1.

1 Environmental Value Systems

● An environmental value system (EVS) is the way that an individual, or any group of people, perceives
the environment and the resources it provides them with
○ That includes you - your environmental value system determines the way that you perceive
and evaluate environmental issues, as well as the course of action you might decide to take
regarding these issues
● A person’s or group’s environmental value system is shaped and influenced by a variety of factors,
including cultural, religious, social, political, economic and environmental factors
○ These factors act as flows of information into individuals within societies
○ Individuals then process and transform this information into their perception of the
environment and how to act on environmental matters

EVS Inputs & Outputs

● An environmental value system is considered a system because it is determined by a set of inputs (i.e.
the factors described above) and generates a set of outputs (in the form of of the person’s or group’s
perceptions, evaluations, decisions and actions)

Spectrum of Environmental Value Systems

● Although there is a very wide spectrum of environmental value systems, EVSs can be broadly divided
into three categories. These are:
○ Ecocentric environmental value systems (ecocentrism)
○ Anthropocentric environmental value systems (anthropocentrism)
○ Technocentric environmental value systems (technocentrism)
 Ecocentrism, Anthropocentrism & Technocentrism

Ecocentrism
● Ecocentrism is a philosophical and ethical approach that prioritises the intrinsic value of nature and the
environment over human needs and interests
● This approach emphasises that all living organisms and ecosystems have inherent worth and should be
protected for their own sake
● Ecocentrism advocates for sustainable practices that maintain the balance and integrity of ecosystems
and the natural world, rather than exploiting them for human benefit
● This approach is often associated with environmental movements and conservation efforts that aim to
protect biodiversity, ecosystems and natural resources

Anthropocentrism
● Anthropocentrism is a worldview that places human beings at the centre of the universe, prioritising
human needs and interests over those of other living beings and the environment
● This approach emphasises that humans have the right to use natural resources and ecosystems for their
own benefit
● Although an anthropocentric viewpoint would ideally involve sustainable managing global systems, in
reality anthropocentrism often results in unsustainable practices such as overexploitation of natural
resources, habitat destruction, and pollution
 ● This approach only values preserving biodiversity when it can provide economic and ecological
advantages to humans
● This approach is often criticised by environmentalists and conservationists for ignoring the intrinsic
value of nature and its ecosystems

Technocentrism
● Technocentrism is a worldview that places technology and human ingenuity at the centre of all
problem-solving and decision-making processes, often overlooking the impact on the environment and
other living beings
● This approach emphasises the use of technology to overcome environmental problems and maintain
human well-being
● Technocentrism often assumes that all environmental problems can be solved through technological
innovation and economic growth, which may lead to neglect of the need for conservation and
sustainability
● This approach is often criticised by environmentalists for being short-sighted and ignoring the complex
and interconnected nature of environmental issues

Further EVS Categories

● The spectrum of environmental value systems (from ecocentrism to anthropocentrism to
technocentrism) can be broken down into further categories
○ These categories can either be extreme forms of a particular end of the EVS spectrum (such as
deep ecologists and cornucopians), or they can lie somewhere between two EVSs (such as soft
ecologists and environmental managers) as they contain a mixture of different values and
perspectives from the three broader EVS categories
● EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods
○ This means that in reality, they rarely fit simply or perfectly into any single EVS classification

Deep Ecologists

● View nature as having intrinsic value beyond its usefulness to humans

● Believe in preserving biodiversity and ecosystems as a moral obligation
● Advocate for reducing human impact on the environment and promoting sustainability
● Prioritise the needs of the environment over those of human societies

Soft Ecologists
● View individual responsibility and self-sufficiency in living sustainably as highly important for
societies
● Believe in reducing consumption, waste, and dependence on technology
● Advocate for small-scale and local solutions to environmental problems
● Prioritise self-sufficiency and personal freedom over environmental regulations

Environmental Managers
 ● View the environment as a resource to be managed and conserved for human benefit
● Believe in balancing economic development with environmental protection
● Advocate for regulations and policies that promote sustainable resource use
● Prioritise the needs of human societies over those of the environment

Cornucopians
● View the environment as a resource to be exploited for human benefit
● Believe in human ingenuity and technological advancements to overcome environmental problems
● Advocate for economic growth and development as a means to address environmental issues
● Prioritise the needs of human societies over those of the environment

