MODULE 3

TECHNICAL READING AND WRITING PRACTICES

1. EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL READING PRACTICE:

Introduction:

“Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man.” –Francis
Bacon, the famous essayist, quotes in his essay „Of Studies‟.

Of all the four skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing – reading is probably the most
crucial skill.

Effective reading skills are vital to achieve success not only in one‟s academic but also
professional life. Also, it is observed that good readers are good communicators. It is a skill that
cannot be ignored.

Have you ever read or written a novel, or a report, or a personal letter, or an email in a similar
manner? The truth is that while reading, you employ different reading speeds and different
approaches to them.

As a student, who has to read much for academic pursuance, and a future professional, there is a
dire need to learn the skills and techniques of artful reading.

Benefits of Effective Reading:

 It can provide you with a „comprehensible input‟ from the book or document that you read.
 It can enhance your general ability to use other language skills such as listening, speaking,
and writing.
 It can enhance your vocabulary
 It helps you keep your mind focused on the material and prevents it from unnecessary
distractions.
 It enables you to extract useful information much more efficiently within a limited time.
 It helps in building confidence as you start reading longer, and later, voluminous texts.
 It gives you pleasure and relaxation as books are the best and most reliable friends.
 It facilitates the development of various other skills, such as making predictions, comparing
and contrasting facts, creating samples, hypothesizing, reorganizing the message as
transmitted by the text, improving your critical thinking and hence developing a sharp
acumen with passage of time.

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Speed of Reading:

An average college student reads between 150 and 250 words per minute.
A „good‟ reading speed is around 250 to 400 words per minute.

Purpose of Reading No. of words

(words per minute/wpm)
Reading for memorization Fewer than 100
Reading for learning 100-200
Reading for comprehension 200-400
Skimming 400-700
*Some people even read 1000 wpm or more.

Understanding the role of speed in the reading process is essential. There is a close relation
between reading speed and understanding. Proper reading training can help you increase both
your rate of reading and comprehension.

Plodding (reading word by word) reduces understanding rather than increasing it.

To Summarize:

An Efficient Reader An Inefficient Reader

Always reads for ideas or information Tries to read words
Reads group of works/multi-phrases Reads word by word
Quickly adjusts his/her speed of reading to the Reads the text from the beginning till the
nature of text end
Sets the purpose of reading right in the Reads everything and deliberately goes slow
beginning while reading
Reads the information again and again to
Reads smoothly
figure out a clear understanding of the text
Vocalizes or sub-vocalizes words while
Visualizes ideas
reading
Has limited vocabulary which hampers his/
Has a good vocabulary in that subject
her speed and understanding
Continuously keeps improving his/her pace of
Rarely attempts speed reading
reading
Properly tries to sort out the material as
Reads everything indiscriminately
critical, interesting, analytical, etc.

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 Four Basic Steps to Effective Reading:

1. Figure out the purpose of reading a particular text.

You can identify suitable reading strategies and use your background knowledge of the topic in
order to anticipate the contents.

2. Spot the parts of the text relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the rest.
This selectivity enables you to focus on particular elements of information from the text. So,
you are able to sift through the information, which in turn reduces the amount of information
you have to hold in short-term memory.

3. Choose the appropriate reading strategy that suits your purpose.

Select the strategy that is suited to the reading task in that particular context and use that
strategy in an interactive manner. This will develop your understanding as well as confidence.

4. Test or assess your comprehension during reading and also when the reading task is
completed.
Monitoring comprehension helps you to make out the inconsistencies and discrepancies in total
comprehension of the text. At this step, you can also learn to use alternative strategies.

Overcoming common obstacles:

 Lack of concentration
Poor concentration directly emanates from poor reading habits. If we are not used to reading, it
often appears to be an unpleasant task when we are forced to do it. In such circumstances the
mind begins to drift. However, since we know that there is no escape from reading, we need to
cultivate an active interest in our reading assignments. Gradually, our concentration begins to
improve if we consciously start taking interest in the reading activity.

 Eye fixation
While reading, when one is unable to progress well beyond a thought, expression, or word, it is
regarded as eye fixation. This is often caused because of lack of training, and cripples our
reading efficiency. To overcome this, try to divide a sentence into certain thought units, and
don‟t fixate on a particular word or expression for long.

 Regression
Just like eye fixation, regression too creeps into our reading habits because of lack of training.
When we are unable to understand an idea, we habitually go back to the part where it occurs in a
passage. It clearly suggests incompetence in reading and comprehension skills. Enhanced
reading habits with enthusiasm and interest can help you overcome this problem. For efficient
and artful reading, you should make your eye move over at least 2-3 words in one go and let it
glide over the text in a rhythm. Since reading is an intensive process, if trained well, the eye
quickly moves to assimilate text.

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 Reading aloud or turning the head from side to side
Reading aloud sometimes leads to poor concentration while reading, as the primary objective
here becomes proper articulation of certain words and expressions.
Similarly, moving or gliding a pen, pencil or scale through the text are also not worth imbibing,
as any added activity besides reading and comprehension tends to affect your understanding of
the concept. Ideally, our eyes should see and our mind should read the text before us.

 Indiscriminate use of the dictionary

Some damage to reading habits is also done because of lack of guidance about the proper
utilization of the dictionary. Some of our students are even misled into cramming (intensive
study) the dictionary they possess. Remember, a dictionary is not meant for this purpose, and
you don‟t learn words by cramming them. For picking up more words, work conscientiously at
least on some part of your reading material every day. Observe carefully how the words and
expressions are used in a given context. Look up the meaning of all such words in the dictionary
to understand their specific usage, and the words similar and dissimilar to them. It has to be
followed by using all such words and expressions frequently in your speaking and writing tasks.

Another use of the dictionary is the tendency to refer to it the moment one comes across a word
one finds difficult to understand. However, when we rush to look for the meaning of a word in
the dictionary the moment we confront it, we lose our spontaneity in reading. Moreover, most of
us start with a modest vocabulary; hence, the number of words which appear unfamiliar to us
are many in number. Repeatedly looking into the dictionary for every word also makes us weary
of the whole process of reading and we tend to give up very soon.

Types of Reading:

1. Skimming:
Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important information or „gist‟ from the document
or novel that you read. For this, you should make your eyes run over the text, nothing important
information. You may also go through the contents of the chapters rapidly, picking out and
understanding the key words and concepts, For example, while reading the newspaper in the
morning, you quickly try to get the general news of the day and discover which articles you
would like to read in more detail.

2. Scanning
Scanning is used to find a particular piece of information. In this type of reading, you allow your
eyes to run over the text, looking for the specific piece of information that you need. You use
scanning when you go through your schedule or meeting plans, look for specific advertisements
or a specific information in a book, etc. This is the most effective way of getting information
from magazines – scan the table of contents of indexes and turn directly to interesting articles to
arrive at the specific information.

3. Extensive Reading
Extensive reading is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject. It includes reading of
longer texts for pleasure, and business reports to know about the general trends. In this type of

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 reading, you should not worry if you don‟t understand each and every word. You can use this
type of reading to improve your general knowledge of business procedures, or to know the latest
marketing strategy. Also, while you read a novel before going to bed, or magazine articles that
interest you, you use your extensive reading skills.

4. Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to extract detailed information. It includes
very close and accurate reading of details. You use this skill to grasp the details of a specific
situation. In this case, it is important for you to understand each word, information or fact. When
you read your text book for understanding the concepts or various theories, you have to read
intensively. You are also require to read every single detail when you want to go for an
insurance claim or want to sign a contract. Intensive reading skills help you understand and
interpret the text, infer its central idea, observe the common thread that runs through it, and
intuit its overall purpose and significance.

Methods of Reading:

 Subvocalized Reading
It combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if spoken. It is a bad habit that
slows down the pace of both reading and comprehension. However, some studies show that it
helps the readers better, particularly while reading complex texts.

 Speed Reading
It is a method for increasing reading speed without a reduction in comprehension or retention.
With effort, you can acquire a speed of as much as 1000 words per minute.

 Photo Reading
It is different from “regular reading“ or “speed reading”. It is a way to process and understand
information than read it. It claims to process and store the information merely by looking at the
page by use, the whole mind rather than only the left or right side of our brain.
In this method, you use speed reading techniques with an additional technique of photo reading
to increase your reading speed, comprehension, and retention.

 Proof Reading
It is a kind of reading for detecting typographical errors in a printed text. One can learn to do it
rapidly, and professional proof readers typically acquire the ability to do so at high rates, faster
for some kind of material than for others.

 Structure-Proposition-Evaluation (SPE)
Mortimer Adler popularized this method in his book How to read a book, mainly for non-fiction
treatise, in which one reads writing in 3 phrases:
A. For the structure of the work
B. For the logical propositions or progression made, and
C. For evaluation of the merits of the arguments and conclusions.
This method suspended judgement of the work or its arguments until they are fully understood.

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 Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review (SQ3R)
This method involves immaculate and perfect reading, that is, you read so as to teach what is
read or be able to explain or apply the knowledge obtained in other domains. In this method, the
reader absorbs the information and uses it without having to refer to notes or the book again.

 Multiple intelligence-base method

This method draws upon the reader‟s diverse ways of thinking and knowing to enrich his/her
appreciation of the text. Reading is fundamentally a linguistic activity. Most readers use several
intelligences, such as auditory, visual and logical intelligence, while reading, and making a habit
of doing so in a more disciplined manner, that is, constantly or after every paragraph, which
results in more vivid and memorable experience.

