Types of Complex Sentences

1.1. General considerations

A simple sentence is made up of relatively simple grammatical structures. For example,
noun phrases can contain determiners, adjectives and noun heads. A complex sentence consists
of an infinite number of simple sentences which can repeat over and over again in a given
sentence. The reason for this extraordinary potential is the recursive quality of language.
Recursive processes depend a lot on clauses. A clause is any structure which contains
its own verb. A clause that can form a sentence by itself is called independent clause. A
coordinated sentence like Mother was cooking, and father was watching TV contains two
independent clauses. A subordinate or dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand alone
as a grammatical entity. In a sentence like I wanted John to go, John to go is a subordinate
clause. When a structure contains a subordinate clause, the containing structure is called matrix
clause (Berk, 1999: 217). If the matrix clause also contains the main verb of the sentence, then
it is considered to be the main clause. Sometimes one subordinate clause is contained within
another subordinate clause; in this case the containing matrix clause is not the main clause of
the sentence.
e.g. I hoped my parents to come.

Subordinate clauses will usually contain a subordinator (which is also called

complementizer). This is represented by one or more small function words or special suffixes
which signal that the following verb will not have the form and will not function as the main
verb of the sentences. The most common subordinators are: that, for, -ing forms, infinitives and
proforms beginning with wh-.
Clauses can have many grammatical functions: Subject, Direct Object, Indirect Object,
Subject Complement, Object Complement, Adjective Phrase, Adverb. We have to notice that
practically clauses can have the same functions as phrases in simple sentences. In fact, we can
observe that the complex sentences maintain the structure of the simple sentences.
As we have stated before, sentences may have different degrees of complexity. They
may consist of two or more main clauses or they may consist of one or more clauses with one
or more dependent clauses. They are called simple, compound, complex or compound-complex
sentences, depending on the types of clauses they contain. In this book we are concerned only
with compound, complex and compound-complex types, and each of these types will be
explained in detail below.

1.2. Compound Sentences

Compound sentences, also called coordinated sentences, consist of two or more clauses
joined by coordinating conjunctions or simply coordinators. Each part is a complete clause that
can stand on its own. Most grammarians recognize three conjunctions (coordinators) in English
– and, but, or- but it is not always clear that these three forms really constitute a coherent
grammatical category. Les common is yet, followed by for. Yet and for are generally considered
to be more formal than the other three conjunctions, and, but and or.
Note: Because for and yet have other sentence functions, less proficient ESL/EFL
learners are occasionally confused when these words are used as coordinators. They must learn
to distinguish between for as a preposition and yet as an adverb from their coordinating
conjunction counterparts.
e.g. Function
She came for me. preposition
She came for we had invited her. coordinator
We haven’t eaten yet. adverb
He had eaten, yet he was still hungry. coordinator

1.2.1. Coordinators
(i) Conjunction and
This conjunction can be used to conjoin various structures, from single lexical items to
independent clauses, namely sentences. Normally, conjunction and only joins the same
structural types. When three or more items are conjoined in written English, and is used only
between the last two ones. This constraint does not apply in spoken English. The items that can
be conjoined are of several types, and can perform several functions as in the example below:

(i) Noun phrases functioning as:

- Subject: Mary and John are brothers.
- Direct Object: I like football and volleyball.
- Indirect Object: I borrowed John and Mary my car.
- Adverbial Modifier of place: I have gone to Spain and Italy.
(ii) Main Verbs:
e.g. My mother has advised and supported me all my life.
They ate and drank a lot during the party.
(iii) Modals:
e.g. I can and will help you.
(iv) Predicates
e.g. Mary dressed and went out.
The students wrote their papers, handed them out to the teacher and left the
classroom.
(v) Adverbs
e.g. They ran far and fast.
She was dancing gracefully and smoothly.
(vi) Intensifiers
The President got more and more upset.
(vii) Prepositions
e.g. The kids ran in and out of the door.
The men strolled up and over the hill.
(viii) Adverbial prepositional phrases
e.g. Mike walked down the stairs and out the door.
(ix) Adjectives and adjectives phrases
e.g. The castle was big and grey.
The manager was very angry and very loud.
(x) Sentences
e.g. My mother was cooking, and my father was reading the newspaper.
I will leave the country, and my sister will stay home.