Strengths and Limitations of Contrasting EVSs

EVS Advantages Disadvantages

● Conservation can be expensive

● Reuses materials so more
with no obvious or quick
sustainable
economic return
● Minimises environmental
● Many countries are still
Ecocentrism impact by encouraging restraint
developing economically and
(Deep ecologists) ● Better for long-term human
argue they should be allowed to
wellbeing
continue
● No need to wait for technology
● Difficult to change individual
to develop
attitudes

● Allows even greater rates of

● Substitutes materials so avoids
resource consumption
costly industrial change
● May give rise to further
Technocentrism ● Provides solutions so people are
environmental problems
(Cornucopians) not inconvenienced
● High cost
● Allows social and economic
● Humans increasingly
progress
disconnected from nature

The Intrinsic Value of our Environment

● If something has intrinsic value, this means it is still worth something, even if it doesn’t have any
obvious economic value (monetary value)
○ This can sometimes be difficult to understand as in today’s society we tend to view everything
from a financial perspective - we see almost everything, including our homes, food, heating,
water, electricity, recreational activities and holidays, in terms of money
● However, there are many aspects of the environment that have intrinsic value to many people,
including:
○ The experience of observing wild animals in their natural habitats
○ The incredible views that can be seen from mountain tops
○ Weather events, such as snow falling or warm summer days
○ Swimming in rivers and lakes
● Different people and different groups, with different environmental value systems, will have different
parts or aspects of the environment that hold intrinsic value to them. For example:
○ Many places or ecosystems are important to a country’s national identity, such as Mount Fuji
in Japan or Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Australia, which is of great spiritual importance to
Aboriginal people
 ○ Someone who lives in a densely populated city, where there is little wildlife, may value the
abundance of insect and plant life present if they visit the countryside on a summer’s day, as
this is something they don’t normally experience
○ A gardener, who is always interacting with insects and plants, may value these things for
slightly different reasons - for example, they may value the services that the insects provide
(e.g. their ability to recycle the dead leaves and pollinate the flowers in their garden)

1.2. systems and models

Systems
● A systems approach is the term used to describe a method of simplifying and understanding a
complicated set of interactions
○ Systems, and the interactions they contain, may be environmental or ecological (e.g. the water
cycle or predator-prey relationships), social (e.g. how we live and work) or economic (e.g.
financial transactions or business deals)
● The interactions within a system, when looked at as a whole, produce the emergent properties of the
system
○ For example, in an ecosystem, all the different ecological interactions occurring within it
shape how that ecosystem looks and behaves - if the interactions change for some reason (e.g.
a new predator is introduced), then the emergent properties of the ecosystem will change too
● There are two main ways of studying systems:
○ A reductionist approach involves dividing a system into its constituent parts and studying each
of these separately - this can be used to study specific interactions in great detail but doesn’t
give the overall picture of what is occurring within the system as a whole
○ A holistic approach involves looking at all processes and interactions occurring within the
system together, in order to study the system as a whole
● For example, sustainability or sustainable development depends on a highly complex set of interactions
between many different factors
○ These include environmental, social and economic factors (sometimes referred to as the three
pillars of sustainability
○ A systems approach is required in order to understand how these different factors combine and
interact with one another, as well as how they all work together as a whole (the holistic
approach)

● A system is comprised of storages and flows

 ○ The flows provide inputs and outputs of energy and matter
● The flows are processes that may be either:
○ Transfers (a change in location)
○ Transformations (a change in the chemical nature, a change in state or a change in energy)

Transfers and Transformations

● These are two fundamental concepts in systems (and systems diagrams) that help to understand how
matter and energy move through a system
● Transfers are the movement of matter or energy from one component of the system to another, without
any change in form or quality
○ For example, water flowing from a river to a lake is a transfer
● Transformations, on the other hand, involve a change in the form or quality of matter or energy as it
moves through the system
○ For example, when sunlight is absorbed by plants, it is transformed into chemical energy
through the process of photosynthesis
● Transfers and transformations are often represented in systems diagrams by arrows that connect the
different components of the system
○ Arrows that represent transfers are usually labeled with the quantity of matter or energy being
transferred (e.g., kg of carbon, kJ of energy), while arrows that represent transformations may
include additional information about the process involved (e.g., photosynthesis, respiration)
● Systems diagrams can help to identify the key transfers and transformations that occur within a system
and how they are interconnected
● By understanding these processes, it is possible to identify opportunities to improve the efficiency or
sustainability of the system
● Transfers and transformations can occur at different scales within a system, from the molecular level to
the global level
○ For example, at the molecular level, nutrients are transferred between individual organisms,
while at the global level, energy is transferred between different biomes
● Systems are often represented as simplified diagrams made up of storages and flows
○ Storages are commonly drawn as boxes
○ Flows are commonly drawn as arrows
○ These arrows represent the various inputs and outputs occurring within a system
 Types of System
● There are three main types of systems. These are:
○ Open systems
○ Closed systems
○ Isolated systems
● The category that a system falls into depends on how energy and matter flow between the system and
the surrounding environment

