Development Southern Africa

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The role of home economics in agricultural

extension

Sheryl L Hendriks & J Maryann Green

To cite this article: Sheryl L Hendriks & J Maryann Green (1999) The role of home
economics in agricultural extension, Development Southern Africa, 16:3, 489-500, DOI:
10.1080/03768359908440094

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Development Southern Africa Vol 16, No 3, Spring 1999

The role of home economics in

agricultural extension
Sheryl L Hendriks & J Maryann Green1
Home economics could play a vital, supportive and complementary role in agricultural
extension. Home economics training is, however, in much need of reorientation if the
profession is to play this much-needed role. A comparison of the mission statements, foci
and roles of these disciplines illustrates the value of including home economists in agri-
cultural extension teams. The two professions have areas of similarity, but each also has
specialist expertise vital to agricultural development. As a multidisciplinary, female-
dominated profession, home economics is able to assist agricultural extension officers in
designing extension programmes which suit the needs of women farmers. The article out-
lines the areas of collaboration, specialist expertise and cooperation between the two
professions while questioning the focus of traditional home economics training.

1. INTRODUCTION
'Home economists represent an underutilised resource in many countries; plan-
ners who tap their potential will find the task of reaching rural women easier'
(Saito & Weidmann, 1990: 27). The situation in South Africa is no different.
Although home economists have a vital, complementary and supportive role to
play in agricultural extension, their services in this area have been largely con-
fined to training women in homecraft skills rather than skills which support the
goals of agricultural extension. In fact, far from increasing their cooperative role,
home economics extension appears to be marginalised or even excluded from
agricultural extension in many provinces in South Africa.
Ottermann (1997) has stated that 'an understanding of the changing realities of
living is important due to the fact that the economical, social, cultural and eco-
logical aspects of daily life culminate in private households (families). The suc-
cess with which these households act and react to changes within the environ-
ment, has an impact on the stability of the community'. This is very true of
farming households in a rapidly changing South Africa. As a discipline set to
empower individuals, families and communities, home economics in the new
South Africa must keep pace with current economic, social, cultural and ecologi-
cal changes. This calls for a reorientation of the profession and institutional cur-
ricula to break from the traditional homecraft heritage from which the discipline
derives. It needs to embrace a new and dynamic South African version of home

1 Respectively, Lecturer and Senior Lecturer, Community Resources, School of Agricul-

tural Science and Agribusiness, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg.

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SL Hendriks & JM Green

economics, suited to the current situation in which households and families

function. Although many institutions are in the process of revision and the pro-
fessional society has changed its name, the question is whether the changes will
result in a new home economics that will strengthen agricultural extension.
This article explores the role home economics could play in agricultural exten-
sion. It draws a comparison between the professional foci of home economists
and agricultural extensionists, the roles played in rural development activities
and the discipline's areas of specialisation. It also outlines the ways in which
home economics could complement existing agricultural extension services. Fi-
nally, it appeals for the reorientation of traditional home economics to facilitate
this function.

2. WHAT AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND HOME ECONOMICS

HAVE IN COMMON
Agricultural extension services transfer agricultural knowledge, encourage the
adoption of new farming technologies, and communicate the results of research
and experiments to researchers and farmers. This service has been defined as 'a
system of non-formal education for adults in rural areas which is based on rele-
vant content derived from agricultural, social and communication research syn-
thesised into a body of concepts, principles and operational procedures' (Bern-
bridge, 1991: 18).
The overall focus of home economics has been summarised as empowering indi-
viduals, strengthening families and enabling communities (AAFCS, 1994).
Home economics seeks to facilitate the process by which individuals, families
and communities become more responsible for improving their well-being in
relation to their economic, social, cultural and physical environment (Kiyingi,
1993, cited by Brandon et al, 1996). The discipline uses an integrative approach
to understanding the relationships between individuals, families, communities
and the environments in which they live (AAFCS, 1994).
As a female-dominated profession, home economics is unfortunately often seen
as synonymous with the roles women play in their homes. The profession has
consequently not been granted the recognition commensurate with its scope and
the capabilities of its diplomates and graduands. The focus on training in home-
craft skills has entrenched this public view, while many of the skills of home
economists have been ignored and underestimated. For example, their manage-
ment training, understanding of intrahousehold resource allocation, and decision-
making and food-processing skills could strengthen agricultural development for
farming households.
Lilley (1997) has stated that improving women's roles in agriculture and rural
development would ensure that overall development is inclusive of human needs.
Improving the social and economic situation of women through adequate agri-
cultural assistance would increase their economic self-reliance in the long run.