As we can notice, most grammatical categories can be conjoined with and. Pronominal
adjectives are generally enumerated without and, e.g. a beautiful, intelligent girl, but there are
cases in which they can be coordinated by and, e.g. a mean and nasty person. Unlike
pronominal adjectives, predicatives cannot be enumerated, they must be coordinated, e.g. The
child was smart and nice. Articles cannot be conjoined under any circumstances and conjoined
demonstratives are usually unacceptable, e.g. I want this and that book (?). Conjoined genitive
determiners are not very used, e.g. This is his and her house (?). However, conjoined
demonstratives and genitives determiners can be acceptably used if the speaker points to the
referents while speaking in order to separate the participants to the conversation. Conjoined
genitive Noun Phrases are perfectly acceptable, although the genitive markers generally appear
only on the second Noun Phrase:
e.g. Mike and Carol’s father
my son and his friend’s teacher

Typically, and is an additive conjunction, adding information by adding a word or a

phrase of the same type. But the additive relationship between two or more coordinated
constructions is often determined by the social convention. If somebody says I bought a chair
and a table, we understand that the chair and the table are a set, but if we say I bought some
chairs and a table, we understand that the chairs and the table are separate things.
There are some special cases when conjoined items have a conventional order, e.g. fish
and chips, bread and butter, black and white. In most cases the order can be violated, but there
one case which have an exceptionally strong order: You and I. Nevertheless, we can seldom
find the expression Me and you. In a few cases frequently coordinated items have taken on the
status of idioms, and in such conversations the order is never reversed:
e.g. I love rock and roll.
By and large, they all decided to support their president.
The man wined and dined with his relatives.

Wined and dined is a special case because the expression cannot be used only together.
A man cannot wine or can not only dine. By and large is also a special case because it is made
up of two different coordinated parts of speech, a preposition and an adverb. We have to notice
that the meaning of this expression cannot be deduced from the lexical meanings of its parts.
When and coordinates predicates or sentences it often suggests a temporal sequence of
events. And is more used in spoken English rather than in written English where the use of and
has many constraints.
e.g. The boy shouted at his colleagues, and ran after them, and gave them the books they
had forgotten.

Sometimes and can be used in conditional sentences:

e.g. Come any closer and I’ll scream.
Try to steal again and you will go to jail.
Press the red button and the temperature will raise.

The Subject is in the first clause, in a convert you, even though the first two sentences
are not classic imperatives. Such sentences can be rephrased as conditional sentences:
e.g. If you come any closer, I will scream.
If you try to steal again, you will go to jail.
If you press the red button, the temperature will raise.

With transitive reciprocal verbs and has a reciprocal meaning, e.g. Jane resembles her
sister. Some intransitive verbs take on reciprocal meaning when Subject Noun Phrases are
coordinated with and, e.g. Sheila and her sister argued, meaning that Sheila argued with her
sister, but at the same time her sister argues with Sheila. There are a number of verbs that
express this kind of reciprocity when the Subject Noun Phrases are conjoined:
e.g. Mike and John fought.
Mike and his son embraced.
Tom and Jane eloped.

(ii) Conjunction or
Like and, or is extremely flexible grammatically. It, too, can conjoin a variety of
structures but, as a rule, the two conjoined structures are of the same type:
(i) Noun Phrases
Have you seen Mike or John?
(ii) Main Verbs:
Jane has gone or stay at home.
(iii) Verbs Phrases:
They will go to France or will stay home.
(iv) Prepositional Phrases
He has put his books on the shelf or in the briefcase.
(v) Prepositions
Should we walk around or through that lake?
(vi) Adjectives
My neighbour is naive or dumb.
(vii) Modals
I may or may not go.
(viii) Sentences
My father is watching TV or he is sleeping.

Conjunction or has two slightly different meanings in discourse. When somebody asks
us Do you want tea or coffee? he or she supposes that we do not want anything else. This type
of or is considered to be “exclusive or”. In some other cases or does not imply a choice, e.g.
You may apply for this grant if you are Hispanic or female”, meaning that it is better if you are
both Hispanic and female. This is called “inclusive or” and it is commonly used in official
language. However, in every day discourse, we usually interpret or to be exclusive, especially
in written texts:
e.g. We will finish our homework sooner or later.
In this program you either sink or swim.

Or often co-occurs with the correlative term, either and you will probably find that
many of the examples above sound better with either included.
e.g. My neighbour is either naive or dumb.
Either my father is watching TV or he is sleeping.

The function of either is to correlate one structure to another and to underscore the fact
that there is an alternative. Either always precedes the first of the two structures being
coordinated. In Either Mary or Sarah will decide, the two Noun Phrases are coordinated. In
You will either sink or swim, the lexical verbs are coordinated. In Either you will learn better
or I will tell your parents, two sentences are coordinated. Correlative either is not necessary
for grammaticality in any of these examples.

Neither…nor raises a very interesting problem since it formally resembles the

disjunctive either… or, while semantically it negates the conjunction, meaning both (not-
x)…and (not-y):
e.g. She didn’t eat and she didn’t drink – She neither ate nor drank anything.

In some cases, Neither and nor are the negative counterparts of either and or.
e.g. Neither Jane nor Sarah knew the result.
Neither John nor her brothers have agreed with their father.

