1 MATH 212

Elementary Number Theory

Lecture 2
2 1.1 Mathematical Induction
Mathematical Induction [First Principle or Weak Form]
Mathematical Induction is a method of mathematical proof used to
establish that a given statement is true for all natural numbers.
A proof by mathematical induction to establish the truth of a
statement/proposition P(n) is based on the following two steps:

1. Basis Step: Verify that P(1) is true.

2. Inductive Step: Show that if P(k) is true for some integer k≥1,
then P(k+1) is also true.
Remark: Mathematical induction can be generalized to start with any
positive integer n0.
3 1.1 Mathematical Induction
Visualization
It may be helpful to think of the “domino effect”. If one is presented
with an infinite row of dominoes standing on edge, and arranged in
such a way that:
1. The first domino falls.
2. Whenever a domino falls, it knocks down the next in line.
Then the infinite row of dominoes will fall.
4 1.1 Mathematical Induction
Dominos Effect and Crona Virus
5 Problems 1.1
Q1. Establish the formulas below by mathematical induction.
b) 1+3+5+…+(2n-1) = n2 for all n≥1
Solution:
Let P(n): 1+3+5+…+(2n-1) = n2 for all n≥1
Basis Step:
LHS of P(1) = 1
RHS of P(1) = 12 = 1
Hence P(1) is true.
6 Inductive Step:
Assume P(k) is true for some arbitrary but fixed integer k ≥1.
i.e., 1+3+5+…+(2k-1) = k2 . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
We try to establish that P(k+1) is true
i.e., 1+3+5+…+(2k-1)+(2k+1) = (k+1)2
Now LHS of P(k+1) = 1+3+5+…+(2k-1)+(2k+1)
= {1+3+5+…+(2k-1)}+(2k+1)
= k2 + (2k+1) by indictive hypothesis (1)
= (k+1)2 = RHS of P(k+1)
Hence induction is complete and so the statement is true for all
integers n ≥1.
7 Q6. Prove that n! > n3 for every integer n ≥ 6.
Solution:
Let P(n): n! > n3 for all integers n ≥ 6.
Basis Step:
For n=6, LHS of P(6) = 6! = 720 > 216 = 63 = RHS of P(6)
Hence P(6) is true.
Inductive Step:
Assume P(k): k! > k3 is true for k ≥ 6.
We show that P(k+1): (k+1)! > (k+1)3 is also true for k ≥ 6.
8 Now LHS of P(k+1) = (k+1)!
= (k+1) k!
> (k+1) k3 by the indictive hypothesis k! > k3
Further k3 = k ∙ k2 > 4k2 as k ≥ 6
= k2 + 2k2 + k2
> k2 + 2k + 1 = (k+1)2
Hence,
LHS of P(k+1) = (k+1)! > (k+1)k3 > (k+1)(k+1)2 = (k+1)3 = RHS of P(k+1)
Accordingly, P(k+1) is true, and therefore by induction the statement is
true for every integer n ≥ 6.
9 Alternative:
For n ≥ 6, we have
𝑛! 𝑛 𝑛−1 ! 𝑛−1 !
= =
𝑛3 𝑛∙𝑛2 𝑛2

𝑛−1 (𝑛−2)(𝑛−3)(𝑛−4)(𝑛−5)!
=
𝑛2
𝑛−1 𝑛−4 𝑛−2 𝑛−3
= 𝑛−5 !
𝑛2
𝑛2 − 5𝑛 + 4 𝑛2 − 5𝑛 + 6
= (𝑛 − 5)!
𝑛2
𝑛(𝑛−5)+4 𝑛(𝑛−5)+6
= ∙ ∙ (𝑛 − 5)!
𝑛 𝑛

> 1∙1∙1 =1 as n ≥ 6.

Note that for n ≥ 6, n(n-5)+4 > n and (n-5)! ≥ 1.

10 Q10. For all n ≥ 1, prove the following by mathematical induction.
1 1 1 1 1
b) + + + ⋯+ ≤2−
12 22 32 𝑛2 𝑛

1 1 1 1 1
Solution: Let P(n): + + +⋯+ ≤ 2 − for all n ≥ 1.
12 22 32 𝑛2 𝑛

Basis Step:
1 1
LHS of P(1) = = 1 = 2 − = RHS of P(1)
12 1

Hence P(1) is true with equality.

