FUNDAMENTALS OF

COMPUTERS- Part I

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Contents
Chapter I: Introduction of Computer
1.1. Definition of Computer
1.1.1. Characteristics of Computer
1.1.2. Applications of Computers in varied Fields
1.1.3. Basic Computer Operation
1.2. History of Computer
1.3. Hardware elements of a computer system
1.4. Information in Bytes
1.5. Classification of Computer
1.5.1. Digital Computer
1.5.1.1. Classification of Digital Computers
1.5.2. Analog Computer
1.5.3. Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
1.6. Difference between computer and digital computer
1.7. Computer Organizations
1.8. Functional Units
1.9. Bus architecture
1.10. Instruction Set
Chapter II: Memory and Storage Device
2.1. Introduction of Memory
2.1.1. Types of Memory
2.1.1.1. Primary Memory
a. RAM (Random Access Memory)
b. ROM (Read Only Memory)
2.1.1.2. Secondary Memory
2.2. Introduction of Storage Devices
2.2.1. Magnetic tape
2.2.2. Hard Disk
2.2.3. Floppy Disk
2.2.4. Optical Disk
2.2.5. USB Flash Drive
Chapter III: Input and Output devices
3.1. Introduction of Input devices
3.3.1. Functions of Input devices
3.3.2. Types of Input Devices
3.2. Introduction of Output devices

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3.3. Software and its types
3.3.1. System software
3.3.2. Application software
3.4. Assemblers, Compilers, and interpreters
3.5. System Utility Software
3.6. Introduction of Computer Application

Chapter IV: Introduction of Operating System

4.1. Introduction of Operating System

4.2. Functions of Operating System

4.3. Types of Operating System

4.3.1. Batch processing operating System
4.3.2. Multi-programming operating system
4.3.3. Multi-processing operating system

4.3.4. Multi-Tasking operating System

4.3.5. Timesharing operating system
4.3.6. Real-time Operating System
4.3.7. Distributed operating system
4.3.8. Network operating system
4.3.9. Embedded in operation System
4.3.10. Multi-User operating System
4.3.11. Single User in operation System
References

Questions for practices

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 Chapter I: Introduction of Computer

1.1. DEFINITION OF COMPUTER

The word computer comes from the word “compute”. “Compute” means that to
calculate.

A computer could be a programmable machine that manipulates data or information to store,

retrieve and method information. A computer is largely a general purpose machine that
processes
sses the input file in keeping with a collection of directions keep internally to grant the
output. To process information into data, a computer uses hardware and software system. The
equipment connected to the computer referred to as “hardware”. The direc directions
tions that tell the
computer what to do are “software”. Figure 1 shows the diagram of modern computer.

Figure 1: Modern Computer

1.1.1. Characteristics of Computer

The two principal characteristics of a computer are:
1. It responds to a particular set of directions during a well-defined
defined manner.
2. It will execute a pre-recorded
recorded list of directions (a program).

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1.1.2. Applications of Computers in varied Fields
Computers play a significant role in our trendy human life. Computer now-a-days are being
employed virtually in each department to try and do the work on a larger speed and accuracy.
In our standard of living computers are utilized in numerous fields. Engineers, doctors,
students, teachers, architects, jewelers, and filmmakers all use computers to easy their work
with larger preciseness and accuracy and fewer time taken.

Some of the outstanding areas of computer applications are shown in Figure 2:

Medical Defence
Banking

Education
Architects

Computer
Entertainment
Designer

Weather forecasting E-commerce

Office automation

Figure 2: Area of computer applications.

1.1.3. Basic Computer Operation

• Input accepts knowledge and directions through the input devices like keyboard, mouse,
scanner, microphone, joystick etc.

• Process and management performs the actions per the instruction issued and method the
given computer file. The process might embrace ALU operations. It conjointly controls
the general operations like ALU operations within the pc.

• Storage stores the information and therefore the directions for future execution.

• Output generates the specified output once executing the directions and therefore the
process the computer file.

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1.2. HISTORY OF COMPUTER

Generation

Classification Properties First (1942- Second (1955-1964) Third (1964-1975) Fourth (1975-1990) Fifth (1990-till date)
1955)
Major Vacuum tubes Transistors Integrated circuit (ICs) as LSIC, VLSIC (Micro ULSIC (Ultra large scale
Features
Innovation basic electronic component Processor) integrated circuit)
Main Punched cards RAM, ROM PROM, DRAM EPROM, SRAM EEPROM, SIMM, DIMM
memory
External --- Magnetic tapes & Improve disk (Floppy disk) Floppy disk, hard disk Modified magnetic, optical
storage Magnetic disk disks, flesh drive
Input Punched cards & Magnetic tapes & Keyboard for input, monitor Monitor for output Keyboard, pointing device,
Output papers Magnetic disk for output scanner as input or monitor as
devices main output
Languages Low level Assembly language, More high level languages Languages and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
machine some high level application software’s Expert system
language languages for example
Basic, COBOL,
FORTRAN
Operating No operating Human handles Complete operating systems MS-DOS, PC-DOS GUI based e.g. Windows XP,
system system, human punched card were introduced 7, NT
operators to set
switches

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 Example ENIAC, IBM-1401, NCR-300, IBM SYSTEM/360, ICH- IBM-PC, Apple Laptop, note book, digital
EDVAC, IBM-600 etc. 360, HONEY WELL-316 Macintosh etc. diary, palm top and pocket PC
UNIVAC etc.
Advantages Vacuum tubes Similar in size as Smaller in size as compared Low cost machine Very large storage capacity
were the only compared to first to previous generation
electronic generation computers computers
components
available during
those days
Vacuum tube More reliable Even more reliable than High speed. Long bit processor builds
technology made second generation computers
possible the
advent of
electronic digital
computers
These computers Less heat generated Even lower heat generated Large memory Artificial Intelligence
were the fastest than second generation Language developed
calculating computers
devices of their
time
They could These computers were Able to reduce computational Small size
perform able to reduce times from microseconds to
computations in computational times nanoseconds
milliseconds from milliseconds to

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 microseconds

Generation

Classification Properties First (1942-1955) Second (1955-1964) Third (1964-1975) Fourth (1975-1990) Fifth (1990-till date)
Less possibility to Maintenance cost is low Less power
Advantages
hardware failures because hardware failures consumption
are rare
Better portability Easily portable Floppy disk is used as
storage device. Semi-
conductor internal
memory
Wider commercial use Less power requirements Improve in software
than previous generation (spread sheet)
computers
Hardware failure is
negligible
Heat generated is
negligible
Cheapest among all
generations
Disadvantage Too heavy in size Air conditioning still Air conditioning required in Highly sophisticated Very large storage
s required many cases technology required capacity
for manufacture of ISI

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 chips
Unreliable Frequent maintenance Highly sophisticated Long bit processor
required technology required for builds
manufacture of IC chips
Produced large Manual assembly of Artificial Intelligence
amount of heat individual components Language developed
into a functioning unit
was required
Air conditioning Commercial production
required was difficult and costly
Possibility to frequent
hardware failures
Constant maintenance
required
Not portable
Commercial
production was
difficult and costly

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1.3. HARDWARE ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
1. The central processing unit (Central process Unit)- this carries out all the
directions the computer should do. It’s created up of:

a. A control unit that controls every of the steps the central processing unit makes
because it works.

b. An ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) that carries out the stepwise calculations and
process.

2. Main/internal memory - RAM (Random Access Memory) is employed to store the

software system, code and files knowledge used whereas the computer is running.
ROM (Read Only Memory) is employed to store the software used to begin the
hardware and load the software system code into RAM.

3. Input devices - these permit the input of knowledge into the computer (i.e. a
keyboard or mouse).

4. Output devices - these permit the output of data from the computer (i.e. a monitor or
printer).

5. Secondary/Backing Storage - these store knowledge once the computer is turned off
(i.e. a tough disk).

Figure 3: Hardware elements of computer systems

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 1.4. Information in Bytes

Bit either a 1 or 0 (on

or off)
Nibble 4 bits
Byte 8 bits
Kilobyte 1,024 bytes
(KB)
Megabyt 1,048,576 bytes or 873 pages 4 books (200
e (MB) 1,024 Kilobytes of plaintext (1,2 pages or
00 characters) 240,000
characters)
30
Giga 1,073,741,824 (2 ) 894,784 pages 4,473 books 640 web 341 digital 256 MP3 au 1 650MB
byte bytes. 1,024 of plaintext (200 pages or pages (with pictures (wit dio files CD
(GB) Megabytes, or (1,200 240,000 1.6MB h 3MB (with 4MB
1,048,576 characters) characters) average file average file average file
Kilobytes size) size) size)
Tera 1,099,511,627,776 916,259,689 pa 4,581,298 boo 671,088,640 w 357,913,941 262,144 MP 1,613 650 233 4.3 40 25
40
byte (TB) (2 ) bytes, 1,024 ges of plaintext ks (200 pages eb pages (with digital 3 audio files MB CD’s 8GB D GB Bl
Gigabytes, or (1,200 or 240,000 1.6MB pictures (with 4MB VD’s u-
1,048,576 characters) characters) average file (with 3MB average file ray dis
Megabytes size) average file size) cs

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 size)

Peta byte 1,125,899,906,842, 938,249,922,36 671,088,640 w 357,913,941 d 268,435,456 1,651,910 65 239,400 4. 41,943
50
(PB) 624 (2 ) bytes, 8 pages of eb pages (with igital pictures MP3 audio 0MB CD’s 38GB 25GB
1,024 Terabytes, plaintext (1,200 1.6MB (with 3MB files (with DVD’s Blu-ray
1,048,576 characters) average file average file 4MB discs
Gigabytes, or size) size) average file
1,073,741,824 size)
Megabytes
Exabyte 1,152,921,504,606, 960,767,920,50 4,803,839,602 687,194,767,3 366,503,875, 274,877,906, 1,691,556, 245,146 42,949
60
(EB) 846,976 (2 ) 5,705 pages of ,528 books 60 web pages 925 digital 944 MP3 350 650M ,535 4.3 ,672 2
bytes, 1,024 plaintext (1,200 (200 pages or (with 1.6MB pictures audio files B CD’s 8GB 5GB
Petabytes, characters) 240,000 average file (with 3MB (with 4MB DVD’s Blu-
1,048,576 characters) size) average file average file ray
Terabytes, size) size) discs
1,073,741,824
Gigabytes, or
1,099,511,627,776
Megabytes
Zetta 1,180,591,620,717, 983,826,350,59 4,919,131,752 703,687,443,7 375,299,970, 281,474,977, 1,732,153, 251,030 43,980
70
byte (ZB) 411,303,424 (2 ) 7,842,752 pages ,989,213 book 50,000 web 000,000 digit 500,000 MP 707,691 65 ,052,00 ,465,1
bytes, 1,024 of plaintext s (200 pages pages (with al pictures 3 audio files 0MB CD’s 3 4.38G 11 25

