CARBON AND ITS COMPOUND

Occurrence
Carbon exists in the free as well as combined states in nature.
Free states of carbon
• Diamond – purest form
• Graphite – somewhat less pure
• Coal – impure form, percentage of carbon in it varies from 60% to 90%

Combined states of carbon

Exists in solid liquid and gaseous states
• Solid: Animal and plant products – cellulose, carbohydrates, fats, proteins etc.
As mineral salts in the form of carbonates- lime, marble, chalk (CaCO3), Magnesite
(MgCO3), Dolomite( MgCO3. CaCO3), Calamine ( ZnCO3)
• Liquid: Petroleum and vegetable oils
• Gaseous: Air contains 0.03% by volume of CO2, natural gas, marsh gas, petroleum gas,
coal gas

Allotropy The property possessed by certain elements to exist in two or more distinct forms
that are chemically identical but have different physical properties due to the difference in the
arrangement of atoms

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON:
Graphite, charcoal, and diamond are all allotropes of carbon.
1. Diamond: Each carbon is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a tetrahedral rigid
three – dimensional structure.
Structure Properties of diamond

Hardest substance known to man

brittle (not malleable)
insulator (non-conductor)
insoluble in water
very high melting point
2.
2. Graphite : Each carbon is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane giving a
hexagonal array
Structure Properties

Brittle
Soft and slippery
Electrical conductor
Insoluble in water.
Very high melting point
 3. Buckminsterfullerene:

C – 60 has carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football.

Bonding in carbon – Covalent bond

Carbon has 4 electrons in the outermost shell. The valence electrons in carbon are 4. In order to
attain noble gas configuration, it has the following options:
• Lose 4 electrons from the outermost shell: This requires a large amount of energy to pull
out the 4 electrons from the attractive pull of the 6 protons in the nucleus. It will form an
asymmetric cation ( C4+) in which 6 protons are holding only 2 electrons.

• Gain 4 electrons to form an anion ( C4-): This is however difficult for the nucleus of 6
protons to hold 10 electrons, i.e 4 extra electrons.

• Both the options being impracticable, carbon overcomes the problem by sharing of
valence electrons with either other carbon atoms or the atoms of other non-metals.

Covalent bond and Covalency

This kind of bond is formed by non-metallic elements having 7,6,5 or 4 electrons in their
valence shell. The only exception is hydrogen which has 1 electron.
During the sharing of electrons between atoms, each atom of an element contributes electrons,
thereby forming an electron pair, which is mutually shared by both elements. This new bond
due to the sharing of electrons is called a covalent bond and is represented by a small line ( ---)

Definitions:
1. Covalent bond: A chemical bond formed between two non-metallic elements by
mutual sharing of one or more electron pairs, is called a covalent bond.

2. Single covalent bond: A chemical bond formed between two

non-metallic elements by mutual sharing of one electron pair,
is called a single covalent bond.

Example: Hydrogen molecule (H2)

3. Double covalent bond: A chemical bond formed between two

non-metallic elements by mutual sharing of two electron
pairs, is called a double covalent bond.

Example: Oxygen molecule (O2)

 4. Triple covalent bond: A chemical bond formed between two
non-metallic elements by mutual sharing of three electron
pairs, is called a triple covalent bond.

Example: Nitrogen molecule ( N2 )

Covalent compounds: The chemical compound formed by mutual sharing of electron pairs
between two or more different kind of atoms, is called a covalent compound.

Properties of covalent compounds

• They have low melting and boiling points because they are held together by weak
intermolecular forces, requiring only a small amount of energy to separate the molecules.
• They are generally gaseous or volatile liquids. In a solid state, they are soft solids.
• They have low density, less than that of water,
• They are insoluble in water as they do not contain ions. They readily dissolve in organic
solvents such as petrol, kerosene, alcohol, Benzene etc.
• Most of the covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity.
Formation of some covalent compounds

1. Formation of water

2. Formation of ammonia

3. Formation of methane

4. Formation of sulphur
Versatile nature of carbon
More than 4 million compounds of carbon are known to us. This property of forming vast
number of compounds seen in carbon due is to its versatile nature. The two important factors
are:
1. Catenation: It has a unique property to form bonds with other carbon atoms, so as to
form long straight, chains, branched chains and closed rings, giving rise to large number
of molecules. The carbon atoms link with each other to form single, double and triple
bond. This property of carbon to link with other carbon atoms with single, double and
triple covalent bonds so as to form large number of compounds is called catenation.

This property is also exhibited by silicon that can react with hydrogen to form chain of 7
to 8 atoms of silicon. But these compounds are very reactive.

The carbon-carbon single bond is very strong and stable and helps in the formation of
a large number of compounds. The reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is
its small size which enables the nucleus to hold on to the shared pairs of electrons
strongly.