Open Systems
● Both energy and matter are exchanged between the system and
its surroundings
● Open systems are usually organic (living) systems that interact
with their surroundings (the environment) by taking in energy
and new matter (often in the form of biomass), and by also
expelling energy and matter (e.g. through waste products or by
organisms leaving a system)
● An example of an open system would be a particular ecosystem
or habitat
● Your body is also an example of an open system - energy and
matter are exchanged between you and your environment in the
form of food, water, movement and waste

Closed Systems
● Energy, but not matter, is exchanged between the system and its
surroundings
● Closed systems are usually inorganic (non-living), although this
is not always the case
○ The International Space Station (ISS) could perhaps be
seen as a closed system
○ It is a self-contained environment that must maintain a
balance of resources, including air, water, and food, as
well as waste management, energy production, and
temperature control
○ The ISS cannot exchange matter with its surroundings
● The Earth (and the atmosphere surrounding it) could be viewed
as a closed system

Isolated Systems
● Neither energy nor matter is exchanged between the system and
its surroundings
● Isolated systems do not exist naturally - they are more of a
theoretical concept (although the entire Universe could be
considered to be an isolated system)
 Models
● A model is a simplified version of reality
● A model is often used to represent a system
○ The model can then be analysed or tested to learn more about how the system works and to
predict how the system might respond to change
○ For example, weather models are used to predict how our weather systems change over time,
allowing us to create weather forecasts
● Some models can be very simple, such as a child’s model car, whilst other models can be highly
complex and require the power of supercomputers, such as the computer models that are currently
being used to predict how our climate will change in the future
○ To some extent, due to their very nature, all models involve some level of approximation or
simplification, and therefore some loss of accuracy (even the very powerful and complex
models)
● Models have a variety of strengths and weaknesses

Strengths and Limitations of Models

Strengths Limitations

● Models can be oversimplified and

● Models simplify complex systems
inaccurate

● Models allow predictions to be made about

● Results from models depend on the quality
how systems will react in response to
of the data inputs going into them
change

● System inputs can be changed to observe

● Results from models become more uncertain
effects and outputs, without the need to wait
the further they predict into the future
for real-life events to occur

● Different models can show vastly different

● Models are easier to understand than the real
outputs even if they are given the same data
system
inputs

● Results from models can be shared between

● Results from models can be interpreted by
scientists, engineers, and companies and
different people in different ways
communicated to the public

● Environmental systems are often incredibly

● Results from models can warn us about
complex, with many interacting factors - it
future environmental issues and how to
is impossible to take all possible variables
avoid them or minimise their impact
into account

1.3 Energy and Equlibria

The First Law of Thermodynamics
● Energy exists in many different forms, including light energy, heat energy, chemical energy, electrical
energy, and kinetic energy
● The way in which energy behaves within systems can be explained by the laws of thermodynamics
○ There are two laws of thermodynamics
● The first law of thermodynamics is as follows:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another
 ● This is also known as the principle of conservation of energy
○ It means that the energy entering a system equals the energy leaving it
● The transfer of energy in food chains within ecosystems demonstrates the principle of conservation of
energy
○ Energy enters the system (the food chain or food web) in the form of sunlight
○ Producers convert this light energy into biomass (stored chemical energy) via photosynthesis
○ This chemical energy is passed along the food chain, via consumers, as biomass
○ All energy ultimately leaves the food chain, food web or ecosystem as heat energy

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

● The second law of thermodynamics is as follows:

The entropy of a system increases over time

● Entropy is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system

● As entropy increases (through inefficiencies in energy transformations) the energy available to do work
decreases
● This is because the transformation and transfer of energy is any system is never 100% efficient
○ In other words, in any energy conversion, the amount of useable energy at the end of the
process is always less than the amount of energy available at the start
● The second law of thermodynamics explains the decrease in available energy within ecosystems
○ In a food chain, for example, energy is transformed from a more concentrated (ordered) form
(e.g. light energy the Sun), into a more dispersed (disordered) form (heat energy)
○ Initially, light energy from the Sun is absorbed by producers
○ However, even at this initial stage, energy absorption and transfer by producers is inefficient
due to reflection, transmission (light passing through leaves) and inefficient energy transfer
during photosynthesis
○ The energy that is converted to plant biomass is then inefficiently transferred along the food
chain through respiration and production of waste heat energy
○ As a result of these inefficient energy transfers, food chains are often short (they rarely contain
more than five trophic levels)

Equilibria
● An equilibrium refers to a state of balance occurring between the separate components of a system
● Open systems (such as ecosystems) usually exist in a stable equilibrium
○ This means they generally stay in the same state over time
○ They can be said to be in a state of balance
○ A stable equilibrium allows a system to return to its original state following a disturbance

Stable Equilibria
steady-state equilibrium
○ A steady-state equilibrium occurs when the system shows no major
changes over a longer time period, even though there are often small,
oscillating changes occurring within the system over shorter time
periods
○ These slight fluctuations usually occur within closely defined limits and
the system always return back towards its average state
○ Most open systems in nature are in steady-state equilibrium

static equilibrium
● There are no inputs or outputs (of energy or matter) to the system and
therefore the system shows no change over time
● No natural systems are in static equilibrium - all natural systems (e.g. ecosystems) have inputs and
outputs of energy and matter
● Inanimate objects such as a chair or desk could be said to be in static equilibri

Stable vs Unstable Equilibria

● A system can also be in an unstable equilibrium
○ Even a small disturbance to a system in unstable equilibrium can cause the system to suddenly
shift to a new system state or average state (i.e. a new equilibrium is reached)

Positive & Negative Feedback

● Most systems involve feedback loops
● These feedback mechanisms are what cause systems to react in response to disturbances
● Feedback loops allow systems to self-regulate

● There are two types of feedback loops:

○ Negative feedback
○ Positive feedback
Negative Feedback
● Negative feedback is any mechanism in a system that counteracts a change away from the equilibrium
● Negative feedback loops occur when the output of a process within a system inhibits or reverses that
same process, in a way that brings the system back towards the average state
● In this way, negative feedback is stabilising - it counteracts deviation from the equilibrium
● Negative feedback loops stabilise systems

Positive Feedback
● Positive feedback is any mechanism in a system that leads to additional and increased change away
from the equilibrium
○ Positive feedback loops occur when the output of a process within a system feeds back into
the system, in a way that moves the system increasingly away from the average state
○ In this way, positive feedback is destabilising - it amplifies deviation from the equilibrium and
drives systems towards a tipping point where the state of the system suddenly shifts to a new
equilibrium
○ Positive feedback loops destabilise systems

Tipping Points
● A tipping point is a critical threshold within a system
○ If a tipping point is reached, any further small change in the system will have significant
knock-on effects and cause the system to move away from its average state (away from the
equilibrium)
○ In ecosystems and other ecological systems, tipping points are very important as they
represent the point beyond which serious, irreversible damage and change to the system can
occur
○ Positive feedback loops can push an ecological system towards and past its tipping point, at
which point a new equilibrium is likely to be reached
○ Eutrophication is a classic example of an ecological reaching a tipping point and accelerating
towards a new state
● Tipping points can be difficult to predict for the following reasons:
 ○ There are often delays of varying lengths involved in feedback loops, which add to the
complexity of modelling systems
○ Not all components or processes within a system will change abruptly at the same time
○ It may be impossible to identify a tipping point until after it has been passed