490
 The role of home economics in agricultural extension

Home economics, as a female-intensive profession, has a vital role to play in

agricultural and rural development through agricultural extension services,
granting greater access to women farmers (Kwawu, 1993). The skills home
economists could contribute to the development of farm family systems are not,
however, confined to what they are able to teach women.
Table 1 compares the mission statements of agricultural extension and home
economics to illustrate the commonalities between the disciplines. Improvement
of the quality of human life is a common focus of these two professions. Agri-
cultural extension targets rural farmers while home economics has a wider focus
on rural and urban individuals, families and communities. Yet, as a female-
dominated profession, home economists are particularly sensitive to the needs,
demands, roles, responsibilities and problems of women.

Table 1: Mission statements of the two professions

Agricultural extension Home economics
Improve the quality of rural life and increase The ultimate goal of the IFHE is to improve
the quality and quantity of a country's food, the quality of life and bring about human pro-
fuel and forestry production (Bolliger et al, gress worldwide (Leidenfrost, 1992, cited by
1992; Bembridge, 1991). Brandon et al, 1996).
Note: IFHE = International Federation of Home Economics.

3. THE ROLE THE TWO PROFESSIONS PLAY IN DEVELOPMENT

Development in developing countries refers to an array of activities such as eco-
nomic growth and meeting the basic needs of people for food, shelter, clothing
and control of their environment. Education is basic to helping people achieve
economic, political and social development and is widely cited as the chief agent
of the process (Brandon et al, 1996).
Agricultural extension is a requirement for widespread and sustained agricultural
development, ie where development and agricultural extension are complemen-
tary in nature (Saito & Weidmann, 1990). The main objectives of agricultural
development in Africa have been defined by Bagchee (1994) as poverty allevia-
tion and food security, employment creation and sustainable management of
natural resources. The South African government's White Paper on Agriculture
and the mission of the national Department of Agriculture support these objec-
tives (Department of Agriculture, 1995).
Home economics has been referred to as a 'vehicle of development' (Lieden-
frost, 1992, cited by Brandon et al, 1996). Its inclusion in agricultural extension
could contribute to educational and development programmes in three ways:
• Home economics is a unique profession which addresses everyday issues that
are both technical and managerial in nature.
• Home economics is a multidisciplinary field of study which facilitates the pro-

491
SL Hendriks & JM Green

cess by which people and communities become more responsible for improv-
ing their well-being in relation to their economic, social, cultural and physical
environments.
• Many home economists have training in gender-, agriculture- and develop-
ment-related areas, which could make a valuable contribution to community
development should the home economists be included in agricultural extension
teams.

4. AGRICULTURE AND FAMILY WELL-BEING

In many African countries agriculture is an important livelihood at subsistence,
emerging and commercial levels. Agricultural production and family well-being
are interdependent (Kiyingi, 1993), as is illustrated by Lilley's (1997) statement
in a recent publication of the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture: 'The
improvement of women's position in society and the department's hope of alle-
viating poverty are closely allied. Improving women's role in agriculture and
rural development would ensure that overall development is inclusive of human
needs.'
The number of women farmers is increasing. Owing to migrant labour trends,
especially among rural men, farming operations are largely undertaken by
women and older men (Bembridge, 1991). Agricultural activities are the domain
of many rural women in South Africa (Lilley, 1997). Where women are not
household heads, they help to run households by maintaining the health and nu-
trition of the family, while earning additional income from the cultivation of
food crops or other informal sector activities. Rural women's domestic roles and
responsibilities impact on the time available for agricultural production (Lilley,
1997). For example:
• Women are responsible for the provision of household water and wood. Col-
lecting wood can take up the entire day. In addition, crops are often irrigated
by hand with water obtained from a stream, increasing the labour burden of ru-
ral women.
• The primary responsibility for running the household, caring for children and
preparing meals rests with women. This limits their attendance at lengthy
training sessions away from their homes.
• Women's limited incomes go directly into the family budget and little remains
to be invested in agricultural production.
In answer to these problems, a number of ways of helping women in agriculture
have been suggested by Lilley (1997) and Saito & Weidmann (1990). As part of
agricultural extension teams, home economists, who are particularly sensitive to
women's needs, could actively promote the implementation of such solutions:
• Design agricultural research and extension systems sensitive to women's
needs.
• Reduce time and energy spent on household tasks.

492
 The role of home economics in agricultural extension

• Make labour-saving devices available to women.