Exercise 1:
Partner Presentations

Instructions:
 Have each student write a one-page essay describing themselves in as much detail as possible.
 Encourage them to include as much as they can -- personality traits, hobbies, favorite foods, family
history, and experiences.
 After they've finished, pair students up and have them exchange their essays.
 Give each student five minutes to read his or her partner's essay, and explain that each student will
have to stand in front of the class and share as much as they can remember about his or her partner.
 Students can take notes while they read, but they will not be allowed to look at the essays while they
present.

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2. EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL WRITING PRACTICE:

Effective Writing can be defined as something which has a logical flow of ideas and is cohesive.
This means it holds together well because there are links between sentences and paragraphs.

Structure of a paragraph:

 Topic sentence/introducer: The sentence that introduces the main idea in a paragraph is called
the topic sentence.
The topic sentence guides the readers and lets them know what the topic is about. So it performs
two major functions. They are as follows:
 Structural: It describes the shape of the argument.
 Interpretive: It offers a conclusion or reaction or feeling.
 Supporting details/developers: These are the sentences that constitute the main body of the
passage. They build up the topic and provide details regarding it.
 The concluding sentence/terminator: It winds up the discussion and hence is called the
terminator.

Construction of a paragraph:
It is very important to construct a good, emphatic and effective paragraph. Some of the ways are
as under:

 Narrative Description: The writer ventures to tell a story to the reader so that the message is
communicated in an engaging manner.

 Comparisons and Contrasts: For developing paragraphs, two similar things are compared of
two dissimilar things are contrasted. The purpose for employing this technique is to make the
entire argument forceful and emphatic.

 Sustained Analogy: Using analogies is another way to draft emphatic passages. Comparisons
and contrasts are also carried out through analogies. However, in its impact and appeal, this
approach is more figurative and literary. Unlike simple comparisons and contrasts, analogies are
used to compare things which are generally not from the same class. When such comparisons
are used extensively, the device is termed as suitable analogy.

 Cause and Effect: Cause and effect is an important device with which we construct paragraphs
on a variety of topics. Though this method, the paragraph attempts to establish a relationship
between certain events and the reasons behind them. While using this method, authors are able
to convince their readers in a scientific and logical manner.

 Quotations and Paraphrasing: Quoting authorities is an excellent way to develop a paragraph.

It is not essential that the quotations are cited only from eminent personalities. Even common
people are quoted to substantiate a point of view. When the words of the commoners are used, it
is known as peer testimony.

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 Enumeration: At times, we list a series of ideas in order to substantiate the topic sentence. This
device, used quite often to construct a paragraph, is known as enumeration.

 Definition: Another way to develop a paragraph is to use definition. This method for
developing a paragraph is particularly employed in those situations where the author intends to
take up some topic, term, issue, or argument in a particular way. By taking reader through the
definition of a particular word, the author is able to prepare his/her readers to follow the
intended line of argument or thought.

 Testimony: Giving testimony is another way to develop a paragraph. Testimony can be of two
types – peer testimony and expert testimony. Just as peer testimony, cited earlier in the
discussion, expert testimony also lends credibility to the author‟s opinion. The author uses
expert testimony, to drive his or her ideas. Through a series of quotation, the writer attempts to
put the problem in the proper perspective. If the topic at hand is controversial, the author of the
passage uses expert testimony extensively to make his reader understand the variegated nuances
of the subject under perusal.

 Facts, Figures, Instances and Examples: Facts and figures compose a very important part of
many a professional write up. Since facts, figures and examples can carry conviction and
illustrate the point, authors generally prefer them for developing paragraphs. It is done so in
order to create an immediate and intimate rapport with the reader. By citing factual data from
the findings, paragraph builds up the entire edifice in a convincing manner. The figures that
follow the topic sentence clearly illustrate the central idea.

 Episodes: Like facts, figures, instances, and examples, episodes also help the construction of a
paragraph. At times, situations require writers to talk about various episodes in order to drive
home their ideas in a convincing and emphatic manner. By using the episode in a narrative form,
the paragraph builds up the environment and the author is able to illustrate the central idea of the
paragraph.

 Using Transitions and Connecting Devices: Transitions are the expressions which connect
different ideas expressed in a paragraph. Without learning to use them accurately, it is
impossible to develop an impressive paragraph. In fact, different types of transitional words and
phrases are meant for different purposes.

Transitional and Connecting Devices Purpose

 Therefore, consequently, as a result  Establish cause and effect
 For instance, for example, again, such as,  Cite examples and illustrations
specifically, especially, to illustrate
 Finally, to conclude, in conclusion, thus, so, on  Wind up an idea
the whole, therefore
 To sum up, to summarize, in a nutshell, in brief,  Summarize the foregoing discussion
in short

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 Extended Definitions: It is written to explain a complex term used in a book, research paper, or
a report. In fact, some of the terms may be so crucial as well as complex that without defining
them of placing them in the context in which we expect our readers to do, it becomes difficult
for us to establish proper communication with them. An extended definition often includes the
literal meaning of the term used with all its characteristic features. Although it may be written in
a variety of ways, the basic purpose of an extended definition however is to define, explicate
and establish the basic features of a term before the writer ventures to take it up further.

Features of a Paragraph:

 Unity: Unity in a paragraph stands for the togetherness of ideas. Ideally, a paragraph should
have one central idea – outlined through the topic sentence – and the subordinating ideas which
help the main idea to come to the fore. This means that if the writer finds it important to
introduce another equally important idea, he/she should switch over to another paragraph. This
sometimes does not happen and hence it affects the unity of a paragraph.

 Coherence: Maintaining coherence in a paragraph is different from maintaining unity in it. In

that sense, though loosely, the paragraph does hang onto the same idea and hence can be said to
have maintained unity of idea. What it grossly lacks is coherence. While discussing all this, the
author does not focus much on the continuity of thought and hence the passage does not seem to
progress coherently from one point to the other.

 Expansion and emphasis: Alongside maintaining coherence and unity, it is also required that
the idea that is introduced in a sentence is properly expanded and emphasized. Some paragraph
fail to click with the reader, simply because the idea that is generated in the passage is not taken
to its logical conclusion. Sometimes it is not the lack of expansion but the absence of emphasis
that keeps a paragraph from achieving its intended purpose. Since a paragraph is written to put
across certain ideas, it should be written in a convincing and emphatic manner. Sometimes,
however, the paragraph fails to clearly articulate the purpose for which it is essentially
constructed.

Descriptive Writing Techniques:

 Expository: Paragraphs are used for defining and introducing different concepts and ideas to
the reader. For example, when you say „Democracy is a form of governance in which people‟s
urge for freedom and equality is respected‟, the statement is expository and defining in nature. If
a paragraph is built on these lines, it would be known as an expository piece of writing.

 Narrative: This writing technique is very commonly employed by creative writers. It is

essentially a story telling technique. For example, it is quite common to read something like
„When I entered the room, it seemed unusually quiet. They were all sitting there. Not speaking.
Just looking down with their heads buried in their knees. More than the surprise, it gave me a
shock and a wave of trepidation swept through me.‟

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 Persuasive: This is very commonly employed by marketing people. It is the heart and soul of
write-ups such as sales letters and business proposals. In such writings, you often come across
expressions such as „All that you have to spare is a meagre amount of ₹500 per month to buy a
life-long pleasure that comes of travelling and seeing unseen places. Just pay peanuts and let us
do the rest. For almost nothing, the company takes care of all your travel programmes gets the
booking of your travel tickets done through our agent; fixes hotels for you and arranges tour
guides…‟

 Descriptive: Of all the writing techniques, descriptive writing is the one that is most commonly
employed by us. It is quite extensively used for describing an idea, object, process, procedure,
event, product, features, functions, etc. Regardless of the profession, all of us have to use
descriptive writing in order to make an idea, object, process, event, feature or function known to
others. Since we all have to employ descriptive writing techniques, it won‟t be out of context for
us to learn them in some detail.

Argumentative Paragraph: It argues against the view that is generally established. Authors
writing such paragraphs normally choose to maintain a forceful and emphatic tone to context the
view that is normally taken for granted.

Analytical Paragraph: It analyses a situation with the help of facts, figures and information
and tried to draw inferences on the basis of these.

Exercise 2:
Rearrange the sentences in the following paragraph as per the paragraph structure.

Aruna was very intelligent student and loved tennis. Aruna is a writer. Aruna started writing
articles for a local newspaper since she was in high school. She was born in Bengaluru. She
pursued her passion and took up literature as her major field of study. She worked for several
new papers and worked with many content writers and play writers. A couple of years later she
released a novel, which was awarded the best-selling novel for that year. Now, she has released
several novels and presented many motivational speeches across the country. She is one of the
finest writers of this generation.

Exercise 3:
Read the following and identify the introducers, developers and terminators

1. Further, it is also important for a manager to be punctual and methodical.

2. Man is born free but he finds himself in chains everywhere.
3. To sum up, suffice it is to say that corruption has corroded our country.
4. Poetry developed as an art form much later than drama that has its roots in religious
conventions.
5. Therefore, all we can do is just sit silently and pray.
6. Surprisingly enough, the police kept aloof throughout the incident.

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 Exercise 4:
Write a paragraph in about 250 words on each of the following topics

 A borderless world is just a dream.

 Adopting best practices to keep your city clean.
 Without education man is just a beast.

Exercise 5:
Given below are a beginning and an ending of a paragraph. Develop the remaining part of
the paragraph.

Instructions: Read out the beginning of the paragraph and let the students build the remaining
part so as to make sense to the developing paragraph and eventually connect to the ending of a
paragraph.

“Eyes are considered the most significant organ of the human body…………. Hence, use your
eyes well to win the audience.”

