HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Calculus is built upon two great ideas, the derivative, which examines slope of a curve and rates of change, and the
integral, which deals with sums, areas, and volumes.
The word calculus is a Latin word for stone or pebble. In ancient times, pebbles were used in counting.
Thus, roughly calculus roughly means a method of calculation. This field of learning has become so important that a
sound knowledge of calculus is essential to study and appreciate many other disciplines such as biology, business,
chemistry, economics, engineering, and physics, to name a few.
The history of calculus began with Greeks, led by Archimedes (287-212 BC); he used the method of Exhaustion to find
the area bounded by the two curves. However, not much work was done until the fifteenth century.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), An Italian astronomer and mathematician, John Wallis (1616-1703), an English
mathematician, and Christian Huygens (1629-1695), a Dutch physicist, mathematician and astronomer, also made
useful contributions to calculus. The idea of Differentiation was conceived by Pierre de Fermat in 1629 while studying
tangents to curves and optimum values of functions. In spite of these developments, Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), an
English Mathematician and natural philosopher, and Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716), a German philosopher and
mathematician, are widely honoured as the inventors of calculus.

Calculus is the mathematics of motion and change.

Differential Calculus solves the tangent problems while Integral Calculus tackles the area problems.
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

A relation is a set of one or more ordered pairs. It can be described in a set of ordered pairs, a graph, a mapping, or an
open sentence in two variables.

The domain of a relation is the set of all its first elements or x-coordinates.
The range of a relation is the set of all its second elements or y-coordinates.

Example1. State the relation specified in the table below as a set of ordered pairs. State the domain and the range of
this relation.
Ordered pairs: {(-1,0), (0, 1.5), (1,3)}
x -1 0 1 domain: {-1,0,1}
y 0 1.5 3 range: {0, 1.5, 3}

2. State the relation specified in the mapping below as a set of ordered pairs. State the domain and the range of the
relation.
Ordered pairs: {(0,1/2), (1,3), (-2,0) (-2, 3)}
Domain: {-2, 0, 1} 0 ½
Range: {0, ½, 3}
1 3

-2 0

3. The graph shows the closing price of MAX stock over a period of one week. State the relation as a set of ordered
pairs. State the domain & the range of the relation.
Ordered pairs: { (Mon, 25), (Tue, 25 ½), (Wed.,25 ¼ ), (Thurs, 26) , (Fri, 25)}
Domain: {Mon, Tue, Wed, Thurs, Fri}
Range: { 25, 25 ½ , 25 ¼ , 26} 26 ½

26 •

25 ½ •
25 ¼ •
25 • •

M T W Th F

4. Given the domain {-2, 0, 1} of the relation 2x+y = -1 determine the range. Graph your results.
2x+y = -1
y = -2x-1 y= -2x-1 y = -2(1) - 1
x -2 0 1
= -2(-2) -1 = -2(0)-1 = -2-1
y 3 -1 -3
= 4-1 y = -1 y = -3
y= 3

A function is a relation in which each element of the domain is paired with exactly one element of the range.

Example1 Tell whether each relation specifies a function. Explain.

a. (0, -1), (2, -2), (1, -1), (1, 5), (-3, 4). Answer: No; the element 1 is paired with both -1 & 5.
b.
Time 1pm 2pm 3pm 4pm 5pm Ans. Yes; each element of time corresponds with exactly one
Temp. 15 C0 0 0
16 C 17 C 19 C 17 C 0 0 temperature.
 Answer. Yes; each element of the domain is
paired with exactly one element of the range.
1 7

2 8

Another method for determining whether a relation is a function involves drawing vertical lines through the graph of
the relation. This is called the vertical line test.
Vertical line test. If a vertical line intersects a graph in more than one point, then the graph is not the graph of a
function.

