INSTITUTE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LAB

LAB REPORT NO.2

SUBMITTED BY:
Sr. No Name Reg no.
1. Amash Rauf 220101085
2. Sahar Shaukat 220101031
3. M. Aleem 220101063

Submitted to: Sir Syed Amber Ali

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

Table of Contents

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Introduction:............................................................................................................... 2
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS:.............................................................................................. 3
CLO/PLO:..................................................................................................................... 4
Objectives:................................................................................................................. 4
Heat Transfer:............................................................................................................. 4
Conduction.............................................................................................................. 5
Example:.............................................................................................................. 5
Convection.............................................................................................................. 5
Types:................................................................................................................... 5
i) Natural convection............................................................................................ 5
ii) Forced Convection:........................................................................................... 5
Radiation................................................................................................................. 5
Example:.............................................................................................................. 6
Black body:.............................................................................................................. 6
Black body radiations:-............................................................................................ 6
Lab Apparatus:........................................................................................................... 6
Procedure:.................................................................................................................. 6
Calculation:................................................................................................................ 7
Graph:........................................................................................................................ 9
MATLAB code:............................................................................................................. 9
Conclusion:............................................................................................................... 10

Introduction:
“Fourier law study for linear conduction of heat along homogeneous bar.”
The purpose of this experiment is to study the rate of heat transfer using Fourier’s Law of Heat
Conduction with the help of a homogeneous bar which states that heat conduction in the material
is directly proportional to temperature difference and cross-sectional area and inversely
proportional to length of the material.
Mathematically.

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 ∆𝑇𝐴
𝑄̇ = 𝑘( ⁄∆𝑥)

Where, k is the thermal conductivity constant, and it is a material property.

kmetal> ksolids> kliquids> kgases

In this experiment, the flow of heat is from hot end to cold end to verify that heat transfer takes
place due to temperature difference, from hot body to cold body and the heat flux is consistent
with the theoretical prediction provided by Fourier’s Law. By analyzing the steady-state
temperature gradient.

SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS:
• Make sure to read all fire alarm and safety signs and follow the instructions in the event of an
accident or emergency.
• Be aware of the facility's/building's evacuation procedures.
• Make sure to know where the lab's safety equipment including first aid kit and fire
extinguisher are located and how to properly use them.
• Know emergency phone numbers for help in case of an emergency.
• Do not touch electrical equipment during operation with wet hands.
• Do not touch high temperature equipment during operation as it may cause serious burns.
• Do not chew gum, drink, or eat while working in the lab.
• Never use lab equipment that you are not approved or trained by your supervisor to operate.
• Do not wear loose clothing.
• If an instrument or piece of equipment fails during use, or isn't operating properly, report the
issue to a lab engineer/technician right away. Never try to repair an equipment problem on your
own.
• Report all injuries, accidents, and broken equipment or glass right away, even if the incident
seems small or unimportant.
• In case of an injury, yell out immediately to get quick help.
• Do not leave the experiments unattended while in progress.

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• Do not crowd around the equipment & run inside the laboratory.

CLO/PLO:
 PLO-09: Individual and team work: An ability to work efficiently, as an individual or a
team on multifaceted and/or multidisciplinary settings.
 PLO-10: Communication: An ability to work effectively, orally as well in written on
complex engineering activities with the engineering community and society at large, such
as being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentations, make
effective presentation, and give and receive clear instructions.
Course Objectives:
 Follow the instructions to perform the series of experiments on the prescribed equipment,
analyze and interpret the data for valid conclusions
 Complete lab reports individually in time and follow the set of instructions given while
presenting the work in the report.
 Answer the questions asked related to lab/course in VIVA

Objectives:
 The primary objective of this experiment is to study the application of Fourier's Law of
heat conduction in a homogeneous bar.
 To verify Fourier’s Law, which states that the heat flux is proportional to the temperature
gradient Q̇ = -kA(dT/dx) by measuring the temperature distribution along a bar made of a
single material.

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  To determine the thermal conductivity of the homogeneous material experimentally and
compare it with theoretical value.
 To observe the uniform temperature gradient and steady-state heat transfer characteristics
along a homogeneous bar.

Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion,
and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into
various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes.

Conduction:
Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of heat by means of molecular excitement within a
material without bulk motion of the matter. Conduction heat transfer mainly occurs in solids or
stationary mediums such as fluids at rest. For instance, transfer of heat in solids is due to the
combination of lattice vibrations of the molecules and the energy transport by free electrons,
while in gases and liquids it is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules.

Example:
Heating a Pan on a Stove: When you put a pan on a heated stove, the heat from the stove
transfers to the pan's surface, which helps you cook your food. This is a classic example of
conduction, in which heat moves from a hotter object (the stove burner) to a cooler one (the pan).

Convection:
Convection is the process of thermal energy exchange in fluids via the motion of matter within
them. A bulk transfer of molecules within the fluid occurs. It occurs in both gases and liquids and
leads to a cyclical effect. Both natural and forced convective heat transfer exist.

Types:
i) Natural convection:
In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect,
i.e. the rise of warmer fluid and fall the cooler fluid.
Natural convection examples:
Hot air rising above a fire. Ice melting. Sea breeze or land breeze caused by a difference in
pressure.

ii) Forced Convection:

In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external means
such as a pump or fan.

