X Biology CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Chapter: 7 Control and Coordination

Introduction:
 Control: Control is the power of restrain & regulation by which a process can be started, showed
down or stopped.
 Coordination: Coordination is orderly working of different but inter related parts to perform one or more
activities very smoothly. There are 2 modes of control & coordination, chemical & nervous. Plant do not have a
nervous system. They possess only chemical controls & coordination.

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM:

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

(CNS) (PNS)

Brain Spinal Cord Voluntary Nervous System Involuntary or

Autonomic Nervous
System

Cranial Nerves (12 pair) Spinal Nerves (31 pair)

Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic

System Nervous System

Structure of Neuron:mA neuron is an elongated branched cell. It consists of three different parts: namely
cell body, dendrites and axon.
 Cell body (cyton): Cell body consists of a nucleus with abundant cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm,
numerous cell organelles are embedded, e.g., mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, etc. Nissl’s granules are also present in cyloplasm and their main function is synthesis of
proteins. They are absent in axons.
 Dendrites: Short fibres which branch repeatedly and project out of the cell body are called
dendrites. They are generally short and branched cytoplasmic processes. These may be one to
many in number. Dendrites receive impulse from receptor or other neuron and bring it to cell body.
 Axon: It is a single, long branched fibre which transmit nerve impulses away from cell body to other
neuron. Axon consists of a central thin cytoplasm cylindrical axis continuous with the cell body. The
cytoplasm of axon is called axoplasm. The axolemma, also known as the nerve membrane, is a thin
permeable membrane that surrounds the axis cylinder.

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Types of Neurons: Based on their functions, the neurons can be classified into three different categories as
follows:
 Sensory Neurons: They receive sensory information from the skin, skeletal muscle, and other
sensory organs and then transmit this information to the brain and spinal cord.
 Motor Neurons: These are located in the central nervous system (CNS). This is the most common
type of neuron. They carry information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs and
glands throughout the body.
 Mixed Neurons: They act as both sensory and motor neurons
 Interneurons: As the name suggests, they connect motor neurons and sensory neurons. They help
in distant transmission of nerve impulses between two neurons.
Neuromuscular junction: This is a junction between the axons of motor neurons and muscles, which
transmits a message from the brain that causes the muscle to contract and relax.
Synapse: It is the gap between two
neurons. In these synapse specialized
chemicals known as
neurotransmitters which convert the
electrical impulse into the chemical
impulse.
 When a stimulus acts on the
receptor, it triggers a chemical
response which give rise to an
electrical impulse in it.
 This electrical impulse travels
from the dendrite to the cell body and then along its axon.
 At the end of axon, the electrical impulse releases neurotransmitters in the synapse.
 These chemicals crosses the synapse and start a similar electrical impulse in the dendrite of next
neuron. This process continues till the electrical impulse reach the motor neurons present in brain
and spinal cord.
 In a similar way, impulses from the brain and spinal cord are transmitted to the other cells, such as
muscles and glands. The axons of motor nerves contact the muscle, at a neuromuscular junction,
which transmits a message from the brain that causes the muscle to contract and relax.

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Reflex Actions and Reflex Arc: A reflex action is a sudden, involuntary and mechanical action in response
to stimulus or something in the environment. Reflexes which are controlled by spinal cord are called spinal
reflex action. Reflex arc is defined as the route taken by the nerve impulses and responses in a reflex
action.
Components of Reflex Arc: The basic components of reflex arc includes a receptor (stimulus), a sensory
neuron, an integration centre, a motor neuron and an effector (target).
i. Receptor: The distal ends of a dendrite initiates a nerve impulse in a sensory neuron in response to
an internal or external stimulus.
ii. Sensory (afferent) neuron: The nerve impulse travels from the receptor to the axon terminal
branches of the sensory neuron.
iii. Relay neuron or inter neuron: It transmits impulses from sensory neurons to motor neurons.
iv. Motor (efferent) neuron: It transmit the impulse from the integration centre to the effector organ
of the body, such as a muscle or gland that will respond.