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3. TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING
Introduction: Report is an important form of business communication. Generating and analysing
reports is a routine task in every professional‟s day-to-day activities. It is in fact hard to think of an
organization where, as a professional, you would not be required to write some sort of a report.
Whenever there is a decline in production or sales, frequent strikes in a company or a fire breaks out
in the factory, the authorities ask for reports which consist of the data related to the problem, its
interpretation and the findings arising out of such an analysis. Reports are thus written to analyse a
situation, to offer an alternative method of operation, to study the growth rate of a company, to
observe the trends in socio-political-psychological changes happening around us in all walks of life
and so on and so forth.
Since reports acquire such inevitability in the professional world, it is mandatory for us to understand
in detail how they are written, what their structure is and what makes them effective.

Comprehensive definition: A business report is a formal communication written for a specific

purpose, conveying authentic information to a well-defined audience in a completely impartial and
objective manner. Written in a conventional or usable form, it describes the procedures followed in
the collection and examination of data, analyses the facts collected, derives conclusions from them
and gives recommendations, if necessary.

Salient Features:

 A formal piece of writing: A report is a formal piece of writing. It is not a document where one
expresses his/her ideas and feelings freely the way they come to him/her. A report is essentially
written in accordance with certain rules and norms. The facts and ideas are recorded, analysed and
sequence in a particular way. The elements to be included in a report follow a certain pattern.

 A factual account: A report is a factual account of data or information. Essentially, every report is a
collection of data for the intended reader(s) who will make efficient use of it. The facts contained in a
report may be an account of something that has already happened or something latest, an account of
any new information, any plan for a course of action, etc. Facts should always be accurate and
complete and arranged in a way to project clear meaning.

 Written with a specific purpose: A report is always written with a specific purpose. In fact, it
originates with a need, desire or purpose, either to inform or to analyse. These are always written to
help the intended reader(s) to keep track of information or to take important decisions or actions.

 Written in an organized manner: Since reports are based on facts, they have an organized
structure. Generally reports follow a conventional or usable form. Hence, while writing report, a
proper planning and presentation of data is quite important.

 Written for a specific audience: To keep abreast of current information, authorities need data or
information. They demand the relevant information from a person who has this information. Thus,
the person who generates a report is aware of its primary audience. Since the subject matter is related
to the reader, it is interpreted for his/her awareness and future use. It helps the authority to take a

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 sound decision, to find solutions to the existing problems, and remain ahead of others. There are
various types of reports, but each report is audience specific.

 Written in an objective manner: Reports are always written in an objective manner when a
collection of facts is to be communicated. Not many shades of meaning may be bestowed to the
report since it is written in an impartial and objective style. Data is analysed in relation to the
problem. The facts are presented the way they are; no scope is left for personal evaluation.

 Includes only relevant information: A report includes only essential information. Therefore,
redundant information is not generally a part of its structure. It consists of the information that helps
readers save their time and make them understand what exactly they require to understand. In other
words, reports give readers exactly what they want – neither an iota more nor and iota less.

Types:

Reports

Oral Written

Informal Formal

Letter Memorandum

Informational Interpretive Routine/Periodic

Progress Laboratory Inspection Inventory Annual/Confidential

Fig. Classification of reports

1. Informal Reports: The ultimate purpose of an informal report is to fulfil an immediate requirement
which does not require an elaborate analysis or presentation. So, these are shorter than formal
reports. For instance, if a managing director wishes to know the current status of production or
performance of employees in a particular department, the information can be presented in an
informal report. Informal reports are also written by using the same format as that of a letter or a
memorandum.
 Letter reports: The business letter format is very important for communicating formally in or
outside an organization.

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 Memo reports: A report that deals with a minor problem or provides facts of routine nature, using
this inter-office memorandum format.

Criteria Letter Report Memo Report

Longer than memo, i.e., comprises 4-5 Shorter than letter report, i.e., usually
Size
pages one or two pages
Format Uses letter layout Uses interoffice memorandum format

Style Less informal More informal

Both for internal and external
Purpose Only for internal communication
communication
Letter reports provide more details,
Content arguments, evidences and possibly one Memo reports are precise and specific
important and one relevant illustration.

2. Formal Reports: They have a seriousness of purpose and content presenting elaborate data which
cannot be informally presented. There are various types of formal reports.

A. Informational reports: This conveys information. It entails all the details related to the subject
under discussion.
B. Interpretive reports: These are also known as analytical or investigative reports. These reports
helps the readers analyse, interpret and evaluate facts and ideas.
C. Routine/Periodic reports: These reports are submitted at specific intervals in the routine of business
affairs.
 Progress reports: This informs about the status and process of a particular project undertaken by
the organization during a specific period.
 Laboratory reports: These reports are written by scientists and students those who work regularly
in laboratories.
 Inspection reports: These are the routine reports that are compiled only after thorough
investigation of objects or products.
 Inventory reports: This is computer-generated and requires the user to put in the relevant data
regarding the stock on hand.
 Annual confidential report on employees: These reports are submitted annually by the
controlling officers about their subordinates. It evaluates their work performance and behaviour in
their respective departments.

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 Use of graphic aids\illustration:

Effective business report writers stress on the layout of reports because a neatly furnished report not
only enhances the appearance but also enables them to communicate effectively. Since most of the
reports include complex, voluminous data, one can tell the story better by including graphic aids.

Graphic aids: These supplement the text, help you communicate the report in a more interesting and
readable manner and help you give it a professional flair.

How to use graphic aids/illustrations?

 Illustrations should be neat, accurate and self-contained.
 Contents should be closely related to the text.
 They should be explained and placed as close to the first reference as possible.
 Size of the illustration should be big enough to be clearly visible.
 If you photocopy or directly copy from another source, you must give proper credit to your source.
 Illustrations should be numbered and captioned.

Illustrations

Tables Figures

Dependent Phrase Graphs Maps Drawings

Independent Charts Photographs

Fig. Various types of graphics

Independent table: It includes rows and columns giving the complete statistical information related
to the issue under discussion.
Dependent table: It is closely associated with the text preceding and following it. It cannot be
interpreted effectively independent of the text.
Phrase table: It consists of rows and columns. Instead of giving data in figures, provides information
by using words and phrases.
Photographs: Sometimes you may be required to provide a photograph of a machine or site or
building or equipment to illustrate a realistic and accurate view of your subject. It makes your verbal
expression more powerful and assertive.
Maps: Maps are the other wonderful aids which help you depict geographical and spatial
distribution.
Charts: Tables and graphs show quantitative analysis and relationship among various heads,
whereas charts in a report give the non-quantitative information.
Graphs: These help the author in presenting the data in a creative, colourful and catchy manner.
They are of various types - rectilinear, multiple line, bar, pie, semi-log, pictorial, scatter and surface.

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 Preparation and planning:

It is said, “To fail to prepare is to prepare to fail.” This holds good for reports. The importance of
preparation and planning in writing a report cannot be overemphasized. Often, however, we simply
tend to ignore this aspect or dismiss it while writing a report, as we consider it too mechanical and
not really worthwhile to be followed diligently. As a result, we happen to plough too quickly into the
writing process itself and end up failing to let the reports realize their true objective.

Before you start writing a professional report, you must do the following:
 Set your objective.
 Assess your audience.
 Decide what information you will need and collect data.
 Prepare your skeletal framework, that is, form an outline.
Collectively, these activities constitute the planning stage of report writing, and the amount of time
and thought you spend on them will make a vast difference to the effectiveness of all the work that
will follow.
Data collection
The next step after defining your objective, scope and purpose is to collect relevant data.
Recognizing the sources of information and collecting information become the primary tasks at this
stage. Formal writing cannot depend on imagination and assumptions. It requires solid proof.
a. Encyclopaedias b. Textbooks c. Office records d. Files e. Journals f. Handbooks g. Manuals
h. Government Publications i. Internet j. Magazines k. Newspapers l. Computer databases

Methods of Data Collection:

 Personal observation: Some reports will be based on your personal observations. For example, you
may be required to write a report on an experiment you conducted in the laboratory, a job you
performed or an event to which you were an eye-witness. In all these situations, you rely on your
sensory perceptions and hence you should develop careful observation.

 Telephonic interview: Another method of collecting data is interview-personal or telephonic. If the

information you seek is of a routine nature and only brief answers are required from a small number
of people, then you can contact them on telephone and save time on travelling. But often, you may
not get as effective a feedback on the telephone as is possible through personal interviews.

 Personal interview: While collecting data by conducting personal interviews, you should be shrewd,
observant and sensitive to the reaction of the person you are interviewing. You must be quick to
readjust your approach and attitude to suit each case. You need to first secure a person‟s attention,
excite his interest and establish a rapport so that he/she responds and cooperates in giving you the
information you want and this depends on your knack of handling people.

 Mail questionnaire: When a wide geographical coverage is required to be covered and a large
number of people have to be contacted, the most efficient and convenient method is to collect data
through mail questionnaires.

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 Analyzing and organizing the data
Once data collection is done and notes have been taken, the next step for the report writer is to
analyse the data. As a report writer therefore, you should determine more valuable information from
the data collected. Revise your questions and data; add new items to it if necessary. If the information
does not fit into your purpose, do not use it.
The next step is to organize the data collected. An old but highly workable adage is that a writer
should tell the audience what he or she is going to do, then do it and then tell the audience what has
been done. This can be conveniently divided into the more typically labelled parts as the
introduction, body and conclusion of a report.