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 Exabytes, (1,200 or 240,000 1.6MB (with 3MB (with 4MB B GB
1,048,576 characters) characters) average file average file average file DVD’s Blu-
Petabytes, size) size) size) ray
1,073,741,824 discs
Terabytes,
1,099,511,627,776
Gigabytes, or
1,125,899,910,000,
000 Megabytes
Yotta 1,208,925,819,614, 1,007,438,183,0 5,037,190,915 720,575,937,5 384,307,166, 288,230,375, 1,773,725, 257,054 45,035
byte 629,174,706,176 12,190,978,921 ,060,954,894 00,000,000 we 666,666,666 000,000,000 384,615,38 ,773,25 ,996,2
80
(YB) (2 ) bytes, 1,024 pages of books (200 b pages (with digital MP3 audio 4 650MB 1,740 4. 73,704
Zettabytes, plaintext (1,200 pages or 1.6MB pictures files (with CD’s 38GB 25GB
1,048,576 characters) 240,000 average file (with 3MB 4MB DVD’s Blu-
Exabytes, characters) size) average file average file ray
1,073,741,824 size) size) discs
Petabytes,
1,099,511,627,776
Terabytes,
1,125,899,910,000,
000 Gigabytes, or
1,152,921,500,000,
000,000 Megabytes

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1.5. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

Classification of computer

Digital computer Analog computer Hybrid computer

Purpose wise Size and performance wise

Special purpose Super computer

General purpose Mainframe computer

Mini computer

Macro computer

Figure 4: Classification of computer

1.5.1. Digital Computer

A digital computer is an electronic put together framework that works with respect to
irregular information. Computerized PCs convert the information into twofold digits for
example 0 or 1. All activities are completed on these digits at very quick rates. These
computers realize how to tally the digits and add the digits. Digital computers are a lot
quicker than analog computer and more precise.

The instances of digital computers are microcomputers, PCs, network workers, super PCs and
multi-processor PCs.

1.5.1.1. Classification of Digital Computers

Digital computers can be further classified in two ways:

(1) Purpose wise

a. Special-purpose computer: Special-reason computer is intended to play out a
particular undertaking. The guidelines to complete the assignment are for all time put
away in the machine. They are otherwise called committed PCs, since they are devoted
to play out a solitary undertaking. The speed of these computers is high and acceptable
effectiveness, however they are not flexible. Models are carrier reservations, airport
regulation, satellite tracking and so on.

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b. General-purpose computer: General sort of computer is a typical computer which is
intended to play out an assortment of assignments. This kind of computer can deal with
various sorts of projects contribution to it. The projects are not for all time put away
however are contribution at the hour of execution. These computers are exceptionally
flexible however are low in speed and effectiveness. These kinds of computers are
utilized for logical, business purposes, in schools, universities and homes.

(2) Size and performance wise

a. Microcomputers: Microcomputers were introduced in the early 70’s. These

microcomputers have less storing space and processing speed. Microcomputers are very
smallest computers which contain only one CPU. These are mainly used in offices,
homes, schools, shops, stores etc. Examples are IBM PCs, Apple, Mac, IBM, PS/2.

b. Minicomputers: Minicomputers are more powerful computers than microcomputers as

far as preparing force and capacities. These are more modest than centralized
computers regarding size and different offices, (for example, speed, stockpiling limit
and different administrations). Their adaptable nature they can be fitted any place they
are required. Their velocities are appraised somewhere in the range of one and fifty
million instructions per second (MIPS). They have essential stockpiling in hundred to
300 megabytes range with direct access storage device.

c. Mainframe computers: Mainframe computer is extremely enormous and costly

computer equipped for supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of clients
simultaneously. Thus we state that these are multiuser, multiprocessor frameworks.
They can deal with a few million guidelines for every second. Its putting away limit
and information move rate is high. It has enormous on-line optional capacity limit.
They are utilized in WAN. Models are ICL 39, CDC 6600, VAX 8842, IBM 3090/600,
and IBM4381.

d. Super computers: Super PCs are the most impressive computers. These comprise of a
few processors running together accordingly making them extremely quicker and
incredible. Its preparing speed goes from 10,000 million guidelines for each second to
1.2 billion directions per sec. They can uphold 10,000 terminals all at once. They have
immense quantities of capacity and different gadgets associated with them. Models are
CRAY-1, CRAY-2, CRAY-3, CDC-205 and ETA GF-10. PARAM and ANURAG are
created by India and are sent out to numerous European nations.

1.5.2. Analog Computer

Analog computer is characterized as a PC that utilizes continuous physical phenomena, for
example, electrical, mechanical, or pressure driven amounts to show the issue being settled.
A thermometer is a basic simple PC. As the temperature shifts, the mercury moves
correspondingly. Different models are climate anticipating, in petroleum siphon and so forth

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Simple PCs work by estimating as opposed to computing. Analog computers are a lot of
quicker in light of the fact that all calculations happens in equal yet their precision is poor
when contrasted with advanced PCs.

1.5.3. Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

Hybrid computers are characterized as the blend of Analog and Digital computer. A hybrid
computer arrangement offers a practical strategy for performing complex simulations. Analog
to Digital and Digital to Analog converters are fundamental in half breed computer to utilize
forces of both Analog and advanced methods. Hybrid computer systems are utilized for
logical applications, designing and in mechanical control measures.

Hybrid computers are best utilized in clinic where Analog part is liable for estimation of
patient's heart beat, pulse, temperature and other essential signs and afterward the activity are
done in computerized style to screen patient's imperative signs. Illustration of crossover
framework is modem. It gives the great exactness that can be achieved with simple PCs and
the more noteworthy control that is conceivable with computerized PCs, in addition to the
capacity to acknowledge the info information in one or the other structure.

1.6. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPUTER AND DIGITAL

COMPUTER:
Following are the fundamental contrasts between analog computer and digital computer.

Digital Analog
Technology digital technology is advanced Analog technology is still shows more
and modern precise and accurate output
Result Digital computer shows result Analog computer shows output in form of
(input/output) of input in form of computer voltage signals and reading on connected
display screen, monitor, CD or meters
other peripheral devices
Use If talk about electronic circuits, Analog computer uses signals generators,
digital computer uses two op amps (operational amplifiers) and many
switches on and off resistors for flow of continuous signals
Work Digital computer performs Analog computer produces continuous
work discretely voltage signals to perform continuously
Adoption Today with invention of latest Analog computers are not able to perform
technology many digital the same for digital computers
computers are performing the

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 functions of analog computers
Area Digital computers are widely Analog computers are not
acceptable and useable around
the world. They are being used
more than analog computers
Storage digital computers obviously There is no concept of memory disc, drive
requires memory in shape of or chip in analog computer
hard disk, flash storage or
memory chip to perform
Effect from noise has no such effect on Due to noise or disturbance in environment
noise digital computers accuracy can be manipulate in analog
computer

 Although computerized innovation is progressed and current yet simple innovation is

still shows more exact and precise yield in contrast with simple
 Digital computer shows after effect of contribution to type of PC show screen, screen,
CD or other fringe gadgets while simple PC shows yield in type of voltage signals and
perusing on associated meters.
 If talk about electronic circuits, digital computer utilizes two switches on and off. While
simple PC utilizes signals generators, operation amps (operational enhancers) and
numerous resistors for stream of nonstop signals.
 Digital computer performs work discretely. However, simple PC produces consistent
voltage signs to perform ceaselessly.
 Today with invention of latest technology many digital computers are performing the
functions of analog computers. While analog computers are not able to perform the
same for digital computers.
 Digital computers are widely acceptable and useable around the world. They are being
used more than analog computers.
 There is no understanding of memory disc, drive or chip in simple PC. While
computerized computers clearly requires memory fit as a fiddle of hard circle, streak
stockpiling or memory chip to perform.
 Due to noise or disturbance in environment accuracy can be manipulate in analog
computer while noise has no such effect on digital computers.

Workstations - A terminal or personal computer in an organization. In this unique

circumstance, workstation is only a conventional term for a client's machine (customer
machine) as opposed to a "worker" or "centralized computer."

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1.7. COMPUTER ORGANIZATIONS

A computer fundamentally executes five significant capacities for example input, control and
output.

Input: Input is the way toward entering information and projects into the computer system.
The information takes information from the client to the PC in a coordinated way for
handling.

Storage: Storage is the way toward saving information and guidelines for all time is known
as capacity.

Processing: Processing is the task of carrying out arithmetic and logical operations on data
that converts them into useful information.

Control: Control mean show directions are executed and the above activities are performed.

Output: Output produce results from the information for getting helpful data.

Program
& Data
Input Unit Storage Unit Output Unit
Results

Control Unit

Central
Processing Unit
Arithmetic
Logic Unit

Figure 5: Basic computer operations

1.8. FUNCTIONAL UNITS

The computer allocates the task between its numerous useful units to hold out the operations
mentioned higher than. The computer system is split into three distinct units for its operation.
These units are Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Central
Process Unit (CPU).

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

The ALU performs all the four arithmetical (add, subtract, multiply and divide) operations
and a few logical operations like but, adequate to or larger than. Once two numbers are
needed to be additional, these numbers are sent from memory to ALU where addition takes
place and also the result's change within the memory. An equivalent manner different

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arithmetic operations are performed. The Arithmetic Logical Unit takes information from
memory unit and returns information to memory unit. It uses variety of registers and short
term storage of characters whereas doing calculations or computations. It will do advanced
calculations with quick speed.

Control Unit (CU)

The next element of computer is that the management Unit. The management Unit
determines the order during which computer programs and instruction are performed. The
management unit sends management signals till the desired operations are complete properly
by ALU and memory. Management unit execute programs by completing all the directions
keep within the program. The metallic element gets program directions from memory and
executes them one when the opposite. When obtaining the directions from memory in cu, the
instruction is decoded and taken i.e. that operations. Then the asked operation is allotted.
When the work of this instruction is completed, management unit sends signal to memory to
send subsequent instruction in sequence to metallic element. The management unit even
controls the flow of information from input devices to memory and from memory to output
devices.

Central processing Unit (CPU)

Central processing Unit (CPU) was 1st developed at Intel with the assistance of ted Hoff in
the early 1970's. Computer hardware is that the kernel of the pc. Therefore computer
hardware is accountable for handling all directions it receives from hardware and software
running on the computer. The computer hardware has basically two primary parts, Control
Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).

Register
Registers are temporary storage units among the computer hardware. A register could hold a
computer instruction, a storage address, or any reasonably information (like a touch sequence
or individual characters). Some directions specify registers as a part of the instruction.
Registers are commonly measured by the quantity of bits they will hold. For example, an
eight-bit register suggests that it will store 8 bits of data or a 32-bit register suggests that it
will store 32 bit of data Registers are accustomed store information quickly throughout the
execution of a program. A number of the registers are measure accessible to the user through
directions. Data and instructions should be place into the system. Therefore we'd like
registers for this.