Examples:
 Contraction of pupil of human eye when exposed to bright light
 Withdrawal of hand or foot every time when a needle or hot object is touched
 Hunger
 Coughing or sneezing when any unwanted particle enters into throat or nose
 Watering of mouth at the sight of tasty food
Advantages of reflex action:
 This protects the body by enabling the body to give quick responses to harmful stimuli.
 In many animals, reflex arcs have evolved as efficient ways of functioning in the absence of true
thought processes.
Human Brain:

BRAIN

Fore brain Mid brain Hind brain

Olfactory Cerebrum Diencephalon Pons Cerebellum Medulla

Lobes (2) (2 Cerebral) Oblongata
hemispheres Cerebral Corpora
Peduncles Quadrigemina

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Central Nervous System: The central nervous

system includes the brain and spinal cord
which is the continuation of the brain.
Brain:
It is located in the head and well-protected by
the skull. The bony box that houses the brain
within the skull is called the cranium. The
brain can be divided into three major parts
namely the fore brain, the mid brain and the
hind brain. They have different parts that have
specific functions.
Fore Brain: It consist cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
 Cerebrum: It forms the major part of the human brain. It is made up of two halves, namely the left
and right cerebral hemispheres. It contains motor, sensory and association areas. The sensory areas
receive the impulse, the association areas link this information with the previous and other sensory
information’s and the motor areas allows the voluntary muscles to act. Cerebrum is responsible for
the intelligence, memory, and consciousness. The two cerebral hemispheres are connected by a
tract of myelinated fibres called corpus callosum and covered by a layer of densely packed nerve
cells called cerebral cortex. Cerebral cortex has number of prominent folds for increasing the
surface area. Each cerebral hemisphere have specialised areas for vision, hearing, sensation, touch,
smell, and muscular activities.
 Thalamus: The cerebrum is wrapped around a structure called thalamus. It coordinates the sensory
impulses from the various sense organs such as eyes, ears and skin and then relays it to the
cerebrum.
 Hypothalamus: Hypothalamus is situated below the thalamus. It is an important region of the
brain. It contains a large number of centres which control body temperature, heart rate, hunger,
thirst, sleep and blood pressure. It also secretes neurohormones which regulate the secretion of
anterior lobe of pituitary.
Mid brain: It is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain. It
serves as a relay centre for sensory information from sense organs to the cerebrum. It also controls the
reflex movements of various muscles.
Hind brain: It consists of cerebellum, pons varoli and medulla oblongata.
 Cerebellum: Cerebellum is considered as the second largest part of brain. It has a convoluted
surface to provide the additional space for many more neurons. It maintains the posture and
balance of the body while walking, swimming, riding, etc, by providing exact precision and the fine
control of the voluntary movements. Drinking alcohol affects the cerebellum.
 Pons: Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain.
 Medulla oblongata: Medulla oblongata is connected to the spinal cord. It contains centres for
various activities such as respiration, sneezing, coughing, and gastric secretions. It also contains
centre for cardio-vascular reflexes.
How are these Tissues protected?
A delicate organ like the brain, which is so important for a variety of activities, needs to be carefully
protected. For this, the body is designed so that the brain sits inside a bony box. Inside the box, the brain is

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contained in a fluid-filled balloon which provides further shock absorption. If you run your hand down the
middle of your back, you will feel a hard, bumpy structure. This is the vertebral column or backbone which
protects the spinal cord.

Hormones in Animals:
 As the nerve fibres do not innervate all cells of the body and the cellular functions need to be
continuously regulated; a special find of coordination has to be provided. Coordination in animals is
brought about by the secretions of endocrine glands. Endocrine glands lack ducts and are hence,
called ductless glands. They secrete the chemical substances called hormones and directly pour
into the blood. Hormone is any chemical substance which is produced in the tissues of endocrine
glands and released into the blood and then transported to the other parts of the body for its
specific function. The organ which responds to such a hormone is known as target organ.
Hormones, therefore, are chemical substances secreted in trace amounts by endocrine glands and
act as intercellular messengers for information transmission.
Features of Hormones:
 They are the secretions of endocrine glands.
 They are produced at a place and act on target organs which are mainly away from their source.
 They are poured directly into the bloodstream.
 They are required in trace quantities.
 They are specific in function.
 Chemically they can be proteins, amino acids, steroids, peptides, polypeptides, etc.