Writing and revising

Keep the audience in mind and prepare a rough draft with everything relevant. In the first review,
concentrate on blocks of ideas. In the second review, concentrate on finer details, matters of syntax
and diction and write the final report in a specific form using a style sheet or manual.

Preparing an outline
Outline is an arrangement of works, phrases or sentences which indicates the nature and sequence of
topics and sub-topics to be discussed in the report. Since thoughts do not always come in the order in
which we like to put them in writing, an outline is required. It gives a framework and indicates the
pattern of our report.

Structure of the formal report

As we have learnt that reports vary widely in length, structure, purpose, style, etc., there are various
parts in a report that need to be well signposted in long formal reports and some of them are not
essential in shorter reports.

The various elements in a report:

 Front matter: The front matter includes the cover, preface, title page, acknowledgements,
frontispiece, table of contents, copyright notice, list of illustration and forwarding letter.
 Main body: The main body consists of introduction, conclusion, discussion and recommendations.
 Back matter: The back matter of a report would include appendices, bibliography, index, list of
references and glossary.

Styles of report
An effectively written report is one that follows a logical flow of ideas and is cohesive. It contains
proper links between and within its sentences, paragraphs and sections which make it easy for the
reader to follow the message it conveys. Moreover, it uses language to keep track of the report‟s
purpose and the reader‟s needs.

For maintaining a clear, concise and objective style for writing a report, follow these tips:
 Provide complete and accurate information
 Use plain, familiar and concrete words
 Avoid wordiness and redundancy
 Judiciously use active and passive voice

17
 Follow emphatic word order
 Maintain parallelism in writing
 Prefer using verbs to long nouns
 Carefully use acronyms/abbreviations
 Avoid clichés
 Avoid circumlocution
 Maintain unity in paragraphs
 Avoid punctuation and grammatical errors

Exercise 6:
Think of some problem related to your campus. Perhaps the students want some classrooms to be
opened earlier or kept open after college hours for preparation of extracurricular activities; maybe the
library doesn‟t have an appealing list of casual books for reading. Identify a person on campus who
should be able to give you some valid information regarding the problem and make an appointment
to see that individual. Before you interview, prepare a list of 15 questions that you want answered.
After your interview is over, tabulate the data to be used for your report.
Select the information you gather in either question number 2 or 3 above and organize the material
into a carefully unified 500 word theme.

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4. TECHNICAL PROPOSALS
Introduction: As a professional, one may face countless situations in which it is essential for you to
prepare technical documents. These could range from reports, notices, letters and memos to
proposals.

When a company thinks of a merger with another company, it may ask its personnel to submit a
proposal reviewing the possible industrial a commercial developments that might make the merger
desirable. If some multimedia laboratory wishes to approach various colleges and universities for
setting up multimedia lab, they are required to understand the needs of the specific organisation and
submit a proposal based on their requirement. Thus, a technical proposal is written offer from a
person who has a selling idea to a prospective buyer. It intends to elicit business from a prospective
buyer. Proposals have important place in business growth and professional relationships. The cut-
throat competition in global business has made it essential for companies to look for new ideas to
sustain their market and growth. Often, it is confused with business plan. However, a business plan is
different from a business proposal. A business plan is usually drafted to get capital or the start-up
venture. These plans cover your business structure, your products and services, your market research
and marketing strategy and your complete budget and financial projections. A technical or business
proposal however is written by some professional or expert who proposes to sort out a technical,
business or managerial proposal of a prospective buyer. A proposal also identifies the prospective
buyer‟s need to implement new ideas for enhancing efficiency, increasing productivity and
improving performance in various professional operations.

Difference between Proposal, Report and Business Plan:

Proposal Report Business Plan

 It is written to someone who  Written to someone with  It is written to someone
needs to sort out a technical, authority to know the causes who needs to make a decision
management or business of the problem and possibly for profit making or
problem or needs to take a decision strengthening its operational
implement new ideas to aspects
enhance efficiency and
productivity in various
professional operations
 It identifies a particular  Written to identify a specific  Like proposals, it identifies
need, explains it thoroughly problem, explain it and the workable idea, explains
and recommends how this recommend action that will all aspects related to financial
need can best be met lead to a solution needs, target market,
demographics and other
information
 Formal but persuasive style  Formal in style  Persuasive

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  It involves cost for the  It only highlights the  It is written to get capital
execution of proposed idea reasons based on the for a start-up venture
interpretation of data and
make recommendations
 It is written to someone  It is written to people who  Both the applicant and the
whose decision will directly can take action or affect approving authority aim at
benefit the writer in some outcome making profit
way

 It also deals with future  It deals with some event or  Like proposals, it deals
professional possibilities. situation that occurred in the with future action but there
Since it is often put forth by past are chances of failure as
experts and experienced taken up by budding
professionals, there are less entrepreneurs
chances of failure

Purpose:
Whenever a new idea or workable solution for a problem or advice is proposed, it is called a
proposal.

i. When the aim of the proposal is to modify or create something that requires a good understanding of
technical knowledge and skills, it is called a technical proposal.
ii. A business proposal is a document that you submit to your company or another enterprise proposing
a business arrangement dealing with any aspect of business, commerce or industry. These proposals
help to appraise and improve the existing products and services to meet the ever changing demands
of market. Sometimes these are also termed as sales proposals when they focus only on increasing
the sale of a product or service of a company.
iii. When we intend to undertake a systematic research, we are required to submit a proposal outlining
broadly the basis of the proposed research, its purpose, scope, significance, limitations, etc. Such
proposals also include a reference to the procedures, methods and theories to be followed in
conducting the research. Academic in nature ad written with scientific objectivity, such proposals are
known as research proposals.

Importance:
The importance of technical proposals are:
i. Proposals serve as an indicator of the growth or progress of a company or organization.
ii. These proposals help to invite other companies or industries for strategic alliances, joint ventures,
acquisitions and mergers.
iii. If your proposal presents your business ideas effectively, it may help the company improve its
products and services to have the competitive edge.
iv. By sorting out a technical problem, proposals enhance productivity and improve performance.
v. Proposals help in securing technology partnership, fundraising, donation, event sponsorship, tenders
or inviting others for participating in an event.
vi. Successful proposals usually ensure financial gains too for companies.

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vii. Research proposals help in creating new methods and procedures and opening new dimensions of
concepts which in turn expands the horizon of knowledge.

Types:
The types of technical proposals are:
 Solicited (invited): Whenever a proposal is drafted in response to an advertisement or demand from
an authority in a company or organization or outside the organization or agency, it is termed as a
solicited proposal. These are invited proposals.
 Unsolicited (uninvited): Unsolicited proposals are more demanding and require greater imagination
on the part of the bidder. In an unsolicited proposal – a non-invited proposal, we might have an idea
for a product or service that would be of benefit to a particular organization.

Structure:

Prefactory Main Body Supplementary

Title page Introduction

Appendix
Technical section
Letter of transmittal
Management section
Executive summary
Cost estimate Sources and
reference
Table of contents Conclusion

i. Title page: It serves as a cover of the proposal. It consists of information such as the title of the
proposal, the name of the organization, proposer‟s name and designation and date when the proposal
is being submitted.
ii. Letter of transmittal: It transmits the proposal to the primary recipient. It reveals the topic, the
purpose and its highlights and makes an appeal towards a favourable response.
iii. Table of contents: It is given immediately after the draft contract for quick location of major
elements.
iv. Executive summary: It provides a brief background, purpose, scope, methodology, technical details,
significance, re-emphasis, infrastructure facilities and also gives a budget summary of the project.
v. Introduction: Since an emphatic statement of purpose and a clear understanding of the problem are
the most important aspects of your proposal, an introduction to the proposal should specify what your
project intends to do.
vi. Technical section: This provides a solution which requires a technical plan. In this section, one has
to analytically explain the technical terms, theoretical principles and methods to be followed.
vii. Management section: Once the need and efficiency of the proposed solution is established,
convince the reader of your ability to deliver the goods.
 Credentials of the task force involved
 Company profile

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  Execution plan
viii. Cost estimate: A good proposal invariably takes into account the monetary variables that finally
decide whether the proposed idea actually takes off. In fact, without a clear, precise and detailed cost
estimate, all our proposals are likely to remain confined to folded files. The cost estimate of a
proposal includes fixed expenses such as purchase of land and equipment and recurrent expense such
as raw material and transportation.
ix. Conclusion: A proposal usually ends with a realistic and detailed cost estimated, particularly when it
is forwarded through a covering letter which is written in a persuasive and effective style.
x. Appendix: In order to help reader feel convinced about the author‟s claims, an appendix can be
appended to a proposal.
xi. Draft contract: When some proposal is accepted, it is resubmitted with a draft contract. It gives a
bird‟s-eye view of the most important information in the proposal.

Sample Proposal:

Oxbridge Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai

Department of Communication and Media Studies
27 January 2019

A Proposal For A Three-day Workshop on Communication Skills for effective Teaching

Objective:
The workshop aims at providing a platform for inculcating effective communication skills among
teachers through an array of innovative strategies and a wide range of interesting activities. This, in
turn would enhance the effectiveness of their teaching and improve the student-teacher relationship.