Resilience
● Any system, ecological, social or economic, has a certain amount of resilience
○ This resilience refers to the system’s ability to maintain stability and avoid tipping points
● Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience and affect their speed
of response to change
○ Systems with higher diversity and larger storages are less likely to reach tipping points
○ For example, highly complex ecosystems like rainforests have high diversity in terms of the
complexity of their food webs
○ If a disturbance occurs within one of these food webs, the animals and plants have many
different ways to respond to the change, maintaining the stability of the ecosystem
○ Rainforests also contain large storages in the form of long-lived tree species and high numbers
of dormant seeds
○ These factors promote a steady-state equilibrium in ecosystems like rainforests
○ In contrast, agricultural crop systems are artificial monocultures meaning they only contain a
single species. This low diversity means they have low resilience - if there is a disturbance to
the system (e.g. a new crop disease or pest species), the system will not be able to counteract
this

1.4 Sustainability
Sustainability
● Sustainability is the use and management of natural resources that allow full natural regeneration of the
resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction and use

○ Sustainable living involves using resources in a way that allows for their renewal and
regeneration
● It is important to manage natural resources sustainably to avoid depletion, degradation, or destruction
of these resources
● Sustainable practices include:
○ Reducing waste (e.g. recycling)
○ Reducing resource use (e.g. reducing water consumption)
○ Conserving energy (e.g. using public transport or cycling, eating locally grown foods )
○ Using renewable resources (e.g. solar or wind power)
○ Protecting biodiversity (e.g. nature reserves)
● Sustainable fashion is a good example of how sustainable practices can be applied to an industry (the
clothing industry) that has traditionally been very wasteful, as well as very energy and resource
intensive. Fashion and clothing can become more sustainable in several ways, including:

Use of sustainable materials

○ The industry can use more sustainable materials such as organic cotton, hemp, recycled
polyester, and lyocell, which have a lower environmental impact

Circular economy

○ The industry can adopt a circular economy model where products are designed to be reused,
recycled, or repurposed, reducing waste and extending the life of clothing

Reduce water usage

○ The industry can reduce water usage during clothing production by using more efficient
manufacturing processes, and using recycled water where possible

Sustainable packaging

○ The use of sustainable packaging materials such as biodegradable and compostable materials
can help reduce waste

Reduce carbon footprint

○ The industry can reduce its carbon footprint by using renewable energy sources such as wind
and solar power, and by implementing energy-efficient practices in production

Ethical production

○ Sustainable fashion also involves ethical production practices such as fair labour standards and
ensuring worker safety

Reduce overconsumption

○ Consumers can also contribute to sustainable fashion by reducing overconsumption, buying

high-quality clothing that lasts longer, and supporting brands that prioritise sustainability
● Overall, sustainable fashion aims to reduce the environmental and social impact of the fashion industry
while still providing consumers with fashionable and functional clothing

Sustainable Development
● Sustainable development is a concept that aims to balance economic, social, and environmental factors
to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs
● Examples of sustainable development include:
○ The use of renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, or hydropower, instead of
non-renewable energy sources, such as fossil fuels
 ○ Sustainable agriculture, which involves using techniques that minimise the negative impact of
agriculture on the environment, such as crop rotation, soil conservation, and reduced use of
pesticides and fertilisers
○ Sustainable urban planning, which aims to create cities that are more liveable, efficient, and
environmentally friendly, such as through the use of public transportation, green spaces (e.g.
public parks or green roofs), and energy-efficient buildings to mitigate climate change impacts
● Sustainable development requires a long-term perspective and a commitment to understanding the
highly complex interactions between the economic, social, and environmental aspects of our growing
and developing societies
● It is an ongoing process that requires the cooperation and involvement of individuals, organisations,
and governments at all levels

Environmental, Social and Economic Aspects of Sustainable Development

Environmental Society Economy

● Renewable energy ● Cultural diversity ● Economic growth

● Waste management ● Social stability ● Developing nations
● Water treatment ● Education ● Cost of urban infrastructure
● Reduce, reuse, recycle ● Healthcare ● Energy-efficient buildings
● Nature reserves ● Crime ● Ecosystem services
● Urban wildlife ● Personal freedom ● Economic policies

Natural Capital & Natural Income

What is Natural Capital?