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Various endocrine glands present in the human body are as follows:

A. Hypothalamus: Hypothalamus is the basal part of diencephalon (forebrain) and it regulates wide
spectrum of body functions. Therefore, it is known as master of master gland (pituitary gland). It
contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce hormones. These
neurohormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormone. Hypothalamus produces
two types of hormones:
i. Releasing hormones: They stimulate secretion of pituitary hormones. E.g., A hypothalamic
hormone called Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the pituitary synthesis
and release of gonadotrophins.
ii. Inhibiting hormones: They inhibit secretions of pituitary hormones. E.g., somatostatin from
the hypothalamus inhibits the release of growth hormone from the pituitary.
B. Pituitary Gland: It is a small ovoid structure attached to the base of brain (hypothalamus) by a stalk
called infundibulum. Pituitary gland is also known as the master gland as it controls other endocrine
glands. This gland consists of three lobes-anterior, middle and posterior. Each lobe of the pituitary
gland secretes different types of hormones.
i. Growth hormone (GH): This hormone promotes and regulates the growth of the body. It’s
deficiency during childhood lead to dwarfism (stunted growth) and over secretion leads to
gigantism (abnormal growth of body).
ii. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): This hormone regulates the activities of adrenal
cortex. It mainly stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroid hormone which
defends the human body under stress.
iii. Thyroid stimulation hormone (TSH): It stimulates the secretion of thyroxine hormone from
the thyroid gland.
iv. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): It stimulates the production of gamete. In females, it
regulates the development of ovarian follicles, and in males, it stimulates sperm production
(spermatogenesis).
v. Luteinising hormone (LH): It causes ovulation and formation of corpus luteum. It also which
secretes progesterone in females and testosterone in males.

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vi. Luteotropic hormone (LTH): This is also known as prolactin (PRL). This hormone stimulates
the growth of mammary glands during pregnancy and promotes lactation after delivery.
Prolactin level rises during pregnancy and lactation.
Hormones of middle (intermediate) pituitary:
vii. Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH): This is the only hormone secreted by middle
pituitary. It regulates the growth and development of melanocytes responsible for skin
colour.
Hormones of posterior pituitary:
viii. Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): This acts mainly at the kidney and stimulates
the reabsorption of water into the blood thereby concentrating the urine and reducing it
volume.
ix. Oxytocin: It is commonly known as birth hormone. This hormone stimulates vigorous uterus
contractions at the time of childbirth and release of milk from mammary glands.
C. Thyroid Gland: The thyroid gland consists of two lobes joined which are located on either side of
the trachea. Both the lobes are interconnected with a connective tissue called isthmus. Two
hormones secreted by the thyroid gland are:
i. Thyroxine: It is the principal hormone secreted by the thyroid gland and its main role is to
increase the metabolic rate of the organs and tissues of the whole body. Iodine is essential
for the normal rate of hormone synthesis. The basal metabolic rate (B.M.R.) is increased in
hyperthyroidism and reduced in hypothyroidism.
ii. Calcitonin: This hormone lowers the calcium level in two different ways:
 By inhibiting renal tubular calcium reabsorption.
 By inhibiting bone calcium reabsorption.
Hypothyroidism: This results from lack or deficiency of thyroid hormone secretion. Deficiency of
iodine in our diet results in hypothyroidism.
 In children, cretinism is caused due to congenital defect of either absence or defect of the
gland leading to stunted growth, frequently the child has a protruding tongue and an
enlarged abdomen; the mentality of the child is low and retarded.
 Myxoedema is the condition caused by thyroid deficiency in adults. It is characterized by
puffy face, thick skin, dry cough, cold and loss of hair. There is a deposition of mucin and
fluid retention in extracelluar spaces. BMR is lowered.
 Iodine deficiency causes enlargement of the thyroid glands, commonly called simple goitre.
Hyperthyroidism: This results from excessive secretion. The excessive amount of thyroxine is
poured into the blood and the metabolism of the body is speeded up. The person starts losing
weight, has an increased metabolic rate, protrusion of eye balls and suffers from nerves
excitement. These signs and symptoms are responsible for the condition exophathalamic goitre or
and grave’s disease.
D. Adrenal Gland: These are two small semilunar structures lying one each on anterior part of the
kidneys. That is why they are also known as suprarenal glands. Each gland consists of two types of
tissues which are structurally and physiologically different known as cortex and medulla. The cortex
occupies outer peripheral portion which is yellowish in colour and medulla is inner brownish part.
Adrenal cortex secretes three different kinds of hormones known as corticosteroids. They are:

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i. Mineralcorticoids: These regulate water, and electrolytes (sodium and potassium) balance
in the body, e.g. aldosterone
ii. Glucocorticoids: The corticoids which a involved in carbohydrate metabolism, e.g.,
glycogenesis is promoted in liver. Cortisol is the most abundant.
iii. Sex corticoids: Small quantities of sex hormones such as androgens and estrogen are
produced by adrenal glands which influence sexual development and growth in both males
and females.
Adrenal medullais important in regulating defence mechanisms and supplementing sympathetic
action in the body. It secretes two hormones. These hormones are secreted in response to any kind
of stress and during emergency. Thus are called as "fight or flight response".
i. Adrenaline (epinephrine): It is a stress hormone causes increases in systolic blood pressure,
dilation of coronary blood vessels, increases sweating and metabolic rate. It brings
restlessness, muscle fatigue and anxiety.
ii. Noradrenaline (nor-epinephrine): It is a general vasoconstrictor, thus increases both
systolic and diastolic pressures.
E. Pancreas: Pancreas is the only Heterocrine gland in the human body. It acts as exocrine as well as
endocrine gland. It acts as exocrine because it secretes pancreatic juice which is poured into the
duodenum with the help of pancreatic duct. It acts as an endocrine gland because it contains a
tissue in the form of clumps of secretory cells known as the islets of Langerhans. The islet cells are
of three types-alpha (α-cells), beta (β-cells) and delta (δ-cells). The α-cells secrete glucagon
hormone while the β-cells secrete insulin hormone.
i. Insulin: Insulin is secreted by the beta cells of islets of langerhans and like other hormones,
passes directly into the blood. It plays a major role in regulation of glucose. Insulin is
required to convert glucose into glycogen (glycogenesis) and store it in liver. Deficiency of
insulin results in diabetes mellitus, a condition in which blood glucose in high and is passed
in the urine.
ii. Glucagon: It is secreted by the alpha cells of pancreas. The metabolic effects of which are
opposite to those of insulin. It causes the breakdown of liver glycogen, thereby releasing
glucose into the blood stream.
F. Ovary: Females have a pair of ovaries present in the lower abdominal region. It is the primary
female sex organ. Ovary secretes the following hormones.
i. Estrogen: FSH from the anterior pituitary controls the secretion of estrogen by acting on the
Graafian follicles. It secretes before the ovulation. This hormone effects the development of
female secondary sex organs and mammary gland. It also regulates the growth of ovarian
follicles. The estrogen secretion influences the follicular phase of menstrual cycle. Its
secretion is highest during ovulation period.
ii. Progesterone: It is secreted by corpus luteum. This hormone supports pregnancy and is
secreted only after ovulation. Progesterone prepares the uterus for receiving the embryo. It
prepares, i.e., inner lining of the uterus, endometrium to receive the implanted embryo for
about a week. If ovum gets fertillized, the corpus luteum continues to maintain the
pregnancy for the first three months, after which the placenta takes over the role of corpus
luteum by secreting progesterone itself. Since this hormone is essential for the maintenance

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of pregnancy and is therefore called pregnancy hormone. If pregnancy does not follow
ovulation, corpus luteum degenerates and breaks down due to the lack of progesterone.
G. Testes: In males, the interstitial or Leydig cells present in testes produce the male hormone,
testosterone, Testosterone is the primary hormone secreted by interstitial cells of the testis. It is
mainly concerned with the development and maintenance of male secondary sex organs and
enhancing the process of spermatogenesis, i.e., sperm production. This hormone also stimulates
growth of facial and pubic hair, aggressiveness, muscular growth and enlargement of larynx that
causes deepening of voice.