While either…or indicates that one alternative or the other is viable, neither…nor
indicates that neither alternative is viable. In most cases a neither…nor can be paraphrased by
an utterance in which two negative propositions are coordinated by and:
e.g. I didn’t see her and didn’t call her last night.
Jane doesn’t want and won’t help you.

While neither is not required for grammaticality in sentences containing nor, the first
of the coordinated structures must contain some of the negative word.
e.g. She received no help nor support from her family.
She didn’t study for his exam nor did he write his term paper.

Note that when two independent sentences are conjoined in this way, the word order of
the second is affected, i.e. the Subject and the operator (auxiliary) are inverted.

(iii) Conjunction but

But is normally categorized as a conjunction, but it behaves quite differently from and
and or. But is highly constrained in the types of structures it can coordinate. But cannot
coordinate nouns and noun phrases, one of the most common functions of the two other
conjunctions; it occasionally conjoins:
(i) Modal auxiliaries
She can but won’t help you.
(ii) Verbs
She likes but fears her teacher.
(iii) Predicate adjectives
They are poor but happy.
More often but conjoins predicates and independent sentences.
(iv) Predicates
He bought a coat, but it didn’t fit.

(v) Sentences
I like Sarah, but I don’t like her friends.
He visited France, but he didn’t enjoy it.

But always suggests some contrast, but it is sometimes used in order to indicate that the
second item is odd or unexpected compared with the first item:
e.g. I study a lot, but my marks are not perfect.
He is stupid, but he is not incompetent.

Because but typically expresses contrast, there are many cases in which we can find a
negative construction with an affirmative one, as in the following examples:
e.g. Were you born in North Carolina?
No, I was born in South Carolina, but I moved in North Carolina when I was one year
old.
 Both….and is used for the coordination of two sentences having the same subject or for
the coordination of two subjects having the same predicate:
e.g. He both speaks and writes three foreign languages.
Both Peter and Ann have won prizes.

Not only… but (also). The correlative not only can be found either in non-initial or
initial position. When not only is in initial position, the Subject-auxiliary inversion is
obligatory:
e.g. They not only broke into his office and stole his books, but (also) tore up his
manuscripts.
Not only did they break into his office and steal his books, but (also) tore up his
manuscripts.
 Nominal Clauses

2.1. Definition of nominal clauses

Nominal clauses are the clauses that can perform most of the functions of the simple
Nouns phrases, meaning that they are noun-like. Nevertheless, there are constraints on
individual types of nominal clauses. Only one type of nominal clause can function as an indirect
object or an object complement and only a few types can function as the objects of prepositions.
Nominal clauses can be classified according to the subordinators that introduce them
into wh-clauses and that clauses. However, we have to pay attention to the fact that not all
clauses of these types behave as nominal clauses. They can function also as relative clauses or
adverbial clauses which will be dealt with later in this book.

Note: Nominal clauses are usually embedded within the main clause or another embedded
clause.

2.2. That Clauses

They are introduced by the function word that. This that has no semantic content and it
has no connection with the deictic that and the relative pronoun that which introduce relative
clauses.
e.g. I like that house. Deictic
The house that I built last year is too big. Relative
That Susan loves Mike is well-known. Subject
That clauses can have the following functions: Subject, Direct Object, predicate
complements and verb complements.

2.2.1. The Structure of that clauses

If we take out the subordinator that, the structure of this type of clauses looks exactly
like a main clause. They contain a finite verb and they can also contain the full range of verbal
morphology and auxiliaries:
e.g. I knew that she was going to study abroad. (1)
I hope that they can come on time. (2)
John knows that he has been wrong. (3)
Sarah was surprised that she was awarded such an important prize. (4)
They wish that they had gone to the seaside. (5)

In example (1) the predicate in that clauses is made up with a semi-auxiliary; in example
(2) the predicate in that clauses contains a modal auxiliary; in example (3) the Direct Object
clause contains a perfect auxiliary; in example (4) the subordinate clause contains a passive
auxiliary beyond a simple, tensed verb; and in example (5) the predicate contains a subjunctive.
 2.2.2. The Functions of that clauses
That clauses function as: Subjects, Direct Objects, Predicative Nominatives, Verb
Complements, Appositives.

(i) That clauses as Subjects

That clauses functioning as Subject co-occur with a limited number of verbs. These
verbs are stative or verbs which suggest emotion states or personal changes:
e.g. That he was intelligent was obvious for all of us.
That he had a car accident annoyed me a lot.

That clauses have their own internal structure:

e.g. That James studies music is surprising.

James functions as Subject of the Subject clause and music functions as Direct Object
within the Subject clause.

That clauses functioning as Subject have several syntactic features:

- they always agree with the predicate of the main clause in singular irrespective of their
structure. This agreement is due to the fact that Subject clauses express propositions and
propositions do not carry number:
e.g. That our company’s manager wants us to work overtime annoys us.
That our company’s managers want us to work overtime annoys us.