• Develop more efficient cooking methods and utensils.
• Reduce women's labour burden by providing sources of water and wood closer
to their homes.
• Promote proper land use and crop diversification to increase household re-
sources.
• Improve literacy (since farmers with higher educational levels generally
achieve higher increase in output using new technologies).
Family well-being is associated with the capacity of a household system to adapt
and develop (Kiyingi, 1993). Poor health, malnutrition, low literacy levels and
poverty result in low levels of economic, material and human resources which, in
turn, impair management and .production efficiency (Rice & Tucker, 1986).
Women and children are most affected by the changes brought about by devel-
opment (Liedenfrost, 1992, cited by Brandon et al, 1996). Home economics em-
powers people to adapt to change and manage the resultant changes in their
homes, activities and environments (Rice & Tucker, 1986). Therefore, home
economists in the agricultural extension service could play a vital role in ad-
dressing the needs and problems of women farmers in particular. Some specific
suggestions regarding their supportive and complementary role are outlined be-
low.

5. HOW HOME ECONOMISTS CAN HELP TO ACHIEVE THE GOALS

OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Firstly, home economists could collaborate with extensionists in areas of com-
mon ground. Table 2 lists the common areas of interest and the focus shared by
agricultural extension and home economics.
Secondly, despite the numerous similarities of interest, focus and expertise, the
two professions also have very specialised and diversified expertise which con-
tributes to overall development. Table 3 lists the specialist expertise for each of
the professions, that of home economists being a composite list of skills and
knowledge which these persons have in general. Home economists in South Af-
rica are trained at agricultural colleges, technikons and universities. Each institu-
tion has its own specific training or educational objectives and focuses on spe-
cific areas of training or specialisation.
Thirdly, home economists could play an important role in addressing the needs
of women. Examples of this are discussed below.

5.1 Help design agricultural research and extension systems sensitive to

women's needs
Home economists have a role to play in assessing women's problems, needs and
demands in relation to extension services and their access to courses. Women's
domestic and farm responsibilities often restrict the time they have available for

493
SL Hendriks & JM Green

attending training courses, demonstrations and farmers' days. This is particularly

true for households in which males are migrant labourers. The generally lower
level of women's resources in relation to men's acts as a constraint on agricul-
tural and economic development, while women's lower levels of literacy limit
their access to training, including extension courses.

Table 2: Areas of collaboration between agricultural extension and home

economics
Acquisition of managerial and technical skills for coping with needs and problems
Activities are related to production, generation and utilisation of goods and services. Both areas:
Affect economic growth through increased income potential
Are concerned with food security
Create an awareness of alternatives and desirable outcomes
Develop leadership and organisational skills
Encourage problem-solving approaches to life
Enhance the quality of the environment in which individuals and families function
Generate self-reliance
Give leadership in managing technical, educational and development programmes
Improve farm and home management
Inspire/empower people to act
Motivate adoption of appropriate technology
Promote rural development
Reach rural populations with relevant information, education and communication
Support economic diversification and small enterprise development
Provide target training opportunities for a disadvantaged majority in society
Teach marketable skills
Teach people in their own context and life situations
Sources: Kwawu (1993); SIAPAC (1990), cited by Brandon et al (1996); Bembridge (1991); Saito &
Weidmann (1990).

Home economics training involves inspecting the division of labour within

households. Human capital is seen as a resource in need of development through
challenging household members' constraining attitudes to and beliefs regarding
task allocation. Improving women's access to development, training and exten-
sion programmes would involve addressing these problems and issues (Rogers,
1990), and decreasing their task burden to allow more time for attending training
opportunities. Some home economics training institutions include capacity
building as part of the curriculum. This is particularly important in relation to
community development and the home economist's support of community
structures. Home economists are able to build awareness of structural inequali-
ties in order to advocate better community and family power relations. In addi-
tion, many women farmers do not have access to extension services because of
cultural restrictions. Female home economics extension officers are often able to

494
 The role of home economics in agricultural extension

overcome these difficulties and restrictions, gaining assess to and assisting

women farmers whose husbands are generally absent.

Table 3: The professions' specialist expertise

Agricultural extension Home economics
Adult education A. Areas of specific interest to agricultural
Agricultural policy development and appraisal extension
Analysis and diagnosis of agricultural prob- Appropriate technology
lems Consumer behaviour
Assistance with storage and marketing of crops Equipment studies and ergonomics
Communication techniques Food preparation/preservation/storage
Problem-solving assistance on farms Food product development and marketing
Organisation and planning Health and sanitation practices
Providing infrastructure Home/family resource management
Providing a means of production Income-generating skills in homecrafts
Supervision of field trials and research Nutrition
Transmission of agricultural information
B. Some home economics institutions in-
clude or focus on:
Agriculture and animal husbandry
Community development training
Environmental issues
Horticulture
Project management
Primary health care provision
Research
Small business development

C. Other skills/training expertise

Child care
Child spacing/family planning
Education
Family functioning
Maternal and child health
Personal and group counselling skills
Women's domestic and reproductive roles

Sources: Liedenfrost (1992), cited by Brandon et al (1996); Bolliger et al (1992).