Day 1
9.00-10.00 Registration and inauguration
10.00-11.00 Innovation teaching-Sharing experiences
11.00-11.15 Tea break
11.15-1.00 Understanding and using body language-Nonverbal agenda
1.00-2.00 Lunch
2.00-3.00 Preparing PowerPoint presentation
3.00-4.00 Mock presentation followed by discussion
4.00-4.15 Tea break
4.15-5.00 Communication activities

Day 2
9.00-10.00 Strategies for group discussion and mock GD
10.00-11.00 GD practices followed by performance appraisal
11.00-11.15 Tea break
11.15-1.00 Oral presentation by participants

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1.00-2.00 Lunch
2.00-3.00 Emotional intelligence-Skills involved
3.00-4.00 Mock presentation followed by discussion
4.00-4.15 Tea break
4.15-5.00 Emotional intelligence-Problems and solutions

Day 3
9.00-10.00 Viewing the recorded presentation and self-assessment
10.00-11.00 Vocabulary enrichment
11.00-11.15 Tea break
11.15-1.00 Feedback and Valedictory

Cost estimate
Participants : 25 teachers from various schools in Bangalore
Tentative date : 29-31 May 2019
Resource Persons :5
Registration Fee : ₹600/- per head

BUDGET
Folders (40) = ₹2000.00
Learning material = ₹3000.00
Tea and snacks = ₹10000.00
Certificate production = ₹2500.00
Miscellaneous = ₹1000.00
Total = ₹25000.00

(Dr Abha Mittal)

Department of Communication and Media Studies

Exercise 7:
You are the Vice President of operations for Mirch Masala food chain, Mumbai. You plan to open a
new restaurant in Jaipur on Jaipur-Delhi highway. You prepare a proposal for this purpose to be
submitted to the President of your organization. Now draft this proposal. Your proposal should
consist of the following elements:
a. Title Page b. Draft Contract c. Introduction
d. Technical Section e. Management Section f. Cost Estimate

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5. ACTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Active voice: In most of the English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action
denoted by the verb.

These examples show that the subject is doing the verb's action.

The man must have eaten fine hamburgers

The man (subject) is doing the eating (verb)

Marilyn mailed the letter.

Marilyn (subject) is doing the mailing (verb)

Colorful parrots live in the rainforest.

Parrots (subject) are doing the living (verb).

Because the subject does or "acts upon" the verb in such sentences, the sentences are said to be in
the active voice.

Passive voice: One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct
object) so that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb -
or passive.

Note in these examples how the subject-verb relationship has changed.

Five hamburgers must have been eaten by the man

Hamburgers (subject) was being eaten (verb).

The letter was mailed by Marilyn.

The letter (subject) was being mailed (verb)

Because the subject is being "acted upon" (or is passive), such sentences are said to be in the passive
voice.

NOTE:
Colourful parrots live in the rainforests
This sentence cannot be changed to passive voice because the sentence does not have a
direct object.

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 To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following:

1. Move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Marilyn mailed the letter the letter

Direct object subject

2. Place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the proposition by

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Marilyn mailed the letter the letter……. By Marilyn

Subject prepositional phrase

3. Add a form of the auxiliary verb be to the main verb and change the main verb's for

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Marilyn mailed the letter the letter was mailed by Marilyn

Verb verb + be auxiliary

Because passive voice sentences necessarily add words and change the normal doer-action-receiver
of action direction, they may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning.

As the examples below illustrate, a sentence in active voice flows more smoothly and is easier to
understand than the same sentence in passive voice.

ACTIVE VOICE
At each concert, the soprano sang at least one tune from a well-known opera.

Doer of action action receiver of the action

PASSIVE VOICE
At each concert, at least one tune from a well-known opera was sung by the soprano

The receiver of action action doer of action

ACTIVE VOICE
Asbestos abatement teams will remove large chunks of asbestos-laden material from the hallways on
the second and third floors.

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 Doer of action action receiver of the action
PASSIVE VOICE
Large chunks of asbestos-laden material will be removed from the hallways on the second and third
floors by asbestos abatement team

The receiver of action doer of action action

It is generally preferable to use an ACTIVE voice. To change a passive voice sentence into an active
voice sentence, simply reverse the steps shown above.

1. Move the passive sentence's subject into the active sentence's direct object slot

PASSIVE VOICE ACTIVE VOICE

The letter was mailed by Marilyn .… (mailed) the letter

subject direct object

2. Remove the auxiliary verb be from the main verb and change the main verb's form if needed

PASSIVE VOICE ACTIVE VOICE

The letter was mailed mailed the letter

Be auxiliary

3. Place the passive sentence's object of the preposition by into the subject slot.

PASSIVE VOICE ACTIVE VOICE

By Marilyn Marilyn mailed

The object of the preposition by subject

Because it is more direct, most writers prefer to use the active voice whenever possible.
The passive voice may be a better choice, however, when

 the doer of the action is unknown, unwanted, or unneeded in the sentence

Examples:
The ballots have been counted
Sometimes our effort is fully appreciated

 the writer wishes to emphasize the action of the sentence rather than the doer of the action
Examples:
The high- jump record was finally broken last Saturday
A suspect was questioned for sixteen hours by the police.

 the writer wishes to use passive voice for sentence variety.

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 Exercise 8:
Convert the following into passive:
1. The footballer gifted his favorite soccer to the little boy.
2. Let him finish the book first.
3. They are to open a bookstore at the street corner.
4. What are you examining?
5. The car mechanic will repair the car.

Exercise 9:
Convert the following into active:
1. Let it be done now.
2. It was felt that the ball bearings were worn out.
3. It is said that the castle received its name in the sixteenth century.
4. The man was robbed and his belongings were taken away.
5. What was this accident caused by?

Exercise 10:
Convert the voice in the following sentence:
1. The tableaux must be decorated.
2. I remember my uncle taking me to the mountains.
3. Three kilos of rice is required by the cooks for the pulao.
4. They refused him leave.
5. Rice sells at fifty rupees by kilo.

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 6. REPORTED SPEECH:

What do you mean by reported speech?

Reported speech is how we represent the speech of other people or what we ourselves say. There are
two main types of reported speech: direct speech and indirect speech.

Direct speech repeats the exact words the person used, or how we remember their words:
Barbara said, “I didn‟t realize it was midnight.”

In indirect speech, the original speaker‟s words are changed.

Barbara said she hadn‟t realized it was midnight.

In this example, I become she and the verb tense reflects the fact that time has passed since the
words were spoken: didn’t realize becomes hadn’t realized.

Indirect speech focuses more on the content of what someone said rather than their exact words:
“I‟m sorry,” said Mark. (direct)
Mark apologized. (indirect: report of a speech act)

In a similar way, we can report what people wrote or thought:

„I will love you forever,‟ he wrote and then posted the note through Alice’s door. (direct
report of what someone wrote)
He wrote that he would love her forever, and then posted the note through Alice’s door. (indirect
report of what someone wrote)
I need a new direction in life, she thought. (direct report of someone‟s thoughts)
She thought that she needed a new direction in life. (indirect report of someone‟s thoughts)

While converting a sentence from direct to indirect,

 Those of you should be replaced by those of us
 Their names to me should be replaced by our names to her/him
 You can should be replaced by we can
 Your speech should be replaced by our speech
 You should be replaced by us
 You will be should be replaced by we will be
 You can take should be replaced by we can take

Examples:
i. Mildred said, “I am busy today”.
 Mildred said that she was busy that day.
(I am becomes she was and today becomes that day.)

ii. “You have come first in your class,” my friend told me.
 My friend told me that I had come first in my class.

28
 (You becomes I; your becomes my. Have becomes had. Have can be retained if the statement is
still relevant.)
iii. Jack said to Rose, “You look nice in this dress.”
 Jack told Rose that she looked nice in that dress.

 Words expressing nearness in time or places are generally changed into words expressing distance.

Direct Speech Word Indirect Speech Word

Here There

Today that day

this morning that morning

Yesterday the day before

Tomorrow the next day

next week the following week

next month the following month

Change of place and time Now Then

Ago Before

Thus So

Last Night the night before

This That

These Those

Hither Thither

Hence Thence

Come Go

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 Change in Pronouns: The pronouns of the Direct Speech are changed where necessary,
according to their relations with the reporter and his hearer, rather than with the original
speaker. If we change direct speech into indirect speech, the pronouns will change in the
following ways.

Rules Direct Speech Indirect Speech

The first person of the reported She says, "I am in tenth She says, "I am in tenth class."
speech changes according to class."
the subject of reporting speech.

The second person of reported He says to them, "You have He tells them that they have
speech changes according to completed your job." completed their job.
the object of reporting speech.

The third person of the reported She says, "She is in tenth She says that she is in tenth
speech doesn't change. class." class.

 Change in Tenses: The past perfect and past perfect continuous tenses do not change.

Rules Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Simple Present Changes "I always drink coffee", she She said that she always drank
To said coffee.
Simple Past

Present Continuous Changes "I am reading a book", he He explained that he was reading
To explained. a book
Past Continuous

Present Perfect Changes She said, "He has finished She said that he had finished his
To his work" work.
Past Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous "I have been to Spain", he He told me that he had been to
Changes told me. Spain.
To
Past Perfect Continuous

Simple Past Changes "Bill arrived on Saturday", He said that Bill had arrived on
To he said. Saturday
Past Perfect

Past Perfect Changes "I had just turned out the He explained that he had just
To light," he explained. turned out the light.
Past Perfect (No Change In

30
 Tense)

Past Continuous Changes "We were living in Paris", They told me that they had been
To they told me. living in Paris.
Past Perfect Continuous

Future Changes "I will be in Geneva on He said that he would be in

To Monday", he said Geneva on Monday.
Present Conditional

Future Continuous Changes She said, "I'll be using the She said that she would be using
To car next Friday." the car next Friday.
Conditional Continuous

 Changes in Modals

Rules Direct Speech Indirect Speech

CAN changes into COULD He said, "I can drive a car". He said that he could drive a car.

MAY changes into MIGHT He said, "I may buy a He said that he might buy a
computer" computer.