Inductive Step:
Suppose P(k) is true for an arbitrary integer k ≥ 1.
1 1 1 1 1
i.e., + + + ⋯+ ≤2−
12 22 32 𝑘2 𝑘
11 We need to establish that P(k+1) is also true
1 1 1 1 1 1
i.e., + + + ⋯+ + ≤2−
12 22 32 𝑘2 (𝑘+1)2 𝑘+1

1 1 1 1 1
Now LHS of P(k+1) = + + + ⋯+ +
12 22 32 𝑘2 (𝑘+1)2

1 1 1 1
≤ 2− + =2+ −
𝑘 (𝑘+1)2 (𝑘+1)2 𝑘

𝑘−𝑘 2 −2𝑘−1 −𝑘 2 −𝑘−1

=2+ =2+
𝑘(𝑘+1)2 𝑘(𝑘+1)2

𝑘(𝑘+1) 1 1 1
=2− − = 2 − −
𝑘(𝑘+1)2 𝑘(𝑘+1)2 𝑘+1 𝑘(𝑘+1)2

1
≤ 2− = RHS of P(k+1)
𝑘+1
Hence, P(k+1) is also true, which proves the inequality by induction.
12 Mathematical Induction [Second Principle or Strong Form]

If in the inductive step, we need more than one previous instance of the
statement to be proved, we may use the second principle of induction. In
such an event, we modify the inductive hypothesis to include more cases
in the assumption. We also need to verify more cases in the basis step.

To show that a statement/proposition P(n) is true for all n≥n0, we follow

the following steps in the second principle of mathematical induction.

1. Basis Step: Verify that P(n) is true for some small values of n≥ n0.

2. Inductive Step: Assume that P(n) is true for n= n0, n0+1, n0+2, …, k
for some integer k≥ n0, then P(k+1) is also true.
13 Exercise 1.1
Q3. Use the Second Principle of Finite Induction to establish that
for all n ≥ 1, 𝑎𝑛 − 1 = (𝑎 − 1)(𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1)
Solution:
Let P(n): 𝑎𝑛 − 1 = 𝑎 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1 n ≥ 1.
Basis Step:
LHS of P(1) = 𝑎1 − 1 = 𝑎 − 1
RHS of P(1) = 𝑎 − 1 1 = 𝑎 − 1
Also LHS of P(2) = 𝑎2 − 1 = (𝑎 − 1)(𝑎 + 1)
And RHS of P(2) = 𝑎 − 1 𝑎 + 1
Thus, both P(1) and P(2) are true.
14 Inductive Step:
Suppose P(n) is true for n=1, 2, 3,...,k where k is some fixed but
arbitrary integer. That is
P(n): 𝑎𝑛 − 1 = 𝑎 − 1 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1 ; n =1, 2,…,k.
We show that P(k+1) is true. That is
P(k+1): 𝑎𝑘+1 − 1 = 𝑎 − 1 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑘−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1
Now LHS of P(k+1) = 𝑎𝑘+1 −1
= 𝑎𝑘+1 −𝑎 + 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎𝑘 − 1
= 𝑎(𝑎𝑘 −1) − 𝑎(𝑎𝑘−1 − 1) + 1(𝑎𝑘 − 1)
= (𝑎 + 1)(𝑎𝑘 −1) − 𝑎(𝑎𝑘−1 − 1)
15 By the inductive hypotheses for n=k and n=k-1, we have
𝑎𝑘 − 1 = 𝑎 − 1 𝑎𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑘−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1

and 𝑎𝑘−1 − 1 = 𝑎 − 1 𝑎𝑘−2 + 𝑎𝑘−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1

∴ LHS of P(k+1) = (𝑎 + 1)(𝑎𝑘 −1) − 𝑎(𝑎𝑘−1 − 1)
= 𝑎 + 1 [ 𝑎 − 1 𝑎𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑘−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1 ]

− 𝑎[ 𝑎 − 1 𝑎𝑘−2 + 𝑎𝑘−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1 ]

= 𝑎 − 1 ൣ 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎𝑘−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 + 𝑎) + (𝑎𝑘−1 +𝑎𝑘−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1

− (𝑎𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑘−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 + 𝑎)൧

= 𝑎 − 1 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎𝑘−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 1 = RHS of P(k+1)
Hence, P(k+1) is also true and so by the second principle of
mathematical induction the given statement is true for all n ≥ 1.
16 Q13. Suppose that the numbers an are defined inductively by
a1=1, a2=2, a3=3 and an=an-1+an-2+an-3 for all n ≥ 4. Use the Second
Principle of Finite Induction to show that an < 2n for all positive
integer n.
Solution:
Let P(n): 𝑎𝑛 < 2𝑛 for all positive integer n.
Basis Step:
LHS of P(1) = 𝑎1 = 1(𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛) < 21 =RHS of P(1)
LHS of P(2) = 𝑎2 = 2(𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛) < 22 =RHS of P(2)
LHS of P(3) = 𝑎3 = 3(𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛) < 23 =RHS of P(3)
These provide basis for induction.
17 Inductive Step:
Suppose P(n): 𝑎𝑛 < 2𝑛 is true for n=4, 5, ..., k where k is some fixed
but arbitrary integer.
We show that P(k+1): 𝑎𝑘+1 < 2𝑘+1 is also true.
Now 𝑎𝑘+1 = 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑘−2 by the given inductive definition
< 2𝑘 + 2𝑘−1 + 2𝑘−2
= 2𝑘−2 (22 + 2 + 1)
= 7 ∙ 2𝑘−2
< 8 ∙ 2𝑘−2 = 2𝑘+1
i.e., 𝑎𝑘+1 < 2𝑘+1 . Hence P(k+1) is also true and so the stated
inequality is true for all positive integer n.
18 THANK YOU