Home economists are trained in income-generating skills such as handicrafts,

food preparation, preservation and storage processes, which could lead to op-
portunities for women to generate income through on- and off-farm activities.
Rural enterprises could benefit from the expertise home economists have in these
skills, as well as in household budgeting techniques, opportunities for credit,

495
SL Hendriks & JM Green

understanding the marketplace, consumer behaviour, product development,

product labelling, hygiene and sanitation, food legislation, etc. However, few
institutions train students to see the potential of these skills for entrepreneurial
development in communities. Entrepreneurship is one of the foci of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture's (1995) White Paper on Agriculture and, as part of the agri-
cultural extension team, home economists could contribute valuable skills in this
area, particularly as regards on-farm processing of crops for income genera-
tion.
Home economists' knowledge of nutrition and their ability to identify nutritional
trends in communities could direct the design of agricultural policy making and
the provision of appropriate intervention and education by extension officers to
improve food security. The opinions of women and men farmers may differ as to
what is the most appropriate training for addressing household needs and prob-
lems. Home economists could help access and prioritise the needs of women and
households.
The above examples illustrate a few ways in which the home economist could
help to design extension programmes which ensure that rural development is
sensitive to women's needs.

5.2 Reduce the time and energy women spend on household tasks
One of the specialised areas of study in home economics is the management of
women's time and energy. Ergonomic studies, appropriate technology, equip-
ment studies, household resource management and the development of human
resources form part of the core curricula. These issues have a role to play in edu-
cating and empowering women to use the resources on hand, while balancing the
use of different resources. Much of the burden of housework can be lightened
through proper time and activity management and simple ergonomic changes,
such as adjusting the height of work surfaces or rearranging work and storage
spaces to facilitate the flow of interdependent activities.
An aspect linked to this is the size of rural households and the labour burden
which is placed on women as they are directly related (Jaquette, 1993). As the
household members primarily responsible for the bearing, nurturing and sociali-
sation of children (Moser, 1993), women in many cultures have little or no con-
trol over their fertility. Sensitive approaches to fertility control and child spacing
are required to empower women to gain control over their fertility and control
the size of their families. Home economists have a role to play in this area as
well.
They also have a role to play in promoting health and sanitation. Improved sani-
tation and hygiene practices are vital in the reduction of often life-threatening
diarrhoea in infants and children. The promotion of breast feeding and proper
attention to nutrition are also important considerations in the well-being of fami-
lies and also in addressing the domestic burdens of women. Family health is di-

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 The role of home economics in agricultural extension

rectly related to women's work productivity. Improved family well-being is a

goal of both agricultural extension officers and home economists.

5.3 Promote the adoption of appropriate technologies and labour-saving

devices
This is partially dealt with in the section above. Home economists could also
play a role in the development of such devices using their understanding of the
roles and responsibilities of women in rural households and could conduct spe-
cially designed work studies. Management involves cognitive activities which
are often performed subconsciously by women. The home economist is espe-
cially suited to investigating the needs and problems of women in their domestic
and farm activities, owing to her understanding of management and the difficul-
ties encountered when trying to explore or research this area.
Owing to cultural expectations, during interviews women often give the answers
that they perceive to be culturally correct, although they may not be true. The use
of women interviewers and community workers to carry out such investigations
is vital as they are less threatening to women. Home economists are well suited
to conduct such research.

5.4 Develop and introduce more efficient cooking methods and utensils
By virtue of their knowledge of appropriate technology, culture and food prepa-
ration, home economists have an important role to play alongside agricultural
extension services. The home economist's appreciation of diminishing natural
resources motivates the development of more efficient cooking methods and
equipment. Often, though, such developments need to be carried out in collabo-
ration with the agriculture extension services, which are able to give information
about crop cultivars and the seasonality of fresh produce. The home economist's
nutritional knowledge would guide this process to ensure that the food value of
the final product is at least retained or, more importantly, improved.