MUST changes into HAD He said, "I must work hard" He said that he had to work hard.
TO

These Modals Do Not Change: Would, could, might, should, ought to.

Would They said, "we would apply They said that they would apply
for a visa" for visa.

Could He said, "I could run faster" He said that he could run faster.

Might John said, "I might meet John said that he might meet him.
him".

Should He said, "I should avail the He said that he should avail the
opportunity" opportunity.

Ought to He said to me, "you ought to He said to me that I ought to wait

wait for him" for him.

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  Changes for Imperative Sentences: Imperative sentences consist any of these four things:
a. Order b. Request c. Advice d. Suggestion

Most commonly used words to join clauses together are ordered, requested, advised and
suggested. Forbid(s)/ forbade is used for the negative sentences.

Mood of Sentence in Direct Speech Reporting verb in indirect verb

Order Ordered

Request requested / entreated

Advice advised / urged

Never told, advised or forbade (No need of "not" after

"forbade")

Direction Directed

Suggestion suggested to

Warning warn

(If a person is addressed directly) called

Exercise 11:
Change the following expressions into indirect (reported) speech:

1. “Why do you always vex me like that?”

2. “Don‟t worry; I‟ll help you.”
3. “May we go now?”
4. “Thank you very much.”
5. “Let‟s watch a movie.”

Exercise 12:
Change the following expressions into direct speech:

1. She asked where her umbrella was.

2. Martin asked us how we were.
3. He asked if he had to do it.
4. The mother asked the daughter where she had been.
5. She wanted to know what they were doing.

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 Exercise 13:
Rewrite the following sentences in reported speech:

1. “Where does Peter live?” she asked.

2. His friend said, “You were right!”
3. They said, “We completed the report.”
4. “The keys are in the shelf”, he told his mom.
5. “Why can‟t you work a little longer?” her boss asked.

Exercise 14:
Rewrite the following sentences to the other speech:

1. They announced that they were buying a new house in the city.
2. He asked her if she was comfortable with the plan he made.
3. The shopkeeper said that the boxes cost ₹200 each.
4. Mala ordered Rohan to pick up the broken vase.
5. Angad told Misha that he wanted her to visit Bengaluru the other weekend.

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7. ANALOGIES:

What is an Analogy?
An analogy is a literary technique in which two unrelated objects are compared for their shared
qualities. Unlike a simile or a metaphor, an analogy is not a figure of speech, though the three are
often quite similar. Instead, analogies are strong verbal devices used to make rational arguments and
support ideas by showing connections and comparisons between dissimilar things.

Examples of Analogy

Analogies are commonly used to show important comparisons and make solid arguments. Here are
some examples:

Example 1
Every choice you make is like spinning the wheel of fortune—sometimes you will get the result that
you desire, while other times you will end up with something you always hoped to avoid.

Example 2
Raising children requires the same dedication you would give to a garden. Nurture them, feed them,
introduce them to both light and dark, and have patience; and soon you will see them grow into
blooming wonders.

In the first example, the writer could have said: “Every choice has a different consequence.” But like
similes, analogies make associations between things that wouldn‟t usually be compared (like choices
to wheels of fortune and children to gardens).

These comparisons create better descriptions and sensory images in the minds of readers. On the
other hand, analogies are more elaborate and informational than similes or metaphors, providing
support for the comparisons made rather than just stating them as simple truths.

As you can see, the second example explains how children and gardens have similar qualities
because they require similar growing conditions.

Example 3
Photosynthesis does for plants what digesting food does for animals. It is the process that lets them
convert nutrients into the fuel needed to grow and develop.

You may also see analogies that compare relationships rather than individual things. But the analogy
still works in the same way; it explains how the relationships share a similar quality of transforming
nutrients.

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 Types of Analogy

There are two types of analogies that are basically used. They are as follows:

a. Literal Analogy:
In a literal analogy, you are saying that one thing really is similar to another. This is the kind of
analogy that you would draw if you wanted to make an argument or persuasion. For example, when
scientists test a new medicine on laboratory mice, they are arguing that mice and humans really are
similar in medically significant ways. Therefore, as the argument goes, if a medicine works on mice,
it should also work on humans (or at least it‟s ready for human testing).

b. Figurative Analogy:
In a figurative analogy, you‟re simply drawing a comparison between two unrelated things to
highlight a certain characteristic; you‟re not necessarily saying that the things are truly similar. Take,
for example, the wheel of fortune example. If life were truly similar to a wheel of fortune you would
have a lot less control over our choices and the consequences would be unpredictable.

The Importance of Analogy

As mentioned, analogies are used to make logical arguments and comparisons. Here are a few ways
writers might use analogies:

1. Make abstract ideas more concrete

There are some people – like teachers, professors, and technical writers – who explain difficult ideas
for a living. It‟s a tough job! One way to make it easier is to draw analogies to things your readers or
students are already familiar with. For example, a biology teacher might explain the immune system
by saying, “What policemen do in a town, white blood cells do inside the body.”

2. Add depth and feeling to an image

Consider this example:
She felt like a raft floating in the middle of a dark, endless ocean. Like her, the raft was floating
along, alone, worn out, and unable to reach a steady place in which to settle.
Notice what a powerful image this description brings to mind. Without the analogy, the author would
just be saying “She was lonely and exhausted.” How boring! The analogy makes her emotions seem
dark and overwhelming – just as the ocean at night.

3. Making a persuasive argument

Obviously, this is rare in poetry and fiction, where making an argument isn‟t the point. But in essays,
literary analysis, and many other fields, persuasion is the name of the game – and analogy can be a
powerful tool for that purpose. It‟s especially useful when you want to show the flawed reasoning in
another person‟s argument:

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 Exercise 15:
Directions: Complete each analogy by writing a corresponding word on the line.

1. Days are to a week as months are to a __________.

2. Slithering is to a snake as hopping is to a __________.
3. Husk is to corn as hull is to __________.
4. Medicine is to illness as law is to __________.
5. Significant is to meaningless as important is to __________.
6. Purchase is to keep as borrow is to __________.
7. Artefacts are to the museum as books are to the__________.
8. Water is to swimming as snow is to __________.
9. Nail is to wood as glue is to__________.
10. Odometer is to mileage as compass is to __________.

Exercise 16:
Direction: Look at the pair of words that are given in each incomplete analogy. Find and join
the words to make two pairs of words:

1. Dresser is to wood as__________.

a) graceful is to hear b) window is to glass c) mine is to sheep

2. __________ as piano is to play

a) cobbler is to needle b) kitchen is to pen c) book is to read

3. Which is to witch as __________.

a) see is to see b) weather is to whether c) leave is to left

4. Smile is to frown as __________.

a) ugly is to beautiful b) bird is to fly c) paint is to water

5. __________ as hurrying is to rushing

a) sad is to happy b) glad is to sorry c) happy is to joyful

6. Thumb is to hand as __________.

a) dull is to blunt b) diamond is to ring c) stove is to water

7. __________ as pan is to cook

a) towel is to dry b) alert is to sit c) kitchen is to picnic

8. Carpenter is to furniture as __________.

a) tailor is to cleaning b) mason is to wall c) engineer is to needle.

9. __________ as microphone is to speech

a) sleep is to sofa b) noise is to speak c) spoon is to soup

10. Helmet is to head as _________________________________

a) mask is to face b) open is to up c) positive is to credit

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8. WORDS CONFUSED/MISUSED

It often happens that we get confused while using certain words. Hence, it is essential to know their
meaning. These confusions occur in the use of homographs, homophones, homonyms and sometimes
through misconception.

Word Meaning Example

The driver was seriously injured in the
Accident An unfortunate happening
car accident.
An incident in his life changed his views
Incident An event
on money.
The childless couple visited the
Adopt To take as someone‟s own
orphanage to adopt a child.
Only those creatures survived the
Adapt To make suitable to holocaust that adapted themselves to the
sudden rise in temperature.
Smith is an adept in repairing vintage
Adept Expert
cars.

Deceased Dead His parents are deceased.

Diseased Suffering from a disease This dog is diseased.

Draught Flow of air in a room There was a draught and I shivered.

Maharashtra has been hit by a severe

Drought A long period with no rain
drought.
A person who leaves his country to The Jews were mass emigrants from
Emigrant
live in another Eastern Europe.
A person who has come to another
Immigrant My uncle is an immigrant in America.
country to live permanently

Further To a greater degree I could not walk any further.

Farther A greater distance Srinagar is farther than Delhi.

Later At a time in future I will meet him later this evening.

Of the two scenes in the film, I liked the

Latter Second of two things
latter.

Lose To miss something They are going to lose the book.

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 Loose Not firmly fixed My shirt is loose.

The principal has convened a meeting of

Principal Head or Chief
the faculty.

Principle A rule The principles of morality forbid it.

Quite To a great degree You are quite right in saying so.

Quiet Calm They were in quiet surroundings.

Stationary Not moving The cart was stationary.

Stationery Materials for writing Samantha has opened a stationery shop.

They are jealous of his newly acquired

Jealous Angry or unhappy
riches.
The players ran towards the pitch
Zealous Full of enthusiasm
zealously.

Exercise 17:
Read the passage below and underline the words used incorrectly. Note down the correct
substitutions.

The pilot was embraced to see the steward in the cockpit. Although he had evolved his authority to
the navigator for much minutes, he had insured nobody would come seeing for him as the plain
cruised smoothly at a latitude of forty thousand feet.

____________ ____________ ____________ ____________

____________ ____________ ____________

Exercise 18:
Find the words that are often confused with the words noted below. Use each of the words
individually, along with the words they are confused, in sentences to bring out their meaning.