- when a that clause functions as Subject of a complex sentence, the subordinator that
cannot be deleted. “Since hearer will process the first verb encountered as the main verb of the
sentence, the subordinator is necessary to alert them that the next verb is not the main verb.”
(Berk, 1999: 234):
e.g. That Mike decided to leave abroad shocked us.
*Mike decided to leave abroad shocked us.

- A Subject that clause can be replaced by the pronoun it:

e.g. That my friend was late upset me.
It upset me.

(ii) That clauses as Direct Objects

The number of verbs which can take that clauses as Direct Objects is larger than the
number of verbs which can take that clause as Subjects. They include:
- psychological verbs such as: understand, believe, know, wish, want, hope, consider,
think, etc.
e.g. The president thinks that he will win the elections again.
I know that you were fired.
 I believe that he will leave his wife.
- sensory verbs such as: hear, feel, see when the verbs do not express sensory
perceptions:
e.g. I heard that you bought a new house.
I felt that he was sincere with me.
- verbs of communication such as: say, tell, argue, demand, claim, propose, suggest,
insist, write, etc.
e.g. My son claimed that he had the best paper of all his colleagues.
I demand that she leave.
We insist that they should return the money in due time.
Like Subject clauses, Direct object clauses have their own internal structure:
e.g. My father thinks that I will study law.

My father functions as Subject of the main clause, and I is the Subject of the subordinate
clause and law is the Direct Object of the verb study.
That clauses functioning as Direct Objects have several syntactic features:
- when a that clause functions as Direct Object of a complex sentence, the subordinator
that can be deleted.
e.g. I know (that) you are completely wrong.
I see (that) you have already made up your mind.

This deletion is possible because the hearer will process the first verb which is the verb
of the main clause and he will automatically process it as the main verb and the verb of the
Direct Object clause as the subordinate verb. This is why the subordinator that is not necessary.
- Direct Object clauses can be anticipated by the introductory pronoun it after verbs
such as: consider, make, find, take, owe, put.
e.g. I take it that he will give up.
I made it clear that he annoyed me.
I owe it to him that I am rich.

Note: In some cases that clauses functioning as Direct Objects can be preceded by an adjective
phrase or by an Indirect Object (see examples 2 and 3).
- Direct Object clauses can be replaced by the pronoun it:
e.g. I know that he is the best doctor in town.
I know it.
I believe that your sister is very smart.
I believe it.
However, there are some verbs which cannot take simple Noun phrases as Direct
Objects:
e.g. I insisted that James should go.
*I insist it.
 I thought that he would be here on time.
*I thought it.

A Direct Object expressed by a simple Noun phrase is possible after such verbs only
when the verb is followed by the suitable particle:
e.g. I insisted on it.

The same phenomenon occurs with the verb to think. Generally, to think takes a Direct
Object expressed by a that clause (e.g. I think that Romania will win the handball match.)
Like in the case of the verb to insist, to think can be followed by a Direct Object expressed by
a simple Noun phrase only when it is also followed by the preposition:
e.g. I thought about it.

- another characteristic of Direct Object clauses is their capacity of becoming Subject

Clauses in corresponding passive constructions. Nevertheless, most of the verbs involved in
these constructions are usually stative and do not passivize in most cases. But when the Subject
is expressed by an indefinite pronoun, passives are often possible:
e.g. Nobody knows that James was wrong.
That James was wrong is known by nobody.
Anyone can realize that the money is missing.
That the money was missing can be seen by anyone.
Everybody claimed that the doctor was tired.
That the doctor was tired was claimed by everybody.

- that clauses can co-occur with ditransitive verbs (i.e. verbs which take a Direct Object
and an Indirect Object). In ditransitive construction the Indirect Object must precede the Direct
Object clause. It is impossible to use a prepositional Indirect Object
e.g. I told John that his car had been stolen.
*I told that his car had been stolen to John.

(iii) That clauses as Predicate Nominatives

That clauses function as predicate nominatives only when they follow a copula verb or
a copula-like verb, forming together a nominal predicate.
e.g. My suspicion is that he stole the money.

Structurally, that clauses functioning as predicative nominatives is similar to that

clauses functioning as Direct Object clauses.
As we have stated before, a that clause always expresses a proposition involving states,
actions, etc which are abstractions. As a result, the Subject of the main clause must contain an
abstract noun such as conviction, idea, suggestion, hope, assumption, feeling, etc. because the
Subject of the main clause is always co-referential with the predicative nominative.
e.g. My conviction is that we should leave immediately.
His idea is that he will study in England.
My suggestion is that we have to move into a new house.
My hope is that we will arrive at the airport in time.

Note: Because that clauses embody propositions, they never function as Indirect Objects.