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The basic computerr registers with their names, size and functions are listed below

Register Symbol Register Name Number of Bits Description

AC Accumulator 16 Processor Register

DR Data Register 16 Hold memory data

TR Temporary Register 16 Holds temporary Data

IR Instruction Register 16 Holds Instruction Code

AR Address Register 12 Holds memory address

PC Program Counter 12 Holds address of next instruction

INPR Input Register 8 Holds Input data

OUTR Output Register 8 Holds Output data

1.9. BUS ARCHITECTURE

A bus is defined as a group of physical connections (like cables, written circuits, etc.) which
may be shared by multiple hardware elements so as to speak with each other.

Purpose:: to reduce the quantity of "paths" needed for communication between the elements,
ele
by carrying out all communications over one knowledge channel. This can be why the figure
of a "data highway" is typically used.

Figure 6: Example of Bus

If solely 2 hardware elements communicate over the line, it's known as a hardware port (such
as interface or parallel port).

Characteristics

A bus is characterized by the number of knowledge which will be transmitted directly. This
quantity, expressed in bits, corresponds to the quantity of physical lines over that knowledge

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is sent at the same time. A 32-wire ribbon cable will transmit 32 bits in parallel. The term
"width" is used to check with the quantity of bits that a bus will transmit directly.

Additionally, the bus speed is additionally outlined by its frequency (expressed in Hertz), the
quantity of information packets sent or received per second. Every time that knowledge is
sent or received is named a cycle.

This way, it's attainable to search out the most transfer speed of the bus, the number of
information that it will transport per unit of time, by multiplying its width by its frequency. A
bus with a breadth of sixteen bits and a frequency of 133 megahertz, therefore, includes a
transfer speed equal to:

16 * 133.106 = 2128*106 bit/s,

or 2128*106/8 = 266*106 bytes/s

or 266*106 /1000 = 266*103 KB/s

or 259.7*103 /1000 = 266 MB/s

Architecture

There are three types of data bus, address bus and management bus that is set by the kind of
signal it's carrying or the strategy of operation.

Figure 7: Bus Architecture

Usually every bus is recognized of fifty to a hundred distinct physical lines that are divided
into three subassemblies:

• The address bus transports memory addresses that the processor needs to access so as
to browse or write knowledge. It’s a one-way bus. Address bus is typically known as
the memory bus.

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 • The data bus transfers directions coming back from or aiming to the processor. It’s a
bifacial bus.

• The control bus transports orders and synchronisation signals coming back from the
management unit and motion to any or all alternative hardware elements. It’s a
bidirectional bus, because it conjointly transmits response signals from the hardware.
Control bus is additionally known as command bus.

Primary Buses

There are typically two buses among a computer:

1.Internal bus (sometimes known as the front-side bus or FSB): the internal bus permits
the processor to communicate with the system's central memory i.e. RAM.

2.Expansion bus (sometimes known as the input/output bus): expansion bus permits
varied motherboard elements (like USB, serial, and parallel ports, cards inserted in PCI
connectors, hard drives, CD-ROM and CD-RW drives, etc.) to communicate with each other.
However, it's mainly used to add new devices using what are known as growth slots
connected to the input/output bus.

Chip Set

In an integrated circuit a chipset could be a set of electronic elements that manages the data
flow between the processor, memory and peripherals. Typically a chip set is found on the
motherboard. We can conjointly outline chipset because the element that routes knowledge
between the computer’s buses, in order that all the elements that structure the computer will
communicate with one another.

Initially the chipset was created from a large range of electronic chips. There are typically
two elements of chipset i.e. North Bridge and South Bridge:

1. The North Bridge: it's conjointly known as the memory controller, is in charge of
dominant transfers between the processor and therefore the RAM that is much its set
physically close to the processor. It’s generally known as the Graphic and Memory
Controller Hub(GMCH).
2. The South Bridge: it's conjointly known as the input/output controller or growth
controller which handles communications between the peripheral devices. it's conjointly
known as the I/O Controller Hub(ICH). The term bridge is mostly wont to be an element
that connects two buses.

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 Figure 8: How Buses are connected

1.10. INSTRUCTION SET

CPU processes instructions and information. It receives orders from the software. It is the
complete set of all the directions in machine language which will be recognized and executed
by a central processing unit. These directions may be known as program code. They include
the commands that you perpetually (via user programs) send to your computer using your
keyboard and mouse. Commands to print, save, open, etc. Data is usually user information. as
an example, have faith in that email users are writing. The particular contents (the text, the
letters) are user information. However after you and your software package say “send”, users
are causation program code (instructions) to the processor:

Figure 9: The instructions process the user data.

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 Chapter II: Memory and Storage Device

2.1. INTRODUCTION OF MEMORY AND STORAGE DEVICE

A location wherever one thing is keep is memory. In computer memory; information, data
and programs are keep. Typically memory is additionally called physical memory that refers
to the particular chips capable of holding information. Some computers additionally use
virtual storage that expands physical memory onto a hard disk.

Every computer comes with an explicit quantity of physical memory, typically observed as
main memory or RAM (Read solely Memory). We are able to perceive main memory as
associate degree array of boxes, each of which may hold one computer memory unit of
knowledge. A computer that has one MB of memory, therefore, will hold concerning one
million bytes (or characters) of knowledge.

2.1.1. Types of Memory

Computer uses two varieties of storage or memory:

1. Primary memory

2. Secondary memory

DRAM
RAM
SRAM
Primary
Memory
PROM

Memory ROM EROM

Secondary CD, DVD,

EEROM
Memory Hard Disk etc

Figure10: Hierarchical of Memory

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2.1.1.1. Primary Memory
Primary memory may be a part of computer that holds solely those information and directions
on which pc is presently operating. It’s additionally called main memory or internal memory
of laptop. Primary Memory is volatile memory as a result of the memory can’t store
information for good. It has restricted area and information is lost once power is converted. It
usually created of conductor and is placed on the motherboard within the sort of chips. These
recollections don't seem to be as quick as registers. The info and instruction needed to be
processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and memory
board.

A. RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM is that the same as main memory. It performs
read/write operations on memory. It’s a volatile memory means that if power failures
happened in systems throughout operation then data will lose permanently. RAM is
subcategorized into Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.

i. Static RAMs (SRAM): Static RAMs retain keep data as long as power supply is on. They
costlier and consume a lot of power. They are doing not would like refreshing circuits. They
need higher speed than Dynamic RAMs.

ii. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Dynamic RAM loses its keep data in a} very short time even
supposing the power supply is on. Therefore, Dynamic RAMs got to be refreshed
periodically, usually each a pair of msec. The Dynamic RAMs are cheaper and have high
packing density and moderate speed. They consume less power. They are used wherever
large capability capacities are required.

Figure 11: Example of SRAM

Figure 12: Example of DRAM

B. ROM (Read Only Memory): Read-Only Memory may be a permanent memory means
that its contents aren't lost once power supply of computer is switched off. Thus read-only
memory may be a non-volatile memory. The user cannot write into a read-only memory as its
contents are written at producing time. ROMs store permanent programs and alternative
kinds of data that are required by the computer to execute user programs. ROMs store operate
like sine, cosine, logarithm, square root, exponential and code conversion tables, etc. an

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example of a read-only memory is Toshiba Mask read-only memory, TCS 534000, 512 KX8
bits once more.

ROM can be further subcategorized into PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

i. PROM (programmable read-only memory): A prom may be a chip on that a program

is store. Once the knowledge is written by the user in prom it cannot be modified. Such data
is needed whereas executing user programs. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile.

ii. EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory): Once data is keep during a
read-only memory or a prom chip it cannot be modified. However, there's another sort of chip
referred to as erasable programmable scan only memory that overcomes this downside. An
EPROM may be a special sort of prom that may be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet.

iii. EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory):It is additionally

referred to as flash BIOS(basic input/output system).In this sort of memory high voltage
electrical pulses are accustomed erase data content within the read-only memory. New data
are often recorded in read-only memory by special software system program though there's a
limit to the quantity of times that may be programmed. EEPROM chip permits user to
upgrade their BIOS.

2.1.1.2. Secondary Memory

This sort of memory is additionally called external memory or non-volatile memory. This
memory is intended for user to copy their knowledge. it's the slowest and least expensive
style of memory. It store vast quantity of knowledge and knowledge in permanent kind which
will be transferred to be used once needed. It cannot be accessed directly by the central
processing unit. It should initial be transferred into primary storage (also called RAM), then
central processing unit will access it. These devices embody magnetic disks (like exhausting
drives and floppy), optical disks (such as CDs and CDROMs), and magnetic tapes (which
were the primary styles of secondary memory).

2.2. INTRODUCTION OF STORAGE DEVICES

Storage device may be a device capable of storing knowledge. The term typically refers to
mass storage devices, like disk and tape drives. In modern-day computers, storage devices are
often found in several forms. Storage devices are often classified supported several criterions.

The following list provides some classifications of memory devices.

 Primary and Secondary and Tertiary Storage

 Volatile and non-volatile storage
 Read only and Writable storage
 Random Access and Sequential Access storage
 Magnetic storage
 Optical storage
 Semiconductor storage

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1. Magnetic tape: Magnetic tapes square measure used wherever the massive volume of
knowledge is keep for an extended time. The value of storing knowledge in tapes is cheap.
Tapes accommodate magnetic materials that store knowledge for good. It are often twelve.5
metric linear unit to twenty five metric linear unit wide sheet kind and five00 metric linear
unit to 1200 meter long that is coated with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the
electronic equipment. It’s like magnetic tape recorder.

2. Hard Disk: A hard drive is usually abbreviated as disc drive, HD, or HDD. It’s a
non-volatile memory hardware device that stores and retrieves data for good. It consists of a
stiff disc created with non-magnetic material that is coated with a skinny layer of magnetic
material. Knowledge is keep by magnetizing this skinny film. The disk rotates at a high speed
and an electromagnet mounted on a moving arm is employed to scan and write knowledge.
Its storing capability is highest and is quicker than floppy.

On a tough disk, knowledge is kept in skinny bands. A drive head will scan or write a circular
ring or band referred to as a track. There are often quite one thousand tracks on a three.5 in.
hard disc. Sections of every track square measure referred to as sectors. A sector is that the
smallest physical storage unit on a disk that store 512 bytes in size.

A cylinder is created whereas all drive heads square measure within the same position on the
disk. The tracks stacked on high of every alternative kind a cylinder. The system control
reads this knowledge to position the drive heads within the correct sector position.

Hard Disk Structure

In hard disk every platter is split into thin concentric bands like floppy disks called tracks. On
a 3.5 inch hard disk there are often over 1000 tracks. Further, tracks are often divided into
sectors. These are the smallest physical storage unit on a disk and that they are nearly always
512 bytes long. A bunch of tracks that have constant track number, are area unit on are
platters is stated as a cylinder. Tracks are created once the disk is at the start formatted.
Sometimes there are 1024 tracks on a hard disk, numbered from 0 (at the edge of the disk) to
1023 (near the centre).