1. Altar
2. Bridal
3. Discrete
4. Lightning
5. Childish

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9. COLLOCATIONS:

Collocations are very common in English, and learning them is important. A collocation is two or
more words that often go together, like "hard work" or "make a mistake". Collocations sound "right"
or "natural" to native speakers, so the more collocations you know and use, the more natural your
English will sound. The "father" of collocation is usually considered to be J.R. Firth, a British
linguist who passed away in 1960. It was he that first used the term "collocation" in its linguistic
sense.

It is important to learn collocations because they are important for the naturalization of one‟s speech.
Besides, they broaden one‟s scope for expression. Collocation refers to how words go together or
form fixed relationships.

A collocation is made up of two or more words that are commonly used together in English. It is a
combination of words that are usually used together; other combinations that may mean the same
thing would seem „unnatural‟.

Collocations include noun phrases like „stiff wind‟ and „weapons of mass destruction‟, phrasal verbs
such as „to get together‟ and other stock phrases such as „the rich and famous‟.

Common collocations in English:

 make the bed - I need to make the bed every day.

 do the homework - My son does his homework after dinner.
 take a risk - Some people don't take enough risks in life.
 give someone advice - The teacher gave us some advice on taking tests.

Types of Collocations:

o adverb + adjective completely satisfied (NOT downright satisfied)

o adjective + noun excruciating pain (NOT excruciating joy)
o noun + noun a surge of anger (NOT a rush of anger)
o noun + verb lions roar (NOT lions shout)
o verb + noun commit suicide (NOT undertake suicide)
o verb + expression with a preposition burst into tears (NOT blow up in tears)
o verb + adverb wave frantically (NOT wave feverishly)

1. adverb + adjective
 Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do.
 We entered a richly decorated room.
 Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?

2. adjective + noun
 The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.
 The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.
 He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.

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 3. noun + noun
 Let's give Mr. John a round of applause.
 The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11 am.
 I'd like to buy two bars of soap, please.

4. noun + verb
 The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.
 Snow was falling as our plane took off.
 The bomb went off when he started the car engine.

5. verb + noun
 The prisoner was hanged for committing murder.
 I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed.
 He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.

6. verb + expression with a preposition

 We had to return home because we had run out of money.
 At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears.
 Their behavior was enough to drive anybody to crime.

7. verb + adverb
 She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down.
 Mario whispered softly in Jamie's ear.
 I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.

Exercise 19:
Fill in the blanks with appropriate verbs that would complete the collocation:

1. If you park there, you will have to __________ a fine.

a) pay b) take c) have

2. He __________ no attention to my request.

a) paid b) took c) had

3. I __________ a cough to catch her attention.

a) gave b) paid c) took

4. Although the doctors tried hard, they couldn‟t __________ his life.
a) save b) bring c) take

5. Abbreviations __________ space and hence they are common in newspaper headlines.
a) catch b) save c) take

6. Do you __________ a dairy?

a) have b) save c) keep

7. Few people can __________ a secret.

a) keep b) save c) have

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8. He still __________ in touch with most of his old school mates.
a) keeps b) saves c) take

9. I asked her what her problem was but she __________ quite.
a) kept b) took c) saved

10. They __________ close to hitting each other.

a) came b) took c) brought

Exercise 20:
Use appropriate words and fill in the blanks to form a meaningful sentence:

1. The meeting took almost five hours so it was impossible to __________ attention all the time.

2. The problem is difficult to __________ under control.

3. It took us all day to clean up the office after the burglary- the thieves __________ a terrible mess.

4. I don‟t think we should __________ a decision yet, we should wait.

5. Only 31% of the students who __________ the final exam passed it.

6. I think we should look for a new supplier- the one we have at the moment _____ us too many
problems.

7. Could you __________ me a favour and post these letters on your way home?

8. I‟ve told him ten times that he‟s got the wrong telephone number. I‟ll _____ crazy if they call again.

9. The company offers its employees free language training but not many people _____ advantage of it.

10. Our personnel assistant is leaving next month-she‟s __________ a baby.

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10. THE LISTENING COMPREHENSION:

Listening comprehension encompasses the multiple processes involved in understanding and

making sense of spoken language. These include recognizing speech sounds, understanding the
meaning of individual words, and/or understanding the syntax of sentences in which they are
presented.

Listening comprehension can also involve the prosody with which utterances are spoken (which
can, e.g., change intended meaning from a statement to a question), and making relevant inferences
based on context, real-world knowledge, and speaker-specific attributes (e.g., to what information
the speaker has access and about what he/she is likely to be talking).

Exercise 21:
Audio - The Campaign For Real Chocolate. Listen to the audio and fill in the blanks:

Start of the campaign: _________(1)

Aim: to promote real chocolate made with ________(2) and _____________(3)
Good chocolate contains only __________(4) of sugar and up to __________(5) of cocoa
Poor quality chocolate contains: up to ______________(6) sugar and only 5% cocoa. Cocoa
butter can help reduce blood cholesterol levels.
Benefits of eating good quality chocolate: It has many ________(7) and _________(8) and has
anti - depressant effects; helps to stimulate _________(9)
How to find out the quality of a piece of chocolate:
• Good aroma
• ________ (10) colour indicating the amount of cocoa contained
• Snapping sound when broken
• ________(11) easily; is smooth and ________(12) to taste.

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11. SPOTTING ERRORS:

In spotting the errors, you are presented with a paragraph/sentence containing certain errors which
you need to rectify. Usually, these errors are related to parts of speech, genders, infinitives,
participles, the form of tenses, use of articles etc. Hence, you need to be well acquainted with all the
rules of grammar to solve spotting errors questions.

Rules to Solve Spotting Errors Questions

Errors based on Nouns

A noun is a word used to identify any of a class of people, places or things. Some of the nouns, be it
singular or plural, follow certain rules to complete a sentence. These are mentioned below:

1. Some nouns which are singular in form but are used as plural nouns are followed by a plural verb.
These include- Cattle, Peasantry, People, Vermin, Police and Clergy.

Example:
The cattle is grazing near the farm. (Incorrect)
The cattle are grazing near the farm. (Correct)

2. Some nouns which are used as plural nouns are always followed by a plural verb.
These include- Scissors, Stockings, Trousers, Specs, Shorts, Goods and Employees.

Example:
Where is my stockings? (Incorrect)
Where are my stockings? (Correct)

3. Some collective nouns are used as both singular and plural depending on the meaning. When these
nouns refer to a unit, a singular verb is used; otherwise, plural will be used.
These include- Team, Public, Government, Committee, Jury and Audience.

Example:
The company was founded in the year 1992 (Correct)
The company were founded in the year of 1992 (Incorrect)

4. There are some nouns which are always followed by a singular verb.
These include- Poetry, Machinery, Ethics, Mathematics, Physics, Classics, Innings, Stationery,
News, Abuse, Economics and Business.

Example:
Ethics are important. (Incorrect)
Ethics is important. (Correct)

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 Errors based on Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that takes place of the noun (for example- He, She, They, Someone, Who).
Some of the pronouns follow certain rules to complete a sentence which is mentioned below:

1. A pronoun should always agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. An antecedent is a
noun that a pronoun is replacing or referring to.
Example:
All students must do their homework. (Correct)
Each student must bring their books (Incorrect)
Each student must bring his books. (Correct)

2. The pronoun „one‟ should always be followed by ones.

Example:
 One must finish his task in time. (Incorrect)
 One must finish one‟s task in time. (Correct)

3. There is always confusion regarding the usage of pronouns- who and whom. Who and whoever are
subjective pronouns whereas, whom and whoever are objective? To put it simply, „who‟ denotes the
subject of the verb and „whom‟ works as an object in the sentence.
Example:
 Whom is the project leader? (Incorrect)
 Who is the project leader? (Correct)
 Who are you talking to? (Incorrect)
 Whom are you talking to? (Correct

Errors based on Adjectives

An adjective is a word naming an attribute of a noun such as sweet, bad etc. Some of the adjectives
follow certain rules to complete a sentence which is mentioned below-

1. Comparative adjectives are used to compare differences between the two. Some of these adjectives
such as Superior, Inferior, Prior etc are always followed by „to‟.
Example:
He is superior to me in position. (Correct)
He is superior than me in position. (Incorrect)

2. Do not use adjectives in place of adverbs.

Example:
She drove quicker than everybody else. (Incorrect)
She drove quickly than everybody else. (Correct)

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 Errors based on Adverbs

Adverbs refer to words that modify the meaning of an adjective or verb. Some of the adverbs follow
certain rules to complete a sentence which is mentioned below-

1. Some of the adverbs having the same meanings create confusion in the minds of people, these are
mainly- less and fewer. „Less‟ is used to describe quantity whereas „fewer‟ is used to denote
numbers.
Example:
Less than thirty children each year develop the disease. (Incorrect)
Fewer than thirty children each year develop the disease. (Correct)
People want to spend fewer time in traffic. (Incorrect)
People want to spend less time in traffic. (Correct)

2. Some of the adverbs such as little, a little, the little, are used in different places.
„Little‟ has a negative meaning which means hardly any.
Example:
There is a little hope of his recovery. (Incorrect)
There is little hope of his recovery. (Correct)

„A little‟ has positive attributes and means some (though not much).
Example:
Little knowledge is a dangerous thing. (Incorrect)
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. (Correct)

„The little‟ means „not much‟, but all that is.