(iv) That clauses as Verb Complements

A verb complement is a clause that follows a Direct Object expressed by a Noun phrase
and it complements the verb of the main clause.
e.g. Mike warned James that they were late.
My parents advised me that I should study more.

In these sentences the Noun phrases that come immediately after the verb of the main
clause function as Direct Objects, but if we take out the that clauses the sentences will be ill-
formed. That clauses are necessary in order to preserve the discourse coherence and they should
be able to be recovered from the context. In a sentence like My parents advised me, the hearer
has to recover the content of the advice. This type of nominal clause that follows a Direct
Object expressed by a Noun phrase and it is required by the verb of the main clause is called
verb complement. Like all the others nominal clauses, the verb complement clause has its own
internal structure.
e.g. John persuaded his sister that their parents weren’t upset.

In the above sentence their parents is the Subject of the verb complement clause and
upset is the predicate nominative, forming with the verb be a nominal predicate.
The verbs that take that clauses functioning as verb complements are “communication”
verbs which indicate that the Subject is communicating information to the Direct Object and
the clause contains that information. Nevertheless, we have to mention that this type of
communication verbs are deontic, they always express the fact that the Subject is affected by
the shared information or the fact that the speaker tries to affect the behaviour of the Direct
object in some way.
e.g. Mike convinced his wife that they would go on holiday.
I assured my friends that I will help them.

2.2.3. Extraposition of that clauses

(i) Extraposition of Subject that clauses
In English language, that clauses functioning as Subjects are not often placed in front
position, i.e. in Subject position even if the sentence is well-formed. These clauses are
extraposed at the end of the sentence, and the Subject position is filled with the introductory
pronoun it. In these examples it has a cataphoric function; its referent appears later in the
sentence. In this case it is not semantically empty, its semantic content is represented by that
clause.
e.g. That my manager made a mistake is common knowledge.
It is common knowledge that my manager made a mistake.
That Mike moved to England surprised us all.
It surprised us all that Mike moved to England.

This process is called extraposition. In the first sentence of each pair the Subject is
expressed by that clauses. In the second sentence of each pair the Subject is expressed by the
cataphoric it which represents the ‘semantic’ Subject, the content of that clause.
Long and complex Subject clauses are especially extraposed (this movement is
sometimes called heavy NP shift) and it occurs in all types of syntactic context in edited
English:
e.g. It is hardly surprising that children should enthusiastically start their education at an
early age with the Absolute Knowledge of computer science.

An interesting case is represented by the constructions with copula-like verbs such as:
seem, appear, look. In these constructions that clauses may be interpreted as predicate
nominative:
e.g. It seems that he tried to commit suicide.
It appears that your sister is tired.
However, these that clauses do not function as predicate nominative because the
introductory pronoun it does not have an anaphoric reference, but a cataphoric one. Both these
sentences are extraposed although the non-extraposed counterparts are ill-formed:
e.g. *That he tried to commit suicide seems.
*That your sister is tired appears.

(ii) Extraposition of Direct Object that clauses

It always occurs when the verb of the main clause has an object complement.
e.g. *The president made that he will change the prime minister clear.
The president made clear that he will change the prime minister.

Extraposition can also take place when the verb does not have any complement:
e.g. My parents consider it necessary that my brother should study medicine.
I strongly dislike it that he lies.

In the second example that clause comes immediately after the cataphoric it. This is
called ‘empty’ extraposition because the structure of the sentence does not really change.

2.2.4. Factive and non-factive constructions

 That-clauses often express modality due to the fact that they contain propositions (i.e.
noun phrases) which can be treated as factual by the speakers. In some cases, the speaker
presupposes that the proposition expressed by the clause is a fact; they are called factive
constructions:
e.g. It is strange that Mike didn’t show up.
I regret that you didn’t go on holiday.
That she is still here is significant.

However, in other cases, the proposition is treated epistemically; they are non-factive
constructions:
e.g. It is possible that she will marry soon.
I believe that he will move to America.

Analysing the above examples, we can conclude that the predicate is the one which
determines whether a construction is factive or non-factive.

2.3. Wh- clauses

Wh- words function as interrogative elements as well as introductory elements of
nominal clauses. In such clauses they are both pro-forms and subordinators. Wh- clauses differ
from interrogative clauses in that the operator (auxiliary) in the wh- clause does not move (the
interrogative clauses require a Subject-auxiliary inversion). Sometimes non-native speaker
does not make the difference and use Subject-auxiliary inversion even in subordinate clauses,
e.g. *He asked me what is the time.
Wh- subordinators are different from other subordinators. They have referents in the
sentences, even if these referents are not specified:
e.g. I know who he killed. He killed someone.
I know what he did. Someone did something.

Wh- clauses can perform the following nominal functions: Subject, Direct Object,
Indirect Object, Subject complements, Object complements and Object of a preposition.