● The term natural resources applies to anything that comes from nature that can be used to benefit
humans
○ Examples of natural resources include fresh water, soil, fossil fuels and oxygen in the air
● In the environmental sciences, these resources are sometimes referred to as natural capital
○ You can think of natural capital as resources from nature that are managed by humans
because they provide goods or services
○ These natural goods and services can include directly marketable goods, such as timber and
crops, or broader ecological services, such as the flood protection provided by mangroves, or
the erosion prevention and climate regulation services that forests provide

Natural Income
● If sources of natural capital (i.e. these natural goods and services) are
carefully and sustainably managed, they can provide even more
resources over time
○ This is referred to as natural income
○ For example, if trees are cut down for timber but forests are
also re-planted or left to recover, so that the rate of timber
production is not greater than the rate of new tree growth,
then timber production is a sustainable income that can be
marketed and used to benefit humans
● In other words, natural income is the term used to describe the
sustainable income produced by natural capital
○ Again, using the timber production example, our forests are the natural capital and the
sustainable timber we can obtain from these forests is the natural income
 ● Non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels (technically, they are non-renewable as they cannot
regenerate faster than humans are using them) can be used to generate wealth but can only be used once
and cannot be sustainably managed
○ Therefore, even if they can be considered as natural capital, non-renewable resources cannot
produce sustainable natural income

Ecosystem Services
● Ecosystem services usually fall into one of four main categories:
○ Supporting services
○ Regulating services
○ Provisioning services
○ Cultural services

Ecosystem Description Examples

Service

Supporting Essential ecological processes for ● Primary productivity

supporting life (photosynthesis)
● Soil formation
● Cycling of nutrients (e.g. carbon
cycle, nitrogen cycle)

Regulating A diverse set of services that shape and ● Climate regulation

stabilise ecosystems ● Flood regulation
● Water quality regulation
● Air quality regulation
● Erosion control
● Disease and pest control

Provisioning The goods and services humans obtain ● Food

from ecosystems ● Fibres
● Fuel
● Fresh water
● Timber

Cultural These services derive from humans ● Recreation and tourism

interacting with nature in a culturally ● Education
beneficial way ● Health benefits
● Sense of place, national identity
and cultural heritage
● Employment
 The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
● The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was a major assessment of the human impact on the
global environment
○ It was called for by the United Nations in 2000, launched in 2001, and was published in 2005

Aims
● The MA gave a scientific appraisal of the condition and trends in the world’s ecosystems and the
services they provide
○ It used a variety of environmental indicators to assess these ecosystems, including factors such
as biodiversity, pollution, population or climate, as these can be used quantitatively as
indicators of sustainability
○ These factors can be used to assess sustainability on a range of scales, from local to global
○ In the case of the MA, this was done on a global scale
● One of the main aims of the MA was to assess how changes to ecosystems have affected, are affecting
and will affect human health and wellbeing
● Another main aim of the MA was to assess the scientific basis for action to conserve and use
ecosystems sustainably
● In summary, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment reports evaluated:
○ The current condition of the planet’s ecosystems and the services they provide
○ The importance of these ecosystems to human wellbeing
○ How we can restore, conserve and enhance the sustainable use of these ecosystems

Findings
● The main findings of the MA included:
○ In the last 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems at a faster rate than at any other time in
history, which has led to substantial and largely irreversible losses of global biodiversity
○ These changes have led to substantial overall gains in wellbeing and economic development
for many human societies, but at the cost of degrading many ecosystems and the services they
provide
○ These changes have substantially increased the poverty experienced by some human societies
○ If not addressed, ecosystem degradation and the problems it causes will substantially reduce
the benefits that future generations will be able to obtain from ecosystems
○ It is possible to restore ecosystems but this requires substantial changes in policies and
practices

Environmental Impact Assessments

● An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process for evaluating the potential
environmental impacts of a proposed development project
○ The purpose of an EIA is to identify and evaluate the potential impacts of the project on the
environment, and to develop strategies to mitigate or avoid those impacts
○ EIAs are used to inform decision-making by government agencies, developers, and other
stakeholders, and to ensure that proposed projects are environmentally sustainable
Steps
● The EIA process typically involves the following steps:

1. Scoping

○ Defining the scope of the EIA and identifying the key issues to be addressed

2. Baseline studies

○ Collecting data on the existing environment

○ The purpose of a baseline study is to understand the physical and biological environment prior
to the commencement of the project so that it can be monitored throughout and after the
development
○ A number of variables should be measured as part of the baseline study, which includes the
following:
■ Habitat type and abundance: the total area of each habitat type should be recorded
■ Species list: the number of species (flora and fauna) present should be noted
■ Species diversity: the abundance of each species should be estimated and the
diversity of the community should be calculated
■ List of endangered species
■ Land use: the type of land use and its coverage should be assessed
■ Hydrology: the hydrological conditions in terms of volume, discharge, flows, and
water quality should be evaluated
■ Human population: the current population should be assessed
■ Soil: the quality, fertility, and pH of the soil should be examined

