guide relationship
Relationship
Specialization • Eliminate this redundancy via aggregation
Specialization as
Schema
Generalization
◦ Treat relationship as an abstract entity
Aggregation ◦ Allows relationships between relationships
Design Issues ◦ Abstraction of relationship into new entity
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.15

Aggregation (3)

Module 20
• Eliminate this redundancy via aggregation without introducing redundancy, the
Partha Pratim
Das
following diagram represents:
◦ A student is guided by a particular instructor on a particular project
Objectives &
Outline ◦ A student, instructor, project combination may have an associated evaluation
ER Features
Non-binary
Relationship
Specialization
Specialization as
Schema
Generalization
Aggregation

Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.16

Representing Aggregation via Schema

Module 20

Partha Pratim • To represent aggregation, create a schema containing

Das
◦ Primary key of the aggregated relationship,
Objectives &
Outline ◦ The primary key of the associated entity set
ER Features ◦ Any descriptive attributes
Non-binary
Relationship • In our example:
Specialization
Specialization as
Schema
◦ The schema
Generalization textiteval for is:
Aggregation
eval for (s ID, project id, i ID, evaluation id)
Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes ◦ The schema proj guide is redundant
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.17

Design Issues PPD

Module 20

Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

ER Features
Non-binary
Relationship
Specialization
Specialization as
Schema
Generalization
Aggregation

Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Design Issues
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.18

Entities vs. Attributes

Module 20
• Use of entity sets vs. attributes
Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

ER Features
Non-binary
Relationship
Specialization
Specialization as
Schema
Generalization • Use of phone as an entity allows extra information about phone numbers (plus multiple
Aggregation
phone numbers)
Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.19

Entities vs Relationship Sets

Module 20
• Use of entity sets vs. relationship sets
Partha Pratim
Das Possible guideline is to designate a relationship set to describe an action that occurs
Objectives &
between entities
Outline

ER Features
Non-binary
Relationship
Specialization
Specialization as
Schema
Generalization
Aggregation

Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
• Placement of relationship attributes
ER Notation For example, attribute date as attribute of advisor or as attribute of student
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.20

Binary vs Non-Binary Relationships

Module 20
• Although it is possible to replace any non-binary (n-ary, for n > 2) relationship set by a
Partha Pratim
Das number of distinct binary relationship sets, a n-ary relationship set shows more clearly
Objectives &
that several entities participate in a single relationship
Outline
• Some relationships that appear to be non-binary may be better represented using binary
ER Features
Non-binary
relationships
Relationship
Specialization ◦ For example, a ternary relationship parents, relating a child to his/her father and
Specialization as
Schema mother, is best replaced by two binary relationships, father and mother
Generalization
Aggregation . Using two binary relationships allows partial information (e.g., only mother being
Design Issues known)
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs ◦ But there are some relationships that are naturally non-binary
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary . Example: proj guide
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.21

Binary vs Non-Binary Relationships (2): Conversion

Module 20 • In general, any non-binary relationship can be represented using binary relationships by
Partha Pratim
Das
creating an artificial entity set.
◦ Replace R between entity sets A, B and C by an entity set E, and three relationship
Objectives &
Outline sets:
ER Features 1. RA , relating E and A
Non-binary
Relationship 2. RB , relating E and B
Specialization
Specialization as
3. RC , relating E and C
Schema
Generalization
◦ Create an identifying attribute for E and add any attributes of R to E
Aggregation ◦ For each relationship (ai , bi , ci ) in R, create
Design Issues a) a new entity ei in the entity set E
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs b) add (ei , ai ) to RA
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary c) add (ei , bi ) to RB
Design Decisions
ER Notation
d) add (ei , ci ) to RC
Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.22

Binary vs Non-Binary Relationships (3): Conversion

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.27

Symbols Used in ER Notation (4): Alternates

Module 20
Chen IDE1FX (Crows feet notation)
Partha Pratim
Das

Objectives &
Outline

ER Features
Non-binary
Relationship
Specialization
Specialization as
Schema
Generalization
Aggregation

Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.28

Module Summary

Module 20

Partha Pratim • Discussed the extended features of ER Model

Das
• Deliberated on various design issues
Objectives &
Outline

ER Features
Non-binary
Relationship
Specialization
Specialization as
Schema
Generalization
Aggregation

Design Issues
Entities vs Attributes
Entities vs
Relationship
Binary vs Non-Binary
Design Decisions
ER Notation

Module Summary

Database Management Systems Partha Pratim Das 20.29

CS3492 DBMS Notes
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