2.3.1. The Functions of Wh- clauses

(i) Wh- clauses as Subjects
Wh- clauses function as Subject clauses only with a limited set of verbs. They often
precede copula and copula-like verbs and communication verbs expressing a psychological
state, such as surprise, embarrass, disgust, shock, please, etc. The Direct Object clause is
always animate and the sentence expresses the reaction of the Direct Object to the fact
expressed by the Subject clause:
e.g. Who gave me the news //was your friend.
 Analysis: Wh-clause functioning as Subject clause introduced by the pro-form WHO//
Main Clause
What he did remains a mystery.
Whatever he said shocked all of us.
Why he decided to leave still puzzles us.

Extraposition of Subject Clauses

Subject clauses are often extraposed, the Subject position being filled by the
introductory pronoun it. In spoken language, Subject clauses are generally used at the end of
the sentences:
e.g. It isn’t known why he left.
It hasn’t been determined which house he sold.

(ii) Wh- clauses as Direct Objects

Unlike Wh-clauses functioning as Subject clauses, Wh- clauses functioning as Direct
Object clauses are triggered by a lot of verbs. Like any other subordinate clause, Direct Object
clauses have their own internal structure.
e.g. I know what he is trying to do.
I saw who did it.
She doesn’t care whether I stay or leave.
Jeremy asked why you didn’t tell him the truth.

If the wh-word requires a preposition, the speaker has two choices. In spoken language
the preposition is separated from the verb and it goes to the end of the sentence. The wh-word
is placed first in the clause and the preposition is left in its normal position:
e.g. I know who(m) the agent gave the files to.

In formal English the preposition usually precedes the wh-word which functions as
object; as a result the preposition occupies the first position in the clause:
e.g. I know to whom the agent gave the files.

Specific and non-specific referents

Wh- words generally have a specific, but unspecified referent.
e.g. I asked her who made the translation.
In this case who refers to a specific referent, the person who made the translation.
However, the compounds with –ever have a non-specific reference; i.e. whatever, whoever,
whichever, whenever, however.
e.g. I don’t know what he will do next. specific reference
I don’t like whatever she does. non-specific reference

Functions of wh-words within the Direct Object Clauses

 Most of the verbs that trigger Direct Object clauses introduced by wh-words belong to
the same semantic categories of verbs that trigger Direct Object clauses introduced by that. The
most important semantic categories are mental verbs, sensory verbs and communication verbs.
The wh-words fulfill several grammatical functions within the subordinate clauses:
- Subject
e.g. I know who finished the task.
- Direct Object
e.g. I asked him why he went to hospital.
- Indirect Object
e.g. Do you have any idea whom this house belongs to?
- adverbial modifier of place
e.g. I know where he spent his summer holiday.
- adverbial modifier of time
e.g. I noticed when he left.
- adverbial modifier of time (duration)
e.g. Do you know how long he lived in Italy?
- adverbial modifier of time (frequency)
e.g. Do you know how often he travels in Italy?
- adverbial modifier of means
e.g. I do not understand how he did it.
- adverbial modifier of manner
e.g. Did you notice how he did it?
- determiner
e.g. I bought which blouse my daughter liked.
I do not know whose car is this.
- no function
e.g. I do not know whether he is right or wrong.

Note: Whether is a special subordinator due to the fact that it communicates two possibilities
within the clause. Sometimes the possibilities are explicit in the clause, e.g. I do not know
whether she will come or she will stay at home, or they are implicit, e.g. I do not know if Sarah
has visited Romania.
Subordinator if behaves exactly in the same way. The Direct Object clauses introduced
by the conjunction if are triggered by psychological verbs or by verbs of inquiry:
e.g. I wonder if Sarah will come.
I asked if the plane would arrive on time.

(iii) Wh- clauses as Predicate Nominatives

Wh- clauses function as predicate nominatives only when they follow a copula verb or
a copula-like verb, forming together a nominal predicate:
e.g. The problem is what Jane will say about the matter.
 The question is why he left the room in such a hurry.
The idea is when the constructors will finish building the house.

(iv) Wh- clauses as Indirect Objects

While that- clauses and non-finite clauses can never function as Indirect Objects, wh-
clauses can. However, the Indirect Object clauses can be introduced only by non-specific wh-
words such as whoever, whichever and rarely whatever preceded by the preposition to. Who
can never introduce Indirect Object clauses:
e.g. I will give the money to whoever finishes the task.
* I will give the money to who finishes the task.
I will tell whichever person arrives first my story.
Give the medicine to whatever group needs most.