The problem with this structure is that the tracks close to the centre are shorter than those
close to the edge of the disk. to beat this downside, they're a lot of densely inhabited with
knowledge, suggests that constant quantity of information are often written or scan over
constant amount of your time, no matter the drive head position.

One aspect of the primary platter has house reserved for hardware-based track-positioning
info that isn't offered to the package. This knowledge is written to the disk throughout
assembly and is employed by the control to position the drive heads properly.

A sector is that the smallest physical storage unit on the disk and is typically 512 bytes long.
Files ought to ideally be keeping in a very single contiguous area of disk space. Since most
files are longer than 512 bytes, the filing system should allocate the amount of sectors needed
to store the file, e.g.: a 640 computer memory unit file would need two sectors. If further

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knowledge is appended to the file later, any sectors are often allotted. Below the Figure 13
shows the structure of hard disc.

Figure 13: Structure of hard disk

Hard drive components

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 Figure 14: Hard drive components
As is seen within the image on top of, the desktop drive consists of the subsequent
components: the pinnacle actuator, read/write mechanism arm, read/write head, spindle, and
platter. On the rear of a tough drive may be a circuit card referred to as the control.

3. Floppy Disk: A floppy disk, diskette or just referred to as a disk, may be a magnetic
storage medium for computers. It’s composed of a thin, versatile magnetic disc sealed square
sq. plastic carrier. Floppy disks are read and write by a disc drive (FDD) or just floppy. It a
removable magnetic storage medium and is used for moving data between computers, laptops
or different devices.

Today floppies are accessible in 3.5 in. and 5.25 in. sizes. 3.5 in. disc is extremely small. This
can be coated with hard plastic. It’s dust free and its storing capability is 1.44 MB. It’s write
protected notch. Whereas the dimensions of 5.25 in. floppy is bigger than 3.5 in. floppy. The
cover of its body is extremely soft. The capability of a 5.25 in. floppy is 1.2 MB. It’s simply
broken by dirt. It’s write protected notch. If button is down, we can scan data only. We have a
tendency to can’t change, write or copy any data, virus conjointly cannot shift. If button is up,
we can do scan, write, copy and virus is shifted conjointly.

A number of various styles of floppy disks are developed, the dimensions of the floppy got
smaller, and also the storage capability increased; but, within the 1990s, different media, as
well as hard disc drives, ZIP drives, optical drives, and USB flash drives, began to replace
floppy disks because the primary storage medium.

Types of Floppy Disks

The first floppy disks that came on the market were 8 inches (200 mm) in diameter. The disk
was protected by a versatile plastic jacket. an 8-inch disk back within the late 1970s may
store concerning one MB of information. This was quickly followed by a smaller version of a
similar style, the 5.25-inch (133 mm) floppy that may store concerning a similar quantity of
data exploitation higher-density media and recording techniques.

In the early 1980s, the 3.5-inch (90 mm) floppy, or small floppy, came on the market, and
this kind became the dominant storage medium dust computers for several years. Each of
those discs needed a unique form of floppy disk drive. These were generally designed into the
computer case itself.
Floppy disks were quite vulnerable. The disk medium was terribly sensitive to dirt, moisture,
and heat. The versatile plastic carrier was conjointly not terribly durable. The hard plastic
case of the 3.5-inch floppy presented a considerable improvement during this respect. the
foremost common format of this floppy became the double-sided, high-density 1.44 MB disk
drive.

4. Optical Disk: Optical disk is an electronic knowledge medium which will store over
a floppy disk however but a tough disk. The primary optical was developed by James T.
Russell within the late 1960s. They’re a lot of reliable as compare to disc. Optical disc is

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written to and read employing a weak laser beam. An optical device scans the dots, and also
the knowledge was born-again to an electrical signal, and eventually to audio or visual
output.

Optical disks are divided into the subsequent categories:

A. Compact Disk: CD-ROM stands for CD read only Memory. A CD-ROM is just
referred to as a CD which will be read by a computer with an optical drive. Memory board
means that the data on the disk is read-only as data cannot be altered or erased. as a result of
their massive storage capability and also the read-only feature, CD-ROMs are an excellent
media format for retail code. The primary CD-ROMs may hold concerning 600 MB of
information, however currently they'll hold up to 700 MB. CD-ROMs share a similar
technology as audio CDs, however they're formatted otherwise, permitting them to store
many varieties of information.

B. WORM: WORM stands for Write Once scan several. WORM permits the user to put
in writing knowledge for good on the disk. Once the info is written, it will never be erased
while not physically damaging the disk. Here knowledge is recorded from keyboard, video
scanner, OCR instrumentation and different devices. The advantage of this can be that, it will
store vast quantity of information, amounting in gigabytes. Any document during a WORM
is accessed in no time, say but thirty seconds.

C. Erasable optical disk: Erasable optical disk may be a read/write optical disk
memory. Data is written to and read from the disk. The disk contents is erased and new
knowledge is rewritten. Thus it will function a secondary memory of a computer. It rotates as
a constant speed. Its tracks are concentric circles. Every track is split into variety of sectors.
Its benefits over magnetic disc are:

i. Terribly high storage capability.

ii. An optical disc is far away from the drive.
iii. Its long life.
iv. It's a lot of reliable.

D. Digital Video Disk (DVD): DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk or Digital Video
Disk. It’s associate degree storage device technology capable of storing giant amounts of
knowledge on one disk the scale of a customary optical disc. The storage capability of a
single-sided, one bedded disk is 4.7 gigabytes. There are many capacities one DVD disc is
capable of holding. Below is a listing of the various kinds of DVD's and every of their total
capability.

i. One in all the foremost common DVD's is that the single-sided, single-layer disc,
capable of holding 4.7 GB.
ii. The single-sided, double-layer disc is capable of holding between 8.5-8.7 GB.
iii. The double-sided, single-layer disc is capable of holding nine.4 GB.

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iv. Though rare, the double-sided, double-layer disc is capable of holding up to 17.08
GB.

E. Zip drive: A zip drive may be a small, removable magnetic disc storage system used
for backing up and archiving personal computer files. PC drive is introduced within the mid-
1990s. It provides far more storage capability than floppy disks. Its storing capability is
concerning one hundred MB. By the first 2000s zip drives became for the most part obsolete
with the advance of USB flash drives, recordable CDs and external exhausting disks.
Zipdrive is mounted in CPU and zip floppy is inserting only in it. These are used for lacking
up hard disks and transferring large files. It’s wont to produce zip disks.

5. USB Flash Drive: USB (Universal Serial Bus) flash drive is additionally called a
flash drive, pen drive or keychain drive. It’s a plug-and-play portable device that uses non-
volatile storage and is light-weight enough to connect to a keychain. USB may be a small,
portable device that plugs into a computer’s USB port. A USB flash drive stores info like
magnetic disc, however with a flash drive you'll simply transfer that info from one computer
to a different. A USB drive is employed in place of a disk, zip drive disk or CD. Once the
user plugs the device into the USB port, the computer's software package acknowledges the
device as a removable drive and assigns it a drive letter. In contrast to most removable drives,
a USB drive doesn't need rebooting once it's connected, doesn’t need a battery or an external
power offer, and is platform freelance. Many makers supply extra options like word
protection, and downloadable drivers that enable the device to be compatible with older
systems that don't have USB ports. USB drives are offered in capacities move up to close to
65 gigabytes (GB), depending on manufacturer, in an exceedingly corresponding vary of
costs. A number of the foremost popular brand drives are Lear, Sandisk, Kingston, PNY, and
Iomega.

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 Chapter III: Input and Output devices

3.1. INTRODUCTION OF INPUT DEVICES

A data input device could be hardware or electronic equipment won’t to send information to a
computer. An input device permits users to speak and feed directions and information to
computers for process, display, storage and/or transmission.

3.3.1. Functions of Input devices

1. Settle for information from outside world.

2. Converts information into American Standard Code for Information Interchange code
or binary type.
3. Sends information in binary type to the computer for more process.

3.3.2. Types of Input Devices

There are many sorts of input devices that are employed by the computers. Some of them are
general purpose, that is, they'll be employed by any computer. Keyboard is that the most
typically used data input device. Apart from keyboard there area unit different input devices
like mouse, joystick, touchpad, trackball, trackball, light pen, joystick, scanner etc.

1. KEYBOARDS:

Keyboard is incredibly fashionable and therefore the most typical data input device that helps
in inputting information to the computer. Within the period of time of computing, it
absolutely was usually the sole data input device. The layout of the keyboard is like ancient
character printer, though there are some extra keys (like Enter, Delete, etc.) provided for
playacting extra functions.

2. MOUSE:

Mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart in 1963 whereas performing at Xerox PARC. It is
a pointing still as positioning device that matches under palm of a hand. A typical mouse has
two buttons. Because the user rolls it on a flat surface, the mouse controls pointer movement
on the screen. Once the user presses one amongst the buttons, the mouse either marks an area
on the screen or makes choices from information on the screen. It will be used for several
applications, starting from games to coming up with products with graphics. It will be used as
an alternate to keyboard or it will be employed in combination with a keyboard to boost input
operations.

Functions of a Mouse:

A computer mouse has several functions that facilitate a user use their computer. The
foremost common functions of a mouse are:

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• Move the mouse pointer - the first use of an electronic device is to move the mouse
pointer on the screen.

• Open or execute a program - Once you have moved the mouse to associate degree
icon, folder, or different object clicking or double clicking that object opens the
document or executes the program.

• Select - A mouse additionally permits you to pick a file or highlight and choose
multiple files quickly.

• Scroll - once operating with an extended document or viewing an extended online

page you will have to be compelled to scroll up or down thereon page. Employing a
mouse wheel or clicking and dragging the scroll bar are another performing of the
mouse.

Types of computer mouse: Cordless, Footmouse, IntelliMouse (Wheel mouse), J mouse,

Mechanical mouse, Optical mouse.

1. Cordless (Wireless): A cordless mouse is known as a wireless mouse. It connects to

a computer with none wires. Instead, the mouse uses some manner of wireless technology,
like Bluetooth, RF, or infrared radio waves. Usually, a USB receiver is blocked into the
computer and receives signals from the cordless mouse.

Figure 15: Logitech M705 Cordless (Wireless) mouse

2. Footmouse: Footmouse may be a variety of electronic device that enables a user to

regulate the mouse indicator with their feet. The concept behind this technology is to permit a
user to stay their hands on their keyboard and still be ready to use a mouse. An example of an
organization that develops this can be Hunter Digital.