Glands and hormones secreted by them:

CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN PLANTS

Plants do not have a specialized system like animals to control and coordinate their responses. Though
plants are fixed to the soil, and cannot move from one place to another, their protoplasmic components
are in constant motion transporting water, minerals etc. parts of plant body move in response to the
external stimuli. Chemical substances called phytohormones or plant growth regulators regulate plant
responses. Environmental triggers such as light or gravity will change the directions of growth of plants.
The causative factor of the movement is called the stimulus. Both plants and animals respond to external
stimuli through specific movements. The stimulus is sent from one part of the body (the receiving zone) to
another part of the body (the reaction zone).

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Movements can be divided into two types. Tropic movements and Nastic movements.
Tropic Movements: Tropic movement induced by external stimuli such as light, chemical, water, etc., acts
from one direction. The direction of response of the plant organ shows a definite relation to the direction
of stimulus, generally towards or away from it. Based on the types of stimuli these tropic movements are
following types.
1) Phototropism (photo– light, tropism– turning): Phototropism is defined as the light induced
growth movement of curvature. It is shown by stem tips and root tips of plants. There are two types
of phototropic movements:
a) Positive phototropism: The stem grows towards the source of light, hence, it exhibits
positively response towards light.
b) Negative phototropism: The root grows away from the source of light, hence, it exhibits
negatively phototropic growth.
2) Geotropism (Gravitotropism) or (gravis-heavy, tropos-turning): Plants change the directions of
their growth in response to pull of earth or gravity is called geotropsim.
a) Positive geotropism: The movement of parts of plants towards the gravity is called positive
geotropism. E.g., roots always grow downwards.
b) Negative geotropism: The movement of parts of plant against gravity is called negative
geotropism. E.g., shoots usually grow upwards i.e., away from the earth.
3) Chemotropism: Tropic movement induced by chemical stimulus is called chemotropism. For
example, the growth of pollen tubes toward ovules during fertilization. The direction of growth
towards the ovary is guided by the chemicals produced by the embryo sac.
4) Hydrotropism (hydro – water, tropos – turning): Hydrotropism is defined as the response in which
direction of the growth is determined by the gradient in water concentration. Roots show positively
hydrotropic.
5) Thigmotropism (thigmo- touch, tropos-turning): Tropic movement induced by contact or touch is
called thigmotropism. It is also known as stereotropism. Some plants have weak stems which
require support for their growth. These plants grow straight until they come in contact with an
object. The growth rate on the side of the stem which is being touched is slower than on the side
opposite the touch. Thigmotropism can be quite rapid, a tendril has been observed to encircle an
object within 10 minutes. For example, curling or coiling of tendrils.

Nastic Movements: Nastic movements are the non-directional and immediate responses of plants to
external stimuli like temperature, humidity, light, radiation and touch.
Example: The most common example is the leaves of plant Mimosa pudica. Pulvini are swollen areas,
present at the base of petioles, consisting of large number of loosely packed parenchymatous cells
separated by intercellular spaces. If the leaf of Mimosa pudica is touched, the turgor of the lower half of
the pulvinus is lost and the leaf begins to
fold up and droop. After sometime, the cells
become turgid again and the leaf attains an
erect position. The plant use electrical-
chemical means to convey this information
from cell to cell.

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Difference between tropic movement and nastic movement:

Phytohormones: Phytohormones, commonly called plant hormones, are small, simple molecules of diverse
chemical composition. These are involved in various growth promoting and inhibiting activities such as cell
division, flowering, fruiting, etc. They are of 5 types: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic
acid.

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