(v) Wh- clauses as Object Complement Clauses

As in the case of Indirect Object Clauses, that- clauses and non-finite clauses can never
function as Object Complement Clauses. The Object Complement Clauses can be introduced
only by non-specific wh-words such as whoever, whichever and rarely whatever. Nevertheless,
we have to mention that Object Complement Clauses are not very numerous in discourses:
e.g. This makeup artist can make you whoever you want to be.
Paint the room whatever color you like.
 Relative Clauses

The English language has a number of post-modifying constructions, the most frequent
being the relative clause. A relative clause is a wh- clause that always follows a Noun Phrase.
The relative pro-form that introduces relative clauses, namely a wh- word or that, is co-
referential with the preceding Noun Phrase. The introductory element of the relative clause has
a grammatical function in the clause, and, at the same time, acts as a subordinator. The wh-
forms that introduce relative clauses are referred to as relative pronouns (in contrast to their
occurrence in interrogative clauses when they are traditionally referred to as interrogative
pronouns).
There are two types of relative clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive, and each of them
modifies the preceding Noun Phrase but in different ways.
Note: Restrictive relative clauses are also called ‘defining’ relative clauses, and the non-
restrictive relative clauses are also referred to as ‘non-defining’ clauses.

3.1. Restrictive (defining) relative clauses

Restrictive relative clauses restrict the possible references to the preceding Noun
Phrase; this delimitation is compulsory as the hearer needs it in order to identify the referent:
e.g. Buy the house which is at the end of the street.
The person who came yesterday asked about you.
The car that you bought is too expensive.

Because the restrictive relative clauses restrict the possible referents of the Noun
Phrase, such clauses do not occur with proper nouns that already have a unique reference.
e.g. The Browns who live on the third floor are permanently abroad. (We assume that there
is another Brown family living on the ground floor)

But there are cases in which a proper name is used; nevertheless, this name is not
considered to be a proper noun:
e.g. The John Doe who lives in my block is rude.

Note: John Doe is the name that refers to an unidentified person.

In this case John Doe is not technically a proper noun because the assumption is that
there is more than one John Doe in the block. The function of the restrictive relative clause is
to restrict the reference to one that lives in the same block with me.
The restrictive relative clauses are usually employed when the preceding Noun Phrase
can have more than one referent, but there are some exceptions that will be discussed below.
If I know that my neighbor has two sisters, I might say: The sister who is a doctor lives in
Canada, and the sister who is a professor in the U.S.A.
 Relative clauses can modify Noun Phrases in any position. The clause is embedded in
the nominal structure. For example, if a clause modifies a Subject, then the relative clause
becomes part of the Subject.
e.g. The man [who is sitting near the window] is my friend.
Restrictive Relative Clause
…………………….Subject……………………

Like all other clauses, restrictive relative clauses have an internal structure, the wh-
word is in the first position independent from the syntactic function within the clause.
e.g. The man [who is sitting near the window] is my friend.
Subject Predicate Adv. Modifier of Place

Restrictive relative clauses can modify:

(i) indefinite pronouns:
e.g. I don’t know anyone who can do it.
Is there somebody who can come with me?
(ii) personal pronouns when used as indefinites:
e.g. She who did the best deserves to win.

Nevertheless, such constructions are not very common in modern English. Sometimes,
you is used with a restrictive relative clause, e.g. You who are standing over there go away.

3.1.1. Introductory elements of restrictive relative Clauses

(i) Although who and which function as relative pro-forms, that is most used in English.
Both who and which existed in Old English as interrogatives and they were not used as relative
pronouns until the Middle English period.
Who has different forms for different cases and is used only with [+animate] nouns.
e.g. I like the woman who lives next door.

In spite of having a standard Accusative form, whom, the Accusative form who is
largely used in spoken exchanges even by educated people. The preposition of the Accusative
takes the final position.
e.g. The man with whom I had an agreement died.
The man who I had an agreement with died.
I know the man who you had an agreement with.

In the Genitive case the form is whose:

e.g. The girl whose sister is your colleague is very beautiful.
 As stated before, who can be used only with [+animate] Noun Phrase. However, the
Genitive form whose can also be used with [-animate] Noun Phrases especially in spoken
English. They replace the construction Preposition + which:
e.g. I bought a second-hand car whose bodywork is not very good.
I bought a second-hand car the bodywork of which was not very good.

Because it is longer and complicated, the Genitive construction in the second example
is never used in spoken English. In spoken language the first construction is by far more usual:
Note: indefinite wh-words, such as whoever, whatever, wherever, etc.) are never used as
relative pronouns.

(ii) That is used with both [+animate] and [-animate] Nouns:

e.g. I like the present that I received on my birthday.
The people that live next door are very old.

Note: However, the people who live next door are very old, is more often heard.

(iii) There are some other wh- words such as where, when and why that can be used as
introductory elements for restrictive relative clause in limited circumstances. Where must be
used after a Noun Phrase denoting a place, when must be used after a Noun Phrase indicating
time, and why typically follows the Noun Phrase the reason.
e.g. The place where I was born is extremely beautiful.
The time when we decided to get married was magic.
The reason why he decided to live abroad is still a mystery for all of us.