5.5 Reduce women's labour burden by providing sources of water and

wood closer to their homes
As discussed earlier, home economists could assist in conducting assessments of
community needs, entering into dialogues and lobbying for the needs of women.
Having to collect water and wood is a major constraint in the lives of rural
women and a draining labour burden. Apart from lobbying for water sources
closer to households and the use of fuel-efficient cooking methods, home
economists could assist in developing appropriate technologies and training
households in using new, modern or improved technologies that could alleviate
part of this burden.

5.6 Promote proper land use and crop diversification to increase household
resources
This is primarily the responsibility of the agricultural extension officer although

497
SL Hendriks & JM Green

the two professions share a common concern for household food security and for
lowering the level of household poverty. The home economist has a role to play
here. Education on nutrition and home or farm management could potentially
support self-reliance, and thereby address poverty, at the household level.
The home economist's expertise in the production of on- and off-farm products
for small enterprise development could contribute significantly to the economic
upliftment of communities. Combined with the agricultural extensioner's experi-
ence of seasonal production patterns, crop yields and the intensity of crop pro-
duction, the home economist could advise on appropriate preservation, packag-
ing and marketing techniques to improve on- and off-farm income through the
production of marketable crops. In areas where agriculture is not viable all year
round, the home economist could initiate the production of other products for
income-generating projects.

5.7 Improve literacy

Farmers with higher educational levels achieve higher increases in output using
new technologies (Saito & Weidmann, 1990). Literacy largely determines access
to information, especially information relating to new technologies. Although it
is the role of the extension officer to relay the results of research to farmers in
rural areas, illiteracy still remains a barrier to the adoption of new technology.
Home economists have a role to play in promoting literacy training and facili-
tating the development of self-esteem in individuals.
To summarise, the above examples illustrate the ways in which home economists
could play a vital, supporting and complementary role in agricultural extension,
especially where women's needs are being targeted.

6. A NEW HOME ECONOMICS

Bembridge's (1991) definition of agricultural extension referred to in Section 2
above, states that agricultural extension is a system of adult education which is
based on relevant content derived from agricultural, social and communications
research. In this light, the proposed complementary and supportive role of home
economics could be questioned. The relevance of traditional home economics in
South Africa to the current situation faced by agricultural extension is debatable.
Traditional home economics is seen as synonymous with the domestic activities
of women, an image that is perpetuated by the focus of many institutional curric-
ula on Western ideals of homecraft.
Some universities offering home economics have attempted to reconceptualise
their curricula and this has led to a multiplicity of new discipline names, eg Hu-
man Ecology, Family and Consumer Sciences/Studies, Family Resource Man-
agement and Community Resources. Changes in the provincial Departments of
Agriculture have also led to the development of new names for home economists
in extension services, such as community development agents. Provinces such as
the Eastern Cape view home economics as separate from agricultural extension

498
 The role of home economics in agricultural extension

and home economists in this province are no longer employed by the Department
of Agriculture. These changes indicate the failure of the profession to actively
and efficiently support agricultural development in agricultural extension serv-
ices.
A name change may be what is needed to force those outside the discipline to
question what the discipline actually does but, more importantly, what is needed
is a new orientation for South African home economics that would address the
current needs of society. A new home economics for a new South Africa is re-
quired to address, in particular, the needs of resource-poor farmers from disad-
vantaged communities. The new focus should move away from homecraft skills
and adopt a creative, entrepreneurial approach to skills related to clothing, home
furnishing, home decorating and foods for income generation. The traditional
focus on the nuclear family and its structure and functions must be challenged.
Curricula should rather acknowledge the wide range of household forms, their
multiplicity of functions and the responsible management, use and creation of
resources. The focus on resource-poor households would strengthen the contri-
bution of home economists to economic and agricultural development. With such
an understanding, home economists in agricultural extension would be able to
advocate the need for women-sensitive approaches to agricultural development
and use their skills for appropriate applications in the specific context of rural
development.

7. CONCLUSION
The common mission of agricultural extension and home economics, the shared
areas of development-related skills and knowledge, and the specialist expertise
of each profession provide for mutual support, collaboration and opportunities
for complementary services. Home economics has a vital role to play in agricul-
tural extension. The reconceptualisation of home economics at some institutions
has improved the capacities of home economists working in community devel-
opment areas in South Africa. A more radical and widespread reorientation of
the profession is, however, necessary to dispel the current image and raise
awareness of the real role home economists could play as an integral part of the
agricultural extension team. A new home economics is required which addresses
the needs of a rapidly changing South African society and provides agricultural
extension officers with training in an appropriate understanding of the needs of
women, resource-poor households and emerging farming communities.

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Submitted May 1997; acceptedfor publication February 1999.

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