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3. IntelliMouse (Wheel mouse): IntelliMouse is an optical mouse whole 1st developed
by Microsoft in 1996. Thus it's also called Microsoft mouse, wheel mouse or scroll mouse.
It’s a wheel between the left and right buttons that enable the user to scroll up and down a
web page; as critical exploitation the vertical scroll bar. Figure 16 shows an example of the
first Microsoft IntelliMouse.

Figure 16: IntelliMouse (Wheel mouse)

The mouse wheel additionally acts as a push button once depressed. For instance, if you
hover over a link and press down on the mouse wheel, it opens that link in a very new tab.
Due to the wide quality of this mouse; it's become the quality mouse model used with most
computers. Though "IntelliMouse" could be a Microsoft trademark, wheel mice are
developed by each mouse manufacturer these days.

4. J mouse: Alternatively noted as a J Mouse or J Mouse, a J-Mousewas used with

older transportable computers that utilized the "J" key on the keyboard to perform the
functions of a computer mouse. It unremarkably had two separate buttons for the left and
right-click below the spacebar. As may be seen within the image, the zenith or ZDS Z-Star
EX keyboard the J-mouse is unambiguously known within a mouse associated an indented
circle. It may be known visually and physically from the opposite keys on the keyboard. The
following image is an example of the left and right mouse buttons found on the laptop
computer.

Figure 17: J mouse

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Because of its problem to use and higher technologies that were later introduced, this mouse
isn’t any longer utilized. We’d wish to give thanks Chris from ZDSParts for provision U.S.A.
with a clear image of the Z-Star EX portable computer.

5. Mechanical mouse: A mechanical mouse could be an electronic device that contains

a metal or rubber ball on its side. Once the ball is rolled in any direction, sensors within the
mouse observe this motion and move the on-screen mouse pointer within the same direction.
The image is an example of very cheap of a mechanical mouse with the ball removed. Today,
this mouse has been replaced by the optical mouse.

Figure 18: Mechanical Mouse

6. Optical mouse: The optical mouse initial introduced by Microsoft on 19 April
1999 that uses light-emitting diodes (LED) or optical device to assist track movement. These
mice are known by examining very cheap of the mouse. As seen within the figure below the
optical-mechanical mouse incorporates a ball, and also the optical mouse incorporates a
lightweight emitting from very cheap.

Drawbacks of some optical mice are that it works properly in rooms with bright lights and a
few surfaces like a glass table. However, as compared to optical-mechanical mice, optical
mice are a far higher resolution.

Figure 19: Optical mouse

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How will an optical mouse work?

An optical mouse also encompasses a small low-resolution camera that takes a thousand or
more photos each second. Within the camera, the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
(CMOS) sensor sends a proof to a Digital Signal Processor (DSP). The DSP will analyze
every image for pattern and lightweight changes then primarily based off those changes
moves the mouse indicator on your screen.

Why is the mouse light red?

Although not all optical mouse use red, it is the most common semiconductor diode used as a
result of it's usually the cheaper diode and since the photo detectors are more sensitive to red
light.

3. JOYSTICK:

Joystick is an input device that permits the user move an object on the screen. It consists of a
small, vertical lever (called the stick) mounted on a base that's used to direct the screen
indicator around. Children’s use joystick easily led play games. A joystick may be a stick set
in two crossed grooves and might be moved left or right, forward or backward. Potentiometer
mounted at the bottom of the joystick measure the number of movement, and is derived come
the stick back to the center position once it's free.

The primary joystick was invented in 1926 at the U.S. naval work by C. B. Mirick and
patented. It was a two-axis electronic joystick, kind of like the joysticks in use these days,
and was original designed for remotely piloting aircraft. The picture shows the Logitech
Freedom two.4, an example of a joystick.

Figure 20: Joystick

4. TOUCHPAD (GLIDEPOINT):

A touchpad is an input device located on laptops and some keyboards to move a cursor with
your figure. It is often utilized in place of an external mouse. It’s additionally observed as a
glide pad, glide point, pressure sensitive tablet, or trackpad. A touchpad is operated by using

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your finger and dragging it across the flat surface of the touchpad. As you move your finger
on the surface, the mouse indicator moves in this same direction. Like most computer mice,
the touchpad additionally has two buttons below the touch surface that allows you to left-
click or right-click.

Figure 21: Touchpad

5. TRACKBALL:

A data input device that appears like an upside-down mouse. The onscreen pointer is moved
by the electronic device with a thumb or finger. An electronic device needs arm and gliding
joint motion that an everyday mouse takes and thus is commonly less trying for the user to
use, serving to forestall RSI. The image of the Logitech cordless electronic device mouse is
an example of an electronic device mouse that uses the thumb for movement.

Figure 22: Trackball

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6. TRACKPOINT:

IBM initial introduced TrackPoint in 1992. It’s a mouse answer used with moveable
computers. TrackPoint may be a little, isometric joystick that resembles a pencil’s implement
head, settled between the “G,”“H,” and “B” keys on the keyboard. This technology allows the
user to stay their hands on the keyboard and still be able to management the mouse. The left
and right buttons for this mouse are ordinarily settled underneath the spacebar. The image
shows an example of the TrackPoint.

Figure 23: TrackPoint

7. LIGHT PEN:

An electronic stylus may be a inform device. It’s wont to choose a displayed menu choice on
the cathode-ray tube. It’s a sensitive pen like device. It’s capable of sensing a footing on the
CRT screen, once its tip touches the screen. Once its tip is moved over the screen surface, its
photoconductive cell device detects the sunshine coming back from the screen and therefore
the corresponding signals are sent to the processor. The menu may be a set of programmed
decisions offered to the user. A lightweight pen can even be used for graphics work. A user
will draw directly on the CRT screen with the sunshine pen.

8. JOYSTICK:

A joystick may be a inform device. It’s wont to move the indicator position on a CRT screen.
It performs an analogous to it of a mouse. A joystick may be a stick that has spherical ball at
its lower finish yet as its higher finish. The lower spherical ball move in an exceedingly
socket. The joystick is often moved right to left, forward, or backward. The electronic
equipment within the joystick detects and measures the displacement of the joystick from its
central position. The data is shipped to the processor.

9. SCANNER:

Scanners are a sort of input devices. The keyboard will input only text by using keys. If we
wish to input an image the keyboard cannot do this. Thus by using scanners we can input any

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graphical matter directly into the computer and show it back on the computer screen.
Necessary kinds of scanners are optical scanners and magnetic ink character readers.

a. Optical scanners: The optical scanners are capable of reading information recorded on
paper, using and light and lightweight sensors. The data to be scanned is typed information,
information coded as ink or pencil marks, or info coded as bars. The following are the
unremarkably used optical scanners-

i. Optical Character Reader (OCR): An optical character reader detects

alphanumeric characters, written or typed on paper. It’s going to be a hand-held
scanner or a page scanner to observe lightweight reflected from a line or from a page
of the text. The amendment within the mirrored lightweight is converted to binary
information that is distributed to the processor

ii. Optical Mark Reader (OMR): Special marks such as bubble are ready on
examination answer sheets or questionnaires’. The user fill in these squares or bubbles
with soft pencil or ink to point their alternative. These marks are detected by an
optical mark reader and therefore the corresponding signals are sent to the processor.

iii. Optical Bar-code Readers: This methodology uses variety of bars or lines of
varying thickness and spacing between them, to point the specified information. Bar-
code is employed on most grocery things. An optical-bar scanner will read such bars
and convert them into electrical pulses to be processed by a computer. the foremost
unremarkably used bar-code is Universal Product Code (UPC). The UPC code uses a
series of vertical bars of varied widths. These bars square measure detected as 10
digits. The primary 5 digits determine the provider or manufacturer of the item. The
second 5 digits determine individual product. The code additionally contains a check
digit, to make sure that the data scan is correct or not.

b. Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR): MICR is wide employed by banks to process
large volumes of cheques and deposit forms, written daily. A special ink referred to as ink is
employed to put in writing characters on the cheques and drafts that are to be processed by
MICR.

10. TOUCH SCREEN:

Touch screen may be a type of display screen that includes a touch-sensitive clear panel
covering the screen. in touch screens, a grid of sunshine beams or fine wires crisscrosses the
compiler screen. When you touch the screen along with your finger, the rays are blocked and
therefore the computer senses wherever you've got pressed and thereby identifies the object
that you would like to settle on. Principally it's accustomed select choices that are displayed
on screen. are screen square measure terribly straightforward to use hence they're usually
used as input devices in public places like ATM, Airports, Travel Agencies etc.

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3.2. INTRODUCTION OF OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device may be a peripheral that enables a computer to communicate info to
humans or another machine, by accepted information from the pc and remodeling them into
an acceptable kind.

Output that may be understood by humans is within the kind of:

(1) Hard copy: hard copy is an output on paper and might be scan instantly or keep and
browse later. This can be a comparatively stable and permanent kind of output. Examples are
printer and plotter.
(2) Soft copy: Soft copy is typically a screen displayed output. It a transient kind of
output and is lost once the computer is turned off. Examples are visual display terminal or
visual show unit (monitor).

1. PRINTERS:
Printers are commonly used output devices. They supply info in a very permanent readable
kind.
There are two kinds of printer that depends on the technology utilized in their manufacture.
1. Impact printers
2. Non-impact printers
There is one more classification in step with however they print-
1. Character printers
2. Line printers
3. Page printers
Classification of Printers

According to technology According to how they print

Impact Non-impact Character Line Page

printers printers printers printers printers

Dot matrix Inkjet

printers printers

Daisy-wheel Laser
printers printers

Line printers

Figure 24: Classification of printers

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A. According to technology
(1) Impact printers: The printer that prints the information with the help of collision
of print head on the inked ribbon and paper are named as impact printers. Some samples of
impact printers are dot-matrix printers, daisy-wheel printers, and line printers.

Benefits:
1. They work with multipart forms that either have leaves of carbon or use carbon-imprinted
paper as they use pressure to get a picture.
2. Their device mechanisms are designed to allow them to use continuous forms as they
print one line at a time rather than one page at a time.

(2) Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers use ink spraying, static

magnetization or a heating methodology to produce the required image on the paper or the
other output media. Two common types of non-impact printers embody inkjet and laser
printers. Inkjet printers spray very little drops of ink onto each page, whereas laser printers
roll ink onto the paper using a cylindrical drum.

Benefits:
1. Non-impact printers have advanced to a degree that they're higher than impact printers
at as regards to everything apart from feeding continuous paper and dealing with multi-part
forms.
2. They need abundant higher resolutions since, rather than using metal pins, they'll use drops
of ink measured in picoliters or toner particles measured in micrometers.
3. Non-impact printers are typically quieter and need less maintenance than impact printers,
since they do not physically strike a ribbon against the paper.
Usually a non-impact printer are quicker than printer, however the disadvantage of non-
impact printer is that it turn outs single copy of text whereas impact printers produce
multiple copies of the text.