Example. Use a vertical line test to determine whether each relation is a function.
a. (-2,-1),(-1, 1) , (1, 1), (2, 2 ½)
b. (1, 0), (3, 1), (1, 2), (-1, 1)

For the relation to be a function, any vertical line can only pass through a single point. Ex. a is a function. Example b is
not a function because it is possible to draw a vertical line (such as x=1) through more than one point of the graph.

Functions can be specified using different types of function notation.

Arrow notation, F: x 2x + 1 Read: the function F that pairs x with 2x+1
f of x notation: f(x) = 2x+1 Read: f of x equals 2x+1
A function can also be written as an equation in two variables: y = 2x+1
Letters other than f, such as F, g, G, h & so on, are often used for function notation. The ordered pairs of a function are
in the form (x , y) or (x, f(x)). f(x) is also called the pre-image of y.
Note: that f(x) does not mean f times x; rather it refers to the range of the function whose domain is represented by x.

We can visualize the function as a box (or machine) through which a variable x enters and goes out as f(x).

x f f(x)

since the value of y depends on x we say that y is the dependent variable and x is the independent variable.
Example. Using the given variables, translate the following statements into functional notations. Identify the
independent and dependent variables for each statement.
a. The pressure P inside a pressure cooker is dependent on the temperature T.
b. The price per unit C of a commodity is dependent on the number of units u demanded by a consumer.
c. The height of a child h depends on his//her age x in years.
d. The velocity v of a freely falling boy depends on the time t.

Solution:
a. The independent variable is temperature T, while the dependent variable is pressure P, thus, the function f is
denoted as
P = f (T)
b. The dependent variable is price per unit C, while the independent variable is number of units u. The function g
is
C = g (u)
c. The height h is the dependent variable, while age x is the independent variable. The function F is denoted as
h = F (x)
d. The dependent variable is velocity v, while the independent variable is time t. The function k is defined as
v = k (t)

A function may be expressed in terms of a formula. In the formula y = 2x-3, every value of x gives only one value of y.
Then y is a function of x. This may be written as f(x) = 2x-3
Note that this function may also be written as F(x) =2x-3 or g(x) = 2x-3
Example
When f(x) = 2x-3, find
a. f(0) f(0) = 2(0) - 3 f(0) =0 – 3 f(0) = -3
b. f(1) f(1) = 2(1) – 3 f(1) =2 – 3 f(1) = -1
c. f(-1) f(-1)= 2(-1)-3 f(-1)= -2 – 3 f(-1) = -5
d. f(5-x) f(5-x) =2( 5 – x) – 3 f(5-x) = 10-2x - 3 f(5-x) = 7 – 2x

Exercises:
Express the following statements into functional notations using the specified variables. Identify the independent and
the dependent variables in each statement.
1. The circumference C of a circle is dependent on its radius r.
2. The volume V of water inside a cylindrical pail depends on the height h of water measured from the bottom.
3. The potential energy E of the body is dependent on its height y above the ground.
4. The current I at constant voltage depends on the resistance R of the load through which the current flows.
5. In general, academic achievement S depends on the degree of motivation m of the student.

Identify the independent and dependent variables in the following functional notations.
1. D = f(r) 4. P = O(m)
2. V = g(h) 5. I = k(t)
3. A = F(w)

If g(x) = 3-x, find

1. g(-1) 2. g(1) 3. g(x+1) 4. g(5-h)

If s(t) = 3t2 – 1, solve for the values of the function

1. s(1) 2. s(0) 3. s(-1)

If k(x) = 1 / x+2, determine

1. k(0) 2. k(2) 3. k(-2)
INTERVAL SET OF VALUES
Finite intervals are intervals whose endpoints are two fixed numbers a and b. There are four cases under this type of
interval sets
Case I . the set of values of the variable x consists of all real numbers that lie between two fixed numbers a and b, where
a and b are not included.
This set of values is called an open interval. In set notation, this is denoted as {x/a < x < b}. In interval
notation, this is denoted as (a, b), where the parentheses indicate that the endpoints are not included. On the number
line, the interval is a darkened line segment with two small open circles at the endpoints.