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Examples of Forced Convection:
The circulation of air in a forced-air heating system. Water flowing through a pump in a cooling
system. A fan blowing air over a computer's CPU to dissipate heat. A car's radiator using a fan to
cool the engine.

Radiation:
Thermal radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves from all matters that has a
temperature greater than absolute zero. Thermal radiation reflects the conversion of thermal
energy into electromagnetic energy. Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of random movements
of atoms and molecules in matter. It is present in all matters of nonzero temperature. These atoms
and molecules are composed of charged particles, i.e., protons and electrons. The kinetic
interactions among matter particles result in charge acceleration and dipole oscillation. This
results in the electrodynamic generation of coupled electric and magnetic fields, resulting in the
emission of photons, radiating energy away from the body. Electromagnetic radiation, including
visible light, will propagate indefinitely in a vacuum.

Example:
The heating of the Earth by the Sun is an example of transfer of energy by radiation. The heating
of a room by an open-hearth fireplace is another example. The flames, coals, and hot bricks
radiate heat directly to the objects in the room with little of this heat being absorbed by the
intervening air.

Black body:
A black body is an idealization in physics that pictures a body that absorbs all electromagnetic
radiation incident on it irrespective of its frequency or angle.

Black body radiation:

To stay in thermal equilibrium, a black body must emit radiation at the same rate as it absorbs, so
it must also be a good emitter of radiation, emitting electromagnetic waves of as many
frequencies as it can absorb, i.e. all the frequencies. The radiation emitted by the blackbody is
known as blackbody radiation.
The characteristics of the blackbody radiation are explained with the help of the following laws:
 Wien’s displacement law
 Planck’s law
 Stefan-Boltzmann law

Lab Apparatus:
The apparatus used in this experiment is Linear and Radial Heat Conduction Apparatus. It
has several parts like.
 Heater Assembly
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  Hydraulic Bench
 Power Supply
 Specimen (Bar)
 Temperature sensors

Procedure:
 Make sure the power is off initially before setting up the apparatus
 Insert the brass conduction of 25 mm diameter into linear module and clamp firmly
 Turn on the water supply and ensure the free end exit of pipe into drain.
 Turn on the heater.
 Connect the sensors leads (placed 10mm or 1cm apart in the brass conductor).
 Switch on the power supply.
 Turn on the heater at a given power supply and wait for steady state conditions.
 When steady state reaches, read all nine of the temperature sensor readings and values of
Current and Voltage from supply.
 Repeat this procedure two more times for different power supply input and then read the
sensor readings when steady state reaches.
 Finally, Temperature(T) is plotted against the distance (x) and calculations are done to
obtain theoretical and experimental value of thermal conductivity coefficient of brass.

Calculation:
 At x = 0, T = TH this is the input temperature of the machine
 Each sensor is 10mm or 1cm apart hence between each consecutive temperature reading
the distance is 0.01m.

Table:

Heater T1 (K) T2 T3 (K) T4 (K) T5 (K) T6 (K) T7 (K) T8 (K) T9 (K) TH (K)
Power (°C)
Q̇ /Watts
7.8 317.8 317.2 316.9 310.7 306.7 305.2 298.9 297.8 297 320
11.37 319.4 318.8 318.2 311.8 307.3 305.5 299.2 298.1 297.4 323
13.3 321.8 321.2 320.8 312.9 308.2 306.5 299.8 298.8 298.3 326

Theoretical value of k brass

k = 109.0 (W/m*K)

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Experimental

Q̇ = -kA(dT/dx)
Diameter = 25mm
A = πr^2 = 4.91 x 10^-4 m^2

For Q̇ 1 = 7.8 W from T1 to T9

k1 = (-7.8) * (0.08) / (20.8)*(4.91x10^-4)
= 62.29 (W/m*K)

For Q̇ 2 = 11.37 W from T1 to T9

k2 = 85.37 (W/m*K)

For Q̇ 3 =13.3 W from T1 to T9

k3 = 92.21 (W/m*K)

Average value of k (experimental) = 80 W/m*K

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Graph:

MATLAB code:
Q1 = [47 44.8 44.2 43.9 37.7 33.7 32.2 25.9 24.8 24.4 ];
Q2 = [50 46.4 45.8 45.2 38.8 34.3 32.5 26.2 25.1 24.7];
Q3 = [53 48.8 48.2 47.8 39.9 35.2 33.5 26.8 25.4 25.3];
x = [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9];
plot(x,Q1);
hold on
plot(x,Q2);
hold on
plot(x,Q3);
xlabel 'distance x(cm)' ;
ylabel 'Temperature (°C)';
title 'Homogenous Heat Conduction' ;
legend('7.8W','11.37W','13.3W')

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Conclusion:
From the graph, the lines show that temperature decreased with increasing distance from x=0 cm
to x=9 cm. Hence this proves us that the Heat flow direction is from high temperature to lower
temperature. The line which lies at the top among the three has greater value power hence all the
temperature readings were higher as compared to the other two. The same observation is
applicable to the other two lines. This experiment was performed to obtain an experimental value
of k (thermal conductivity), and the value was compared to the theoretical value of k of specimen
which was near satisfactory. The deviation of experimental value from actual value is due to
experimental errors such as human errors or instrumental errors.

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