B. According to how they print

(1) CHARACTER PRINTERS:
Character printers print one character at a time. Three of the foremost usually used character
printers are:

Character Printers

Letter-quality printers Dot-matrix printers

Figure 25: Classification of Character printers

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a. Letter-quality printers: These printers use printwheel font known as daisy print wheel.
Each petal of the wheel contains a character embossed on it. A motor spins the wheel at a fast
rate. A print hammer strikes it to produce the output. Wheel printers are impact printers.
Their output resembles a typed output which they’re noted for their print quality. The speed
of these letter-quality printers typically ranges from ten to fifty characters per second.

b. Dot-matrix printers: These printers print each character as a pattern of dots. The print
head includes a matrix of very little needles, typically seven rows with nine needles in each
(9 x seven matrix), that hammers out characters at intervals the sort of patterns of very little
dots. The shape of each character, i.e. the dot pattern, is obtained from info management
electronically at intervals the printer. The print quality of a dot-matrix printer is inferior to
that of a wheel printer. But dot-matrix printers are faster than letter-quality printers at
intervals the vary of forty to 250 characters per second.

(2) LINE PRINTERS:

In business where large amount of material are written, the character-at-a-time printers are
too slow; therefore, these users would really like line-at-a-time printers. Line printers, or line-
at-a-time printers, use special mechanism which is able to print a full line at once; they will
typically print the range of 1,200 to 6,000 lines per minute. Drum, chain, and band printers
are line-at-a-time printers.

There are three types of line printers–

Line printers

DrumPrinter Chain printer Band printer

Figure 26: Types of Line printers

(i) Drum printer: A printing machine consists of a solid, cylindrical drum that has raised
characters in bands on its surface. There are as many bands as there are printing positions.
Each band contains all the potential characters. The drum rotates at a fast speed. For each
potential print position, that is, opposite to each band of the drum, there is a print hammer
settled behind the paper. These hammers strike the paper, together with the connected ribbon,
behind the paper. Typically speed of drum printers is within the vary of 300 to 2000 lines per
minute.

(ii) Chain printer: Chain printers are speedily rotating chain that's named print chain. The
print chain contains characters. every link of the chain is character font. The printers receive

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all the characters to be written in one line from the processor. a sequence might contain over
one listing. Once the required character comes within the print position, the hammer strikes
the ribbon and paper against the character. Its speed lies within the vary of 400-2400 lines per
minute.

(iii) Band printer: Band printers are rather like chain printers except it uses a band instead of
a sequence and has fewer hammers. Band printer contains a band divided into five sections of
forty eight characters each. The hammers on a band printer are mounted on a cartridge that
moves across the paper to the acceptable positions. Characters are turned into place and
affected by the hammers. Font styles can merely be changed by substitution a band or chain.
Some printers can print up to 3000 lines/min.

(3) PAGE PRINTERS:

These are really high speed nonimpact printers, which can prove documents at speed of over
20,000 lines per minute. Electronics, xerography, lasers, and completely different
technologies have created these high-volume systems potential. These techniques, named as
electro photographic techniques, have developed from the paper apparatus technology.

Advantages of optical laser printers are-

1) Really high speed

2) Really high image quality
3) Low background level
4) Glorious graphics capabilities
5) Low maintenance demand.

2. PLOTTERS:
Plotters are output devices. They are accustomed prove precise and smart quality graphics
and drawings at a lower place computer’s management. A plotter reproduces drawings
exploitation pens that are connected to movable arms. The pen is directed across the surface
of a stationary piece of paper. High quality bar graph, pie charts, created with a plotter
provides an excellent quality output. Plotters are really valuable but they are in a very
position in providing pictures footage. Plotters are in a very position in characteristic
voluminous colors. The pen plotters might even be classified into the following types-

• Drum plotters

• Micro grip plotters

• Flat-bed plotters

• Inkjet plotters

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3. SPEAKERS:
A speaker may be a device that converts analog audio signals into the equivalent air
vibrations so as to create audible sound. A system’s speaker is that the part that takes the
signaling keep on things like CDs, tapes, and DVDs and turns it into actual sound that we
will hear. The speakers that are connected to the computer are kind of like those that are
connected to a stereo. The sole distinction is that the computer system’s speakers are
typically littler and that they contain their own small electronic equipment. Speakers receive
perpetually dynamical electrical phenomenon from sound card. This current is transferred to
a magnet that pushes the speaker core back and forth. This manner pressure vibration is
generated that makes sound.

4. SOUND CARDS:
A sound card may be a peripheral device that attaches to the ISA (Industry standard
Architecture) or PCI (Peripheral component Interconnect) slot on a motherboard to enable the
computer to input, process, and deliver sound.

The four main functions of sound card are:

(1) As a synthesizer (generating sounds)

(2) As a MIDI interface
(3) Analog to Digital conversion (for example, in recording sound from a microphone)
(4) Digital to Analog conversion (for example, to breed sound for a speaker).

We can use three strategies for sound synthesis namely; frequency modulation (FM)
technology, wavetable and physical modelling.

Frequency Modulation (FM) technology: this is often the smallest amount costly and least
effective technique. Sounds area unit simulated by using algorithms to form circular function
waves that area unit as shut as attainable to the sound. as an example, the sound of a stringed
instrument will be simulated, though the result doesn't extremely sound noticeably sort of a
stringed instrument.

Wavetable: Wavetable uses actual, digitally recorded sound samples keep on the card for the
very best performance.

Physical modelling: during this synthesizing technique sounds are simulated through a
complex programming procedure. Some sound cards may also have sounds downloaded to
them.

3.3. SOFTWARE AND ITS TYPES

Software may be an assortment of computer programs and connected information that gives
the directions for telling a computer what to do and the way to try and do it. Code refers to
one or additional computer programs and data command within the storage of the computer
for a few functions.

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In other words, we will say that code may be a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and
its documentation involved with the operation of a data process system. In brief, we will say
that a group of directions that performs a selected task is named the program or code
program. The directions within the program direct the computer to perform input operations,
method the data, and output the results.

The software is assessed into the following-

-System software and application software

-Assemblers, Compilers, and interpreters

-System utility software

3.3.1. System Software

A group of one or additional programs designed to manage the operation of a computing
system. These are general programs written to help humans within the use of computing
system and for creating the operations of the computer system more practical and
economical.

System software is responsible for managing a range of independent hardware elements, in

order that they will work along harmoniously. Its purpose is to unburden the applying code
software engineer from the usually advanced details of the actual computer getting used, as
well as such accessories as communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and
keyboards, and conjointly to partition the computer's resources like memory and processor
time in a safe and stable manner.

3.3.2. Application Software

Application software is that the interface between the user and also the system software to
permit the user to perform specific tasks.

Application software is developed from two main sources-

1. User written application packages: User written application packages are people who
are designed and coded by the users of the package for their own use.

2. Pre-written application packages: Pre-written application packages are those packages

that are written by another person or group and made out there to computer users like-

1. Word processor

2. Data manager

3. Electronic program

Traditionally, application packages square measure restricted to the final purpose functions of
production schedule, ledger, and general accounting packages. Since, there's an excellent

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demand for general purpose package. Special purpose packages have conjointly been
developed for such areas as banking, hospital administration, insurance, video editing
software, package, medical software etc.

3.4. ASSEMBLERS, COMPILERS, AND INTERPRETERS

Assemblers: A program that translates a programming language program into a machine
language program is termed an assembler. An assembler translates the programs written
within the method codes (assembly language) into executable kind. A compiler will identical
issue for programs written in a very problem-oriented language.

Compilers: A program that interprets a problem-oriented language program into a machine

language program is termed a compiler. A compiler is a lot of intelligent than a programme.
It checks every kind of limits, ranges, errors, etc.

Interpreters: an interpreter may be a program that interprets one statement of a problem-

oriented language program into machine codes and executes it. During this approach it payoff
additional, until all the statements of the program are translated and executed. A compiler is
almost five to twenty five times quicker than an interpreter. an interpreter may be a tiny
program as compared to the compiler. It occupies less memory space.

3.5. SYSTEM UTILITY SOFTWARE

System utility software may be a program designed to perform maintenance work on the
system or on system parts. For instance, a storage backup program, a disk and file recovery
program, or a resource editor.

Utility programs conjointly referred to as service programs are routines that perform services
like writing texts or programs, debugging programs to correct logical mistakes, sorting
records into a specific sequence for process. a couple of samples of utility programs normally
out there in a very automatic data processing system are: Text editor, Memory dump
program, Debugging tool, type and merge, Trace routine, File manager, Loader, Linker and
locator.

3.6. INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTER APPLICATION

Now a day’s computer plays an important role in our lifestyle. Everyone is connected either
directly or indirectly with computers. From Engineers to Doctors, Students, Teachers,
Government Organization all of them use computers to perform specific tasks, for recreation
or simply to end work. Computers have created our life easier. When we work manually the
time to finish the task is a lot of whereas through computer we are able to complete the task a
lot of with efficiency in very less time and is a lot of correct. A number of the common
applications are shown in Figure 27.

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 e-Business

Multimedia Bio-
& Animation Informatics

Computer
Applications
Computer
Helth Care
Gamiing

Rmote
Meterology
Sensing &
&
GIS
Climatolopgy

Figure 27: Computer Applications

(1) E-Business: E-businesses any system or application that empowers business

processes. E-business is additionally called Electronic business or E-commerce. Nowadays
this is often principally finished internet technologies. Applications of E-business is divided
into three categories:

a. Internal business systems: This includes; client relationship management, Enterprise

resource designing, worker data portals, data management, progress management, Document
management systems, Human resource management, method management and Internal
dealings process.

b. Enterprise communication and collaboration: This includes; E-mail, Voice mail,

Discussion forums, Chat systems, knowledge conferencing and cooperative work systems.

c. Electronic commerce: Electronic commerce is Business-to-business electronic

commerce or business-to-consumer electronic commerce. This includes; Electronic funds
transfer, offer chain management, E-marketing and on-line dealings process.

(2) Bio-Informatics: Bio-informatics term originate from the term computers and
biology. It derives data from computer analysis of biological knowledge. A serious activity in
bioinformatics is to develop computer code tools to come up with helpful biological data.
These will accommodates the data hold on within the order, however conjointly experimental
results from varied sources, patient statistics, and scientific literature. Analysis in
bioinformatics includes technique development for storage, retrieval, and analysis of the data.
Bioinformatics could be a speedily developing branch of biology and is very knowledge
domain, using techniques and ideas from scientific discipline, statistics, arithmetic,
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chemistry, organic chemistry, physics, and linguistics. It’s several sensible applications in
numerous areas of biology and medication.

Computers play several roles in modern biology:

• Collecting and process signals detected by laboratory equipment: deoxyribonucleic

acid sequences, CCD devices, spectrophotometers, and on the subject of the other device
which will be connected to a computer via an analog to digital convertor.