2. Tetravalency: As a carbon atom has 4 valence electrons, therefore, it can bind with 4
more carbon atoms with single covalent bonds, or with different atoms of elements.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Definitions
Organic chemistry: The branch of chemistry dealing with carbon compounds, other than CO,
CO2, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates is called Organic chemistry
Organic compounds: The compounds of carbon, other than oxides, carbonates and hydro
carbonates are called organic compounds

HYDROCARBONS
Organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen are called as hydrocarbons. They are classified as:
Saturated hydrocarbons

The compounds of carbon in which each valency of carbon is satisfied by a single covalent
bond are called Saturated Carbon Compounds. E.g. Methane, Propane, etc.
They have a general formula: C2nH2n+2
Characteristics

1. All the valencies in the molecule of the saturated carbon compounds are fully satisfied
by single covalent bonds.
2. These compounds are not reactive in nature.
3. The compounds undergo substitution reaction in the presence of sunlight with
halogens to form haloalkanes.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons

The compounds of carbon in which the valency between two carbon atoms in a carbon chain is
satisfied by a double or triple covalent bond are called Unsaturated Carbon Compounds. E.g.
Ethene, Ethyne, propene, etc.
1. There is a double or triple covalent bond between any two carbon atoms in a carbon chain
of molecules.
2. These compounds chemically are far more reactive than saturated carbon compounds.

• Hydrocarbons having all C—C bonds (single) are called alkanes. CnH2n+2

• Hydrocarbons having one C=C bond are known as alkenes. CnH2n

• Hydrocarbons with one C=C are termed as alkynes. CnH2n-2

• Alkanes are therefore saturated hydrocarbons while alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated in
nature.

• Unsaturated hydrocarbons become saturated by addition chemical reactions.

Straight chains, Branched chains and Rings in Hydrocarbons

Straight chain saturated hydrocarbons:

In this type of hydrocarbons, all the carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a straight chain
such that they are bound to one another by single covalent bonds.

E.g. Structure of Butane

Straight chain unsaturated hydrocarbons

In this type of hydrocarbons all carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a straight chain, such
that there is either a double covalent bond or triple covalent bond between a pair of carbon
atoms in the chain. e.g. ethyne, propene

Structure of propene Structure of ethyne

Branched chain saturated hydrocarbons

In this type of hydrocarbons, one or more carbon atoms are attached to the main straight chain
of carbon atoms, such that all carbon atoms are bound to one another by a single covalent bond.

E.g. Structure of Isobutane

Ring chain saturated hydrocarbons:

In this kind of hydrocarbons, the carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a ring and are
bounded by single covalent bonds. An example of this kind of hydrocarbons is cyclohexane of
molecular formula C6H12.

Structure of cyclohexane:
Ring chain unsaturated hydrocarbons Structure of benzene

In this kind of hydrocarbon, the carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a ring
and are bounded by one or more double covalent bonds. E.g. Benzene (C6H6)

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS ON THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS ON THE BASIS OF TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS

Homologous Series

Members of the same class of organic compounds, which differ from each other by ---CH2
group or 14u molecular mass, when arranged in ascending order of molecular mass, is called
homologous series
The members of the same class of organic compound are called homologues.
Characteristics of Homologous Series
• All members of a homologous series can be represented by a general formula, for e.g.
general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2, where n is the number of carbon atoms in one
molecule of the compound.
• Each member of the homologous series differs from the next member by a –CH2 group.
• Each member of the homologous series differs from the next member in molecular mass by
14 amu.
• Due to the change in molecular mass, physical properties of homologues differ from other
homologues. E.g. First four members of the alkane series from CH4 to C4H10 are gases.
The homologues between C5H12 to C16H34 are liquids and beyond 17 to 36 are solids. The
melting point, boiling point, density etc. of homologues increase, with the increase in
molecular mass. Thus we can say that homologues in a particular series have graded
physical properties.
• All homologues have same chemical properties.
• All homologues can be prepared by the same general method of preparation.

ISOMERISM
Isomers are compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formulas
due to the difference in the arrangements of carbon atoms. The phenomenon exhibited is called
isomerism.
Characteristics of isomers
• same molecular formula
• different structural formula
• Different arrangement of carbon atoms.
• Different physical and chemical properties
Classification of Structural isomers
 Differences between Homologous series and Isomers

Homologous series Isomers

Same general formula Same molecular formula
Example Alkanes CnH2n+1 Example: C4H10 -butane, isobutane
Different carbon chains for each Different structural formulas due to
homologue. Example: C-3 Alkane differences in the arrangement of atoms
propane, C-4 alkane -butane of isomers.
Similar chemical properties Different Chemical properties
Gradation in the physical properties with Different physical properties
an increase in the molecular mass.

Functional group

In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen can be replaced by atoms of other elements, such
that the valency of carbon remains satisfied. In such compounds, the element replacing
hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom. This heteroatom confers specific properties to the
organic compound, regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain and hence is called
functional groups.
The functional groups are hetero atoms or specific groups of atoms within an organic compound
that are responsible for its characteristic chemical properties.
 Some important functional groups are:

Functional Elements General Structural IUPAC naming Example

group present formula formula
R-alkyl
group

Haloalkane C,H,Halogen R-X Chloro

Haloalkane methane

Alcohol C,H,O R-OH Replace ‘e’ with Methanol

‘ol’

Aldehydes C,H,O R-CHO Replace ‘e’ with Methanal

‘al’

O
Ketone C,H,O || Replace ‘e’ with Propanone
R-C-R ‘one’

Carboxylic C,H,O RCOOH Replace ‘e’ with Methanoic acid

acid ‘oic’
Ester C,H,O RCOOR1 alkyl alkanoate Methyl
ethanoate