a b
{x/a < x < b}
(a, b)
Case 2. The set of values of real numbers between a and b including the endpoints.
This set of values is called a closed interval. In set notation, this is denoted as {x/a ≤ x ≤ b}. In interval
notation, this is denoted as [a, b] where the brackets indicate the inclusion of the endpoints. On the number line, the
inclusion of the endpoints is denoted by small closed circles at these points.

a b
{x/a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a, b]
Case 3. The set of values of x including the endpoint a but not the endpoint b.
This set of values is called a half-open interval. This is denoted as {x/a ≤ x < b} or [a, b). On the number
line, the line segment has a closed circle at a and an open circle at b.

a b
{x/a ≤ x < b}
[a, b).
Case 4. The set of values of x including the endpoint b but excluding a.
This set of values is also a half open interval . This is denoted as {x/a < x ≤ b} or (a, b]. On the number line,
the line segment has an open circle at endpoint a and a closed circle at b.

a b
{x/a < x ≤ b}
(a, b]
Infinite intervals are those sets of values of real numbers which are unbounded in at least one direction. On the
number line, infinite intervals are denoted by one or two rays.
Let us consider five cases:
Case 1. The set of all real numbers.
This set includes all positive numbers, negative numbers, and zero. This is denoted as {x / - ∞ < x < +∞ } or
(-∞ , +∞ ), where the symbol ∞ (infinity) does not stand for a specific number but indicates an infinite number of
values. Sometimes this set is also denoted as ℝ . On the number line, the ray extends to the left and right of zero.

{x / - ∞ < x < +∞ }
(-∞ , +∞ )
Case 2. The set of numbers greater than a.
This is denoted as {x/x>a} or (a , +∞). The ray has an open circle at endpoint a and extends to the right of a.

a
{x/x>a}
(a , +∞)
Case 3. The set of numbers greater than or equal to a.
This is denoted as {x/x≥ a} or [a, +∞). The ray has a closed circle at endpoint a and extends to the right of a.

a
 {x/x≥ a}
[a, +∞)
Case 4. The set of numbers less than b.
This is denoted as {x/x < b} or ( - ∞, b). The ray has an open circle at endpoint b and extends to the left of b.

b
{x/x < b}
( - ∞, b)
Case 5. The set of numbers less than or equal to b.
This is denoted as{x/x ≤ b}or ( - ∞, b]. The ray has a closed circle at endpoint b and extends to the left of b.

b
{x/x ≤ b}
( - ∞, b]
Example 1:
a. _1 ≤ x ≤ 5
b. -4 < x < 2
c. -2 < x ≤ 3
d. -3 ≤ x < 4

Example 2. Sketch the graph of each of the following and give the set and interval notations.
a. The set of real numbers greater than -1
b. The set of real numbers less than or equal to 5.
c. The set of real numbers less than -2 or greater than 2.
d. The set of all real numbers except 3.

Solution:
a. {x/x>-1}, (-1, +∞)

b. {x/x ≤ 5}, (-∞, 5]

c. {x/x < -2 or x>2} or {x/x < -2} U {x/x > 2}, (-∞ , -2) U ( 2, + ∞)

d. {x/x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 3} or {x/x < 3} U {x/x > 3}, (-∞, 3) U (3, +∞)

OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS

Let f and g be two functions.

The sum of two functions, f + g, is the function defined by (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x)
The difference of two functions, f – g, is the function defined by (f –g) (x) = f(x) – g(x)
The product of two functions, f • g, is the function defined by (f • g) (x) = f(x) • g(x)
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
The quotient of two functions, , 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ( ) (x) =
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)
The product of a constant and a function, ( c • f) (x), is the function defined by (c • f) (x) = c • f(x) where c is a constant.

Example1.
Let two functions be defined as f(x) = 5x-2 and g(x) = x-3. Find the following
a. (f + g)(x)
b. (f - g) (x)
c. (f • g) (x)
𝑓
d. ( ) (x)
𝑔