• Tracking samples and managing experiments in industrial-style laboratories (e.g., in

factor sequencing centers). Smaller labs haven't got the resources to invest in machine-
controlled laboratory management; however using computer code to manually maintain lab-
notebook-style electronic records is speedily turning into additional common.

• Storing knowledge publically databases, and additional significantly, public access to

the info via refined internet searches and deposition mechanisms. NCBI, home of Genbank,
PubMed, and alternative public databases, is that the premier example of the sort of
knowledge services which will be designed onto a public biological database.

• Extracting patterns and rules from large knowledge collections and using these
determined patterns to characterize and predict options in new knowledge. This is often the
core of bioinformatics: developing tools which might acknowledge pattern matches and have
signatures among an otherwise inexplicable knowledge set.

• Annotation: using automatic process ways to assign useful meaning to

uncharacterized knowledge and to form informative links between totally different
knowledge collections. As an example, several annotation systems use machine-controlled
sequence comparison searches to identify potential genes in new genome knowledge.

• Simulation: victimization known data a couple of system, together with a

mathematical or chemical science model, to simulate properties of the system. This class is
unbelievably various, from simulating the motions of interacting protein molecules to
modeling the flow of chemicals through organic chemistry pathways.

(3) Healthcare: Within the previous few decades incredible advances are created in
health care. Computing technology has become very important in several areas of the health
care business. Several of those have relied upon technology by applying applied science skills
to medical issues. Mapping the human ordination was solely attainable as a result of
algorithms developed by computer scientists. Image process and pattern recognition
technology used to assess radiology scans and electronic medical records and physician
ordering systems are currently returning on-line, reducing medical errors and rising the
standard of care.

Robots are used for Microscopic surgery to enhance the correctness of the procedure. This
improves the outcomes and reduces recovery time.

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For example, data retrieval and data processing ought to give improved ways for early
detection of illness outbreaks and unsuspected drug reactions. Personalized medication can
give treatment plans, not supported applied math outcomes for big populations, however on
the individual's polymer. Telemedicine can support medical examinations in remote areas of
the globe and supply up so far diagnostic support. Computer helpful devices will permit the
disabled or senior to steer fuller, additional independent lives.

(4) Remote Sensing and GIS: Remote sensing is that the art and science of
constructing measurements of the planet exploitation sensors on airplanes or satellites. These
sensors collect knowledge within the style of pictures and supply specialized capabilities for
manipulating, analysing, and visualizing those pictures. Remote detected mental imagery is
integrated at intervals a GIS.

A geographic data system (GIS) may be a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing
feature events on earth. GIS technology integrates common database operations, like question
and applied math analysis, with maps. GIS manages location-based data and provides tools
for show and analysis of various statistics, as well as population characteristics, economic
development opportunities, and vegetation varieties. GIS permits you to link databases and
maps to make dynamic displays. Additionally, it provides tools to envision, query, and
overlay those databases in ways that inconceivable with ancient spreadsheets. These skills
distinguish GIS from different data systems, and build it valuable to a large varies of public
and personal enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and designing methods.

(5) Metrology and Climatology: Meteorology is that the science of weather. It’s
primarily an inter-disciplinary science as a result of the atmosphere, land and ocean represent
an integrated system. The three basic aspects of meteorology are observation, understanding
and prediction of weather. There are several kinds of routine meteorological observations. A
number of them are created with easy instruments just like the measuring device for measure
temperature or the wind gage for recording wind speed. The observant techniques became
more and more advanced in recent years and satellites have currently created it attainable to
watch the weather globally. Countries round the world exchange the weather observations
through quick telecommunications channels. These are aforethought on weather charts and
analysed by skilled meteorologists at forecasting centers. Weather forecasts are then created
with the assistance of contemporary computers and supercomputers. Weather data and
forecasts are of significant importance to several activities like agriculture, aviation, shipping,
fisheries, tourism, defence, industrial comes, water management and disaster mitigation.
Recent advances in satellite and technology have led to vital progress in meteorology.

Climatology may be a study of the climate of an area or region on the premise of weather
records accumulated over long periods of your time. The typical values of earth science
parameters derived from a knowledge base that extends over many decades are known as
climatologically traditional. Totally different regions of the globe have different characteristic
climates. However, it's currently recognized that climate isn't static and problems like
temperature change and warming are receiving increasing attention.

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(6) Computer Game: A video game may be a computer-controlled game wherever
players act with objects displayed on a screen for the sake of diversion. A computer game is
actually an equivalent style of diversion, however refers not solely to games played on a
private laptop, however conjointly to games pass by a console or arcade machine.

The term "computer game" conjointly includes games that show solely text or that use
different ways, like sound or vibration, as their primary feedback device, or a controller
(console games), or a mixture of any of the higher than.

There are many varieties of Computer Games:

a. Action and skills games: The game comes in this category are Sports games, Combat
games, Platform games, Labyrinth games and Interactive movies.
b. Strategy and role games: In this category Adventure games, Role playing games
(single user or small groups) like (Neverwinter Nights), Roguelike games,
MMORPGs, War games, Strategy and construction games, and Simulations are there.
c. Hybrid play: Real time strategy games, Real time adventure and role playing games
with combat come in this category.

(7) Multimedia System and Animation: Multimedia uses computers to present text,
audio, video, animation, interactive options, and still pictures in varied ways in which and
mixtures created possible through the advancement of technology. By combining media and
content, those interested in multimedia system will take on and work with a range of media
forms to get their content across. This can be an exciting new field for those interested in
computers, technology, and artistic career choices. Multimedia system will be accessed
through computers or electronic devices and integrates the various forms along. One example
of multimedia system would be combining an internet site with video, audio, or text pictures.

Animation is that the method of displaying still pictures during a speedy sequence to make
the illusion of movement. These pictures will be hand drawn, computer generated, or pictures
of 3D objects. Though' most of the people associate animation with cartoons, it additionally
has applications in industrial and research project. Despite the sort, the viewer's body plays a
main role in why people see continuous movement rather than a series of quickly dynamical
pictures.

Types

There are three main types of animation: traditional, stop motion, and computer generated.
Every will be wont to build each second and 3D pictures. There are also alternative less
common forms, several of that targets using an uncommon medium like sand or glass to
make the photographs, moreover as mixtures of live action and drawings or computer created
pictures.

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Traditional

Traditional animation involves drawing each frame of a movie by hand. In any case the
drawings are completed and color, they'll be photographed or scanned into a computer and so
combined with sound on film. The method is extraordinarily long, since it needs the creation
of around twenty four drawings per second of film. It is also effortful, that is why most
historically animated films are created by large corporations.

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 Chapter IV: Introduction of Operating System

4.1. INTRODUCTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system is an integrated set of computer programs that controls the general
operations of the computer. It conjointly manages and controls the obtainable resources (like
processor, memory, I/O devices etc.) to supply most productivity in terms of potency and
utilization. Its primary objective is to boost the performance and potency of a computer
system and increase facility. Operating system is directly interact with hardware element and
build an interface between user and application software aas shown in Figure ure 28. Some
standard in operation systems are MS-DOS,
MS OS/2, Windows, and Unix.

User

Application Programs

Operating System

Hardware

Figure
Fig 28: Operating System

4.2. FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Process
Manage
ment
Security Memory
Manage Functio Manage
ment ns of ment

O.S.
Device File
Manage Manage
ment ment

Figure 29: Functions of O.S.

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1. Process Management: Process could be a program in execution, i.e. a way is
that the unit of work throughout a system. Multiprogramming systems expressly permit
multiple processes to exist at any given time, where only one is using the C.P.U. at any given
moment, whereas the remaining processes are taking part in I/O or are waiting.

The software package is answerable for the following activities in relation to methodology
management -

a. The creation and deletion of every user and system methodology.

b. The suspension and commencement of processes.

c. The supply of mechanisms for methodology synchronization.

d. The supply of mechanisms for dead end handling.

The state of a way is made public by that process’s current activity. Each methodology may
even be in one in each of the following states; new, ready, running, waiting or halted. Each
methodology is delineate inside the software package by its own methodology management
block (PCB).

2. Memory management: Memory management is that the act of managing

constituent. It involves allocation and deallocation of memory resources (i.e. primary and
secondary memory) to various programs that desires them.

Operating System can be the following activities for memory management.

(1) Keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what a part of it area unit in use by whom, what
half are not in use.
(2) In multiprogramming, package decides that methodology will get memory once and
therefore the approach a great deal of.
(3) Allocates the memory once the tactic requests it to do to thus.
(4) De-allocates the memory once the tactic now not needs it or has been terminated.

3. File Management: A file could also be a set of connected information made public by
its creator. Commonly, files represent programs (both provide and object forms) and
information. Information files may even be numeric, alphabetic or alphabetical. Files may
even be free-form, like text files, or may even be bolt formatted. In general, a file could also
be a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is made public by its creator and
user.

File management is one in each of the foremost visible services of an OS. Computers can
store information in several whole totally different physical forms among that tape, disk, and
drum are the foremost common forms. each of these devices has their own characteristics and
physical organization.

Normally files area unit organized into directories to ease their use. once multiple users have
access to files, it's aiming to be fascinating to manage by whom and in what ways in which
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files may even be accessed. The OS is answerable for the following activities in relation to
file management:

a. Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are
typically mentioned as organization
organization.
b. Decides WHO gets the resources.
c. Allocates the resources.
d. De-allocates
allocates the resources.
4. Device management: Device management, activating and dominant the peripheral
devices in a computer. The OS is mostly responsible for device management that is embodied
embod
within the device drivers. Generally
enerally th
thee routines of device management are run while not an
OS (such as in tiny embedded systems or outside of the OS as in early DOS systems).

Operating System will be the subsequent activities for device management.

a. Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible

responsible for this task because the I/O
controller.
b. Decides that method gets the device once and for the way abundant time.
c. Allocates the device within the economical approach.
d. De-allocates devices.
5. Security Management: Security involves protection n of varied resources and data
against destruction or unauthorized access. It includes each internal and external security.
External security involves security from external factors like fireplace, floods, thefts etc.,
whereas internal security involves varied
varied processes as routine backup of knowledge, data
replications at over one place etc.

4.3. TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Batch
Processing

Embedded Multiuser
O.S. and single
user
Types of
O.S. Multi
Distribute Tasking
d O.S. and Single
Tasking
Real Time

Figure 30: Types of O.S.

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4.3.1. Batch processing operating System
In batch processing software every user prepares his program off-line and submits it to the
computer center. Computer operator collects the programs that are punched on card and
stacks one program or job on prime of another. once a batch of programs has been collected,
the operator loads this batch of programs into the computer at just once wherever they're
executed one when another. Finally the operator retrieves the written outputs of all these jobs
and returns them to the connected users.

Batch processing is also referred to as serial, sequential, off line, or stacked job process. It
reduces the best time of a automatic data processing system as a result of transition from one
job to a different doesn't need operator intervention. It’s the foremost acceptable
methodology of process for several kinds of applications like payroll or preparation of client
statements wherever it's not necessary to update information (records) on each day.