Example:
A little honey in the pot might prove useful. (Incorrect)
The little honey in the pot might prove useful. (Correct)

Miscellaneous Errors:

1. Words beginning with the letter „h‟ such as Honest, Honor, Heir, Hour etc. are silent. Hence, we use
„an‟ article before them instead of „a‟.
Example:
We are a hour late. (Incorrect)
We are an hour late. (Correct)

2. Prepositions such as Since and For are often mistaken. „Since‟ indicates a point of time whereas „for‟
indicates the length of time.
Example:
I have been reading this book since 3 hours. (Incorrect)
I have been reading this book for 3 hours. (Correct)

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 Exercise 22:
The following sentence may contain an error. You have to find that part of the sentence which
contains the error. If there are no errors, choose E as your answer.

1. I have been living in this city since last several years but have never experienced any discrimination.
a) have been living b) in this city c) since last several years
d) have never experienced e) No error

2. There was a big argument about if we should move to a bigger house.

a) There was b) argument about c) if we should d) move to e) No error

3. I found this bangle while digging in the backyard. I don‟t know who it belonged to.
a) I found b) while digging in c) in the backyard
d) who it belonged to e) No error

4. The judge paid a lot of attention to that the master had abused the boy both physically and
emotionally.
a) The judge paid b) a lot of attention c) attention to that
d) master had abused e) No error

5. By next Christmas, we will have been here for eight years.

a) By next Christmas b) will have been c) here d) for eight years e) No error

Exercise 23:
Find out the error in the following sentences:

1. It is raining when I got home last night.

2. My sister is annoying today, but usually she is nice.
3. I have not ate anything today.
4. If I am a child, I would play outside.
5. Everyone have seen that movie.
6. If we will be late, they will be angry.
7. My father is thinking that I should stop smoking.
8. Look! It is snow.
9. I fell asleep while I watched TV.
10. I have lived in Canada since 10 months.
11. There is a warm country.
12. I have not an iPhone.
13. I haven‟t ever been to Korea.
14. The students have a good time in class today.
15. John probably isn‟t going to come to school tomorrow.
16. If the world ended tomorrow, I will be very sad.
17. I still did my homework at 10:30 pm last night.
18. He can speak Japanese because he was born in Canada.
19. Lee afraid of snakes.
20. The students were not interested in the lesson because it was bored.

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12. SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT EXERCISES:

Exercise 24:
Directions: In the following questions, some part of the sentence is underlined. Which of the options
given below the sentence should replace the part underlined to improve the quality of the sentence?
1. The tribunal has postponed the hearing to December 15.
a. Delayed b. Pushed c. Adjourned d. No improvement
2. The workers are very determined on fighting for their dues.
a. No improvement b. Have seriously planned c. Hellbent d. Have decided
3. I will buy the house provided it is quite sound.
a. Unless b. Whether c. Until d. No improvement
4. It was fortunate that the time bomb had burst only after the crowd had dispersed.
a. Exploded b. No improvement c. Blown up d. Erupted
5. The amount multiplies over a period of time.
a. Within b. In c. By d. No improvement
6. The police found a human body in the forest.
a. Corpse b. No improvement c. Carcass d. Copse
7. The teacher asked him to copy the material word for word.
a. By b. No improvement c. Before d. After

Exercise 25:
Directions: In the following questions, some part of the sentence is underlined. Which of the options
given below the sentence should replace the part underlined to make the sentence grammatically
correct?
1. The smooth passage of the insurance bill through the Lok Sabha is the best news which India has
have in recent years.
a) Is the best news that India has in recent years.
b) Is the best news which India has had in recent years.
c) Is the best news that India has had in recent years.
d) Is the best news India has in recent years.
e) No correction required.
2. A good boss does not waste his valuable time finding faults with his subordinates.
a) Finding fault with his subordinates.
b) To find faults with his subordinates.
c) To find faults in his subordinates.
d) Finding faults of his subordinates.
e) No correction required.
3. Attached to this application is an affidavit form and three sheets of blank paper.
a) Are an affidavit form and three sheets.
b) Are an affidavit form and three sheets.
c) Is an affidavit form and three sheets.
d) Is a affidavit form and three sheets.
e) No correction required.

47
4. Her supporters rallied for her defense when the government brought the bill seeking to bar any
person of foreign origin from holding the high offices.
a) Her supporters rallied of her defense.
b) Her supporters rallied in her defense.
c) Her supporters rallied up in her defence.
d) Her supporters rallied to her defense.
e) No correction required.
5. But if you persist in asking me not to complain, I will complain against you.
a) If you keep persisting at asking me not to complain.
b) But if you persist in asking me to not complain.
c) But if you persist on to ask me not to complain.
d) But if you keep persisting on asking me not to complain.
e) No correction required.

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13. CLOZE TEST:

A cloze test is an exercise, test, or assessment consisting of a portion of language with certain items,
words, or signs removed (cloze text), where the participant is asked to replace the missing language
item. Cloze tests require the ability to understand context and vocabulary in order to identify the
correct language or part of speech that belongs in the deleted passages. This exercise is commonly
administered for the assessment of native and second language learning and instruction.

Exercise 26:
I do remember it. And I‟m grateful. But I can‟t help feeling that a woman capable of taking other
people‟s lives and juggling with them as if they were India-rubber balls as she did with ours, is likely
at any moment to break out in a new place. My gratitude to her is the sort of (1) ______ [hat tip] you
would feel toward a cyclone if you were walking home late for dinner and it caught you up and
deposited you on your doorstep. Your Aunt Lora is a human (2) _____[storm]. No, on the whole,
she‟s more like an earthquake. She has a habit of splitting up and altering the face of the world
whenever she feels like it, and I‟m too well satisfied with my world at present to (3) _____[enjoy] the
idea of having it changed.”

Little by little the garrison of the studio had been (4) _______ [small slice] down. Except for Steve,
the community had no regular members outside the family itself. Hank was generally out of town.
Bailey paid one more visit, then seemed to consider that he could now absent himself altogether. And
the members of Kirk‟s bachelor circle stayed away to a man.

Q1. A) Tippy Q2. A) Cyclone Q3. A) Good Q4. A) Slice

B) Gratitude B) Giant B) Relish B) Whittled
C) Excellence C) Chin C) Delicious C) Cut
D) Battle D) Hunter D) Happy D) leveled

Exercise 27:
Recent discoveries have (1) ______ that Indians of early days (2) ________ to have been (3)
_________ civilised (4) _____ many ways. They had massive public buildings and comfortable
dwelling houses (5) _______ mostly of brick. They had (6) _______ arrangements (7)_____
good sanitation, and an elaborate drainage system. They knew how to write (8)_____ their
language, which has not yet been (9) ________ was not alphabetic but syllabic (10) _____ the
Sumerian language

1. a) shown b) derived c) seen d) reflected

2. a) intend b) decided c) appear d) behave
3. a) intermittently b) highly c) positively d) rarely
4. a) on b) under c) through d) in
5. a) designed b) formulated c) built d) construct
6. a) less b) ignored c) made d) started
7. a) against b) by c) from d) for
8. a) but b) because c) while d) since
9. a) written b) deciphered c) formed d) talked
10. a) across b) closely c) before d) like

49
14. THEME DETECTION EXERCISE:

In theme detection, the problems are related to the passages. From the passage, read the data
carefully and decide the primary point the creator is attempting to make. What conclusion can be
drawn from the contention? Every passage is trailed by five statements. One statement supports the
creator‟s contention superior to the others do.

Exercise 28:
Directions: Choose the correct answer.

1. The attainment of individual and organizational goals is mutually interdependent and linked by a
common denominator – employee work motivation. Organizational members are motivated to
satisfy their personal goals, and they contribute their efforts to the attainment of organizational
objectives as a means of achieving these personal goals.

The passage best supports the statement that motivation:

a) encourages an individual to give priority to personal goals over organizational goals.
b) is crucial for the survival of an individual and organization.
c) is the product of an individual‟s physical and mental energy.
d) is the external force which induces an individual to contribute his efforts.
e) makes organization and society inseparable.

2. Deforestation results from removal of trees without sufficient reforestation; however, even with
reforestation, significant biodiversity loss may occur. There are many causes, ranging from slow
forest degradation to sudden and catastrophic wildfires.

The passage best supports the statement that:

a) A model study shows that reforesting the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley can significantly
reduce runoff from agricultural lands.
b) A new study warns that the world‟s largest tropical desert, the Sahara, has suffered the
catastrophic collapse of its wildlife.
c) It's not just the total number of species preserved that matters; it's the number of key species.
d) In developing countries, massive deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography.

3. Due to the enormous profits involved in smuggling, hundreds of persons have been attracted towards
this anti-national activity. Some of them became millionaires overnight. India has a vast coastline
both on the Eastern and Western Coast. It has been a haven for smugglers who have been carrying
on their activities with great impunity. There is no doubt, that from time to time certain seizures were
made by the enforcement authorities, during raids and ambush but even allowing these losses the
smugglers made huge profits.

The passage best supports the statement that

a) smuggling hampers the economic development of a nation.
b) smuggling ought to be curbed.
c) authorities are taking strict measures to curb smuggling.
d) smuggling is fast increasing in our country owing to the quick profit it entails.

50
4. Though the waste of time or the expenditure on fashion is very large, yet fashion has come to stay. It
will not go, come what may. However, what is now required is that strong efforts should be made to
displace the excessive craze for fashion from the minds of these youngsters.

The passage best supports the statement that:

a) fashion is the need of the day.
b) the excessive craze for fashion is detrimental to one's personality.
c) the hoard for fashion should be done away with so as not to let down the constructive
development.
d) work and other activities should be valued more than the outward appearance.

51