3. Impact assessment

○ Evaluating the potential impacts of the project on the environment, including both direct and
indirect impacts

4. Mitigation measures

○ Developing strategies to mitigate or avoid the potential environmental impacts of the project

5. Public consultation

○ Engaging with stakeholders and the public to gather feedback and input on the proposed
project and the EIA

6. Review and approval

○ Reviewing and approving the EIA by relevant authorities, such as government agencies or
regulatory bodies

Projects Requiring EIAs

● Many development projects may require an EIA, depending on their potential environmental impacts
● Examples of projects that may require an EIA include:
○ Mining and mineral extraction
○ Infrastructure development, such as highways and airports
 ○ Energy projects, such as wind farms and hydroelectric dams
○ Industrial facilities, such as chemical plants and oil refineries
○ Land use changes, such as deforestation or wetland reclamation

Strengths and Limitations

● EIAs are a valuable tool for evaluating the potential environmental impacts of proposed development
projects, but they also have some weaknesses

Strengths and Limitations of EIAs

Strengths Limitations

● EIAs provide a systematic process for ● Not always effective in identifying or

evaluating direct environmental impacts and mitigating all environmental impacts,
can help to identify and mitigate or avoid particularly when they are not conducted
those impacts using adaptive management properly (e.g. if they are subject to bias or
strategies, leading to more sustainable incomplete information) or when there is
development limited will to address environmental
concerns

● EIAs also assess the indirect impacts of a ● Only assess the potential impacts of
proposed project, including cumulative proposed projects and not the underlying
effects, indirect effects, and secondary social, economic, or political systems that
effects, which can help ensure that the may contribute to these impacts, which can
project is evaluated from a holistic limit their effectiveness in addressing
perspective systemic issues that may cause or
exacerbate environmental problems

● EIAs promote public consultation and ● Can be expensive and time-consuming -

engagement, which can help to ensure that there may be limited technical or
stakeholder perspectives are considered in institutional capacity to conduct EIAs in
decision-making, as well as increase some areas, particularly in developing
community involvement and awareness of countries or in areas where there is limited
environmental issues access to data or scientific expertise

Reducing Ecological Footprints

● Ecological Footprints (EFs) measure the impact of human activities on the environment
○ They do this by calculating the area of land and water needed to sustain a particular human
population
○ An EF is measured in global hectares (gha) per capita (i.e. hectares per person)
● EFs take into account factors such as food consumption, transportation, and energy use
○ EFs can be used to compare the sustainability of different lifestyles, businesses, and even
whole countries
○ If the EF of a lifestyle, business or country exceeds the area available to the population (also
known as the biocapacity - the amount of resources that the planet can provide sustainably), it
means that it is not sustainable in the long term
● To reduce an EF, it is important to adopt more sustainable practices such as reducing meat
consumption, using renewable energy sources, and using public transport or walking instead of driving
● EFs are a useful tool for promoting sustainable development and for raising awareness about the impact
of human activities on the environment
 1.5 Humans and pollution
The Nature of Pollution
● Pollution refers to the introduction of harmful substances or agents into the environment
○ These substances cannot be rendered harmless by the environment at a rate that is greater than
the rate of their release
○ Pollution is harmful to organisms and can adversely affect normal environmental processes
○ It is a major source of contamination of the Earth and atmosphere, making ecosystems and
habitats toxic and unpleasant
● Pollution can be:
○ Natural (e.g. ash from volcanic eruptions) or human in origin (e.g. microplastics)
○ Intentional (e.g. industrial waste discharged into rivers) or unintentional (e.g. accidental oil
spills from oil tankers)
● Pollution results from the release of substances that degrade the sustainable quality of air, water, and
soil, negatively impacting human quality of life

Main Sources of Pollution

● Pollutants can come in various forms, including:
○ Organic or inorganic substances
○ Light, sound, or heat energy
○ Biological agents
○ Invasive species
● Human activities, including the combustion of fossil fuels, are the major sources of pollution
● Defining pollution levels is challenging and depends on the nature of the environment. For example:
○ Oil slicks pose a more significant threat in Arctic areas than in tropical ones due to slower
decomposition rates in colder environments
○ Pollution levels that do not pose a risk to healthy adults can still affect young children, the
elderly, or asthmatics