Batch processing in operation systems are ideal in things where:

- There are large amounts of data to be processed.

- Similar data must be processed.

- Similar process is concerned once execution the info.

The system is capable of distinctive times once the processor is idle at which period ‘batches’
perhaps processed. Process is all performed automatically with none user intervention.

Figure 31: Batch processing O.S.

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Advantages:

a. The processing time on machine is increased.

b. CPU utilization is improved.

Disadvantages:

a. Troublesome to debug program.

b. A job could enter an infinite loop.
c. Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job will have an effect on unfinished
jobs.

4.3.2. Multi-programming operating system

The conception of execution was introduced to beat the matter of underutilization of the
mainframe and main memory.

In multiprogramming the concept is carried by placing two or more user’s program in main
memory and execution them at the same time. The CPU jumps from one program to another
virtually oftentimes. Since the operational speed of CPU is way faster than that of I/O
operations, the mainframe will provide time to varied programs despite of sitting idle once
one is busy with I/O operations. In execution system, varied users share the time of CPU.
Once one user program looking ahead to I/O transfer; there's another user program that is
prepared to create use of the CPU time. In execution all the programs residing within the
main memory are going to be in one among the subsequent three states; running, blocked,
ready. a simple method of execution is shown in Figure 32.

As shown in Figure 32 at the particular situation, job' A' isn't utilizing the mainframe time
because it's busy in I/O operations. Therefore the mainframe becomes busy to execute the
task 'B'. Another job C is waiting for the mainframe for obtaining its execution time. so
during this state the mainframe can never be idle and utilizes most of its time.

Figure 32: Multi-programming O.S.

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Advantages

1. High and efficient CPU utilization.

2. User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

Disadvantages

1. CPU scheduling is required.

2. To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

4.3.3. Multi-processing operating system

The term multiprocessing is defined as collection of computer connected with one another or
computers with two or more independent CPUs all having the capability to execute many
programs at same time. In such a system, directions from different and independent programs
will be processed at the same instant of time by different CPUs or the CPUs might
simultaneously execute different directions from an equivalent program. The fundamental
organization of a typical multiprocessing system is shown in figure.

There are nearly limitless numbers of possible data processing systems. In some systems,
various small CPUs are connected together to perform the main process. If one amongst the
small CPUs fails, the opposite CPUs can automatically begin executing its job. In different
systems, CPUs are connected as a computer networks. for instance – distributed processing.
In these networks, small CPUs, referred to as face processors are used for planning and
dominant all jobs getting into the system from distant terminals and different input devices.
The CPUs, referred to as computer or back-end processors are used just for main process jobs
and not for knowledge communications. In some data processing systems, every hardware
performs solely explicit quite work and if one hardware fails then different hardware
performs complete work till error is debugged.

Main
CPU 1 CPU 2
Memory

I/O I/O
Processors Processors

I/O Units I/O Units

Figure 33: Basic organization of multiprocessing system

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Multi-processing operating systems have multiple processor that shares there bus, clock,
memory and I/O devices. By using I/O processors enhances the potency of the computer
system by creating doable the concurrent execution of input, processing, and output
operations. The hardware will perform some operations on elements of varied totally
different user programs whereas acting I/O operations are carried out at the same time by I/O
processors on different elements of programs. the computer design having I/O processors is
shown in figure. the aim of use of I/O processors is to enhance the performance of a computer
system. this idea helps us to move one step more by planning systems that build use of over
one hardware. Such systems are referred to as multiprocessing systems.

Advantage
1. Increase throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability

Disadvantage

1. If one processor fails then it'll have an effect on within the speed
2. Multiprocessor systems are expensive
3. Complex OS is required
4. Large main memory required.

4.3.4. Multi-Tasking operating System

Concurrent execution of over one task at identical time is named multitasking. just one
central processing unit is employed in multitasking however it switches from one program to
a different thus quickly that it provides the looks of executing all of the programs at identical
time. In multitasking OS many tasks are loaded at the same time and employed in the
memory. Windows OS is an example of this sort of OS and it will be seen all over.

4.3.5. Timesharing operating system

Allocation of computer resources in time slots to many programs at the same time is
timesharing. It provides numerous numbers of user’s direct access to the computer for
problem solving. This method is completed by providing a separate machine to every user. Of
these machines are hooked up to the main computer system. In time sharing OS several users
to share the resources at the same time.

The main distinction between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that just in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, objective is to maximize processor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems objective is to reduce latency.

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 Figure 34: Timesharing O.S.

In Figure 34 the user 5 is active however user 1, user 2, user 3, and user four are in waiting
state whereas user 6 is in ready status.
As soon as the time slice of user 5 is completed, the control moves on to the next prepared
user i.e. user 6. During this state user 2, user 3, user 4, and user 5 are in waiting state and user
one is in prepared state. The method continues within the same means so on.

Note: The term 'Time Sharing' isn't any longer usually used, it's been replaced by
'Multitasking System'.

Advantages

1. Provide advantage of fast response.

2. Avoids duplication of software.

3. Reduces central processing unit idle time.

Disadvantages

1. Problem of reliability.

2. Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.

3. Problem of data communication.

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4.3.6. Real-time Operating System
There are several applications during which immediate response is needed from computer.
Time is that the key think about real time software system. Real-time software system has
well-defined, fixed time constraints otherwise system can fail. For instance Scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial management systems, weapon systems,
robots, and home-appliance controllers, traffic system etc. There are two types of real-time
operating systems.

a. Hard real-time operating system: Hard real-time OS guarantee that critical tasks
complete on time. In hard real-time systems secondary storage is proscribed or missing with
knowledge keep in store. In these systems memory board is nearly never found.

b. Soft time period operating system: Soft real-time OS are less restrictive. Critical
real-time task gets priority over different tasks and retains the priority till it completes. Soft
real-time systems have limited utility than hard real time systems. For instance, Multimedia,
video game, Advanced Scientific projects like subsurface exploration and planetary rovers
etc.

4.3.7. Distributed operating system

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real time application
and multiple users. in this type of system, processor don't share memory or clock. Instead,
every processor has its own memory. Processing jobs are distributed among the processors
consequently to that one will perform every job most with efficiency. The processor
communicates with one another through numerous communication lines. These are referred
as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system might
vary in size and performance. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, and computers
and so on.

Advantages
1. With resource sharing facility user at one web site is also able to use the resources
accessible at another.
2. Speedup the exchange of data with each other via email correspondence.
3. If one web site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites will probably continue
in operation.
4. Better service to the customers.
5. Reduction of the load on the host pc.
6. Reduction of delays in data processing

4.3.8. Network operating system

Network operating system is that the combination of software system and protocols utilized
by totally different computers connected with one another within the network. It runs on a
server and provides server the potential to manage data, users, groups, security, applications,

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and different networking functions. Its primary purpose is to permit shared file and printer
access among multiple computers in a very network, usually space area network (LAN), a
private network or to other networks. examples of network operating systems are Microsoft
Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell
NetWare, and BSD.

Advantages:
1. Centralized servers are extremely stable.
2. Security is server managed.
3. Upgrades to new technologies and hardware may be simply integrated into the system.
4. Remote access to servers is feasible from totally different locations and types of
systems.

Disadvantages:
1. High value of buying and running a server.
2. Dependency on a central location for many operations.
3. Regular maintenance and updates are needed.

4.3.9. Embedded in operation System

An embedded system could be a pc that's a part of a distinct kind of machine. Embedded

software system could be specialized operating systems that are designed to control small
machines (like PDAs with less autonomy) with a restricted number of resources. They’re
terribly compact efficient economical purposely. Samples of embedded in operation systems
are Windows cerium and Minix 3.

4.3.10. Multi-User operating System

An operating system that allows coincident access by multiple users of a pc is termed as multi
user. Multiuser operating system allows multiple users to at the same time use the system. the
computer resources are time-shared among the user and each user having exclusive use of the
resources at anyone time. The slice throughout that anyone user has access to the computer
may be as small on milliseconds. this is often an extended time for several of the computer
operations and since all operators are offered a time slice successively, each user has the
impression that they have exclusive use of computer all the time. a number of the examples
of this type of software system are; UNIX operating system, Windows NT, LINUX, XENIX.

4.3.11. Single User in operation System

One user software system is intended for one user to effectively use a pc at a time. It’ll allow
each real time process, wherever the user is interacting with the pc throughout the execution
of the program and batch processing, wherever a series of programs are run in sequence. a
number of the examples are; Disk operating system, Windows 95/98, Windows NT.

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References

Text / Reference Books:

1. Introduction to Information Technology: Rajaraman, PHI

2. Fundamentals of Computers 4/E: Rajaraman, PHI
3. Fundamentals of Computers: P. Mohan, Himalaya
4. Information Technology: Dennis P. Curtin, McGraw Hill International
5. Fundamentals of Information Technology: Sahaetal, Himalaya
6. Microsoft Office Excel 2003 step by step: Frye, PHI
7. Fundamentals of Computers: Atul Kahate, Tata McGraw Hill

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 Questions for Practice

1. Define computer. What does a computer do?

2. Explain the types of computer.
3. Explain different types of computer
4. Write short on the system bus.
5. What is the classification of computer memory?
6. What is hardware and software? Explain different types of software.
7. Differentiate between application software and system software.
8. Explain the characteristics of computers.
9. What is primary memory and its types?
10. What is RAM and ROM with example?
11. Why is RAM so important?
12. What is ROM and its types?
13. What is primary memory give example?
14. Why is primary memory called so?
15. Explain the capabilities and limitations of Computers.
16. What do you mean by computer memory? Explain its classification.
17. What is RAM? Explain its types.
18. What are the two types of secondary memory?
19. What are the 3 types of memory in a computer?
20. Explain different types of keyboards.
21. What are the types of memory?
22. What is secondary memory and types?
23. Differentiate between impact printer and non- impact printer.
24. Explain the working of laser printer.
25. What is software? Explain its types.
26. Write the difference between system software and application software.
27. What is assembly language?
28. What are inputs and outputs devices?
29. What are the 10 input devices?
30. What are the 3 types of ROM?

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31. What is the main function of ROM?
32. What is ROM and its application?
33. What are the five types of ROM?
34. Describe in full the working structure of a device driver.
35. What is operating system? Describe the goals of OS.
36. Describe the major functions of Operating System.
37. What are the types of file management?
38. What are the types of RAM and ROM?
39. What are the different types of file organization?
40. What is EPROM in computer?
41. What is the function of EPROM?
42. Where EPROM is used?
43. What is difference between EPROM and EEPROM?
44. What is the difference between RAM and EPROM?
45. What is the function of EEPROM?
46. What are the 2 types of primary memory?
47. What are primary and secondary memory?
48. What is the main purpose of an operating system?
49. What are the different operating systems?
50. What is an operating system explain with an example?

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