The Major Sources of Pollution

Source Type of Pollution Activity Effects

Energy Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen Burning fossil fuels Acid rain, photochemical smog,
Production oxides, particulates respiratory problems

Agriculture Pesticides, fertilisers, animal Spraying crops with pesticides, Bioaccumulation,

waste spreading fertilisers on fields, biomagnification, eutrophication
runoff from manure and silage

Industry Toxic spills and leaks Industrial accidents e.g. Release of toxic substances into the
chemical factories environment e.g. Minamata, Japan
and Bhopal, India

Domestic Solid domestic waste, Waste dumped in landfill sites, Contamination of groundwater,
Waste sewage, chemical waste waste from toilets, household release of methane, eutrophication,
cleaning products disease

Transport Exhaust fumes from Driving, fuel and oil leaks Air pollution, respiratory problems,
vehicles, runoff from roads channelled into surrounding climate change, contamination of
land and watercourses by road streams and soils
drainage
 Natural Volcanic ash, particulate Volcanic eruptions, wildfires, Respiratory problems, acid rain,
pollution dust storms habitat destruction

Types of Pollution
● Pollution can be classified based on different criteria, including:
○ Point source pollution vs non-point source pollution
○ Persistent pollution vs biodegradable pollution
○ Acute effects of pollution vs chronic effects of pollution
○ Primary pollution vs secondary pollution

Classifying Pollution

Point Source Non-Point Source

Point source pollution comes from a single Non-point source pollution comes from dispersed
identifiable source, such as a factory or a sewage sources, such as runoff from agricultural fields or
treatment plant urban areas

Persistent Biodegradable

Persistent pollution does not degrade or break down Biodegradable pollution can be broken down by
quickly, such as heavy metals or certain pesticides natural processes, such as organic waste

Acute Effects Chronic Effects

Acute effects of pollution occur in a high Chronic effects of pollution occur over a long period
concentration for a short period of time, such as an of time in lower concentrations, such as air pollution
oil spill from vehicle emissions

Primary Secondary

Primary pollutants are directly emitted into the Secondary pollutants form when primary pollutants
environment, such as carbon monoxide or particulate undergo physical or chemical reactions in the
matter from burning fossil fuels atmosphere, such as the formation of ozone from
nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds

Effects of Using DDT

● Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was widely used as a pesticide from the 1940s until it was
banned in many countries in the 1970s due to its environmental and health impacts
○ It is an example of a conflict between the utility of a 'pollutant' and its effect on the
environment
● DDT is a powerful insecticide, so it was effective in controlling insect-borne human diseases, such as
malaria (transmitted by mosquitoes) and typhus (transmitted by lice), particularly in tropical regions
● However, it was discovered that DDT was also causing harm to non-target organisms, such as birds and
fish, through biomagnification
○ This means that top predators, such as eagles and falcons, were receiving high doses of DDT,
which caused them to lay eggs with thin shells, resulting in reproductive failure
● The conflict between the utility of DDT in controlling diseases and its environmental impacts led to a
ban on its use in many countries, including the United States
○ Its use has been restricted under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
○ The use of DDT remains controversial, with some arguing that it should be allowed for use in
disease control in areas where it is the most effective option, while others argue that the
environmental impacts are too significant to justify its use
● DDT highlights the importance of considering the potential environmental impacts of any chemical or
substance before it is used, particularly when it will be widely distributed into the environment
○ It also shows that sometimes a trade-off must be made between the benefits and the negative
impacts of a substance

Pollution Management
● Human activities, such as farming and industrial practices,
urbanisation, development of transport, and energy
production, are the major causes of pollution
○ The amount of material released into the
environment determines the impact
● There are three main stages leading to the impact of
pollutants on the environment
○ Stage 1: Human activity producing the pollutant
○ Stage 2: Releasing of the pollutant into the
environment
○ Stage 3: The impact of the pollutant on
ecosystems
● There are three strategies for managing the impacts of
pollution (which relate to the stages of pollutant impact
shown above):
○ Changing human activity
○ Regulating and reducing quantities of pollutants
released at the point of emission
○ Cleaning up the pollutants and restoring the
ecosystem after pollution has occurred