Extra-position of restrictive relative clauses

Restrictive relative clause can be extraposed in spoken discourse. These constructions
are not acceptable in written language because the modifying clause is too far from its head
noun.
e.g. Mike gave a book that he had found in his house to Jen.
? Mike gave a book to Jen that he had found in his house.

In spoken English, the natives would probably avoid the confusion and say:
e.g. Mike found a book in his house and gave it to Jen.

Generally, extraposition of restrictive relative clauses is used when the clause is long
or complex:
e.g. I am meeting a man at 6 p.m. that I first saw at my sister’s party.
I am meeting a man at 6 p.m. I first saw him at my sister’s party. (spoken English)
 3.1.2. The Functions of pro-forms in restrictive relative clauses
The pro-forms that introduce restrictive relative clauses can perform several functions
in the embedded clauses:
(i) Subject
e.g. The man who lives next door is my boss.
The book that is on the floor is my son’s.
(ii) Direct Object
e.g. I don’t like the man that they have appointed as chairman.
(iii) Indirect Object
e.g. Have you met her friends that she introduced me to?
(iv) Subject Complement
e.g. I don’t like the person that my son has become.
(v) Object Complement
e.g. The place which Mike called ‘wonderful’ was in fact dreadful.
(vi) Genitive Determiner
e.g. The family in whose house you live are my friends.
(vii) Adverb of Place
e.g. The place where I live has wonderful surroundings.

3.1.3. The Deletion of relative pro-forms

The relative pronoun can be deleted when it does not function as Subject:
e.g. The man [whom] I saw on the street was your friend.

There are some cases in which the relative pronoun and the verb to be can be deleted/
together with the verb to be:
(i) when they are followed by a prepositional phrase.
e.g. The car which is parked outside the house is not mine.
The car outside the house is not mine.
The flowers that are near the window are beautiful.
The flowers near the window are beautiful.
(ii) when the main verb in the relative clause is in the progressive aspect:
e.g. The boy who is studying in my room is my brother.
The boy studying in my room is my brother.
The books that are lying on the floor are mine.
The books lying on the floor are mine.

The relative pronoun and the verb to be cannot be deleted in the following situations:
(i) when they are followed by an adjective:
e.g. The woman who is happy is my best friend.
*The woman happy is my best friend.
That person who is so cheerful is my dearest friend
 *That person so cheerful is my dearest friend

Nevertheless, if we change the positions of the noun and the adjective the deletion
is possible:
e.g. The happy woman is my best friend.
That so cheerful person is my dearest friend.

(ii) when they are followed by a noun:

e.g. That handsome man who is a doctor in the emergency unit is my father.
*The man a doctor is my father.
*The handsome man a doctor in the emergency unit is my father.

The relative pronoun can be deleted if it is followed by a new subject and verb:
e.g. This is the car that I bought.
This is the car I bought.
The person whom you see is my father.
The person you see is my father.
This is the town where I live.
This is the town I live in.
I don't know the reason why she is late.
I don't know the reason she is late.

Notes:
(i) Do not delete a relative pronoun that is followed by a verb other than to be:
e.g. The girl who likes to play tennis is my daughter.
*The man likes to play tennis is my father.

(ii) Never delete the relative pronoun whose:

e.g. The man whose car broke down had to walk to the train station.
*The man car broke down had to walk to the train station.

3.1.4. Functions of restrictive relative clauses

They are present in all discourses. Their main function is to restrict the referents of the
preceding Noun phrases. Beside this function, they can also have other functions:
(i) introduce a referent about which the speaker believes that it hasn’t been introduced
in discourse yet:
e.g. I argued with the man that moved next to me.

It is supposed that the hearer already knew that a man had moved next to the speaker.
The function is to simply remind the hearer what they already knew. This knowledge restricts
the referents of the Noun phrase.
 (ii) the restrictive relative clause can describe things. The Noun phrase contains an
indefinite article that encodes new information.
e.g. Mike has a car that is extremely expensive.
This means that Mike has only one car. But if we say:
e.g. Mike is a man that like expensive cars.
the restrictive relative clause characterizes the man.

3.1.5. Reduction of restrictive relative clauses to non-finite clauses

They can be reduced to infinitive clauses that are also restrictive.
e.g. My daughter needs someone to play with.
I need some coffee to drink before the interview starts.

As we have stated before, these infinitive clauses can be paraphrased with a restrictive
relative clause, but the main difference is that these paraphrases overlook the semantic
meanings of the infinitive clauses. Unlike restrictive relative clauses introduced by wh- relative
pronouns, infinitive relatives “focus on the real word function of the Noun Phrase modified”.
(Berk, 1999: 170):
e.g. The person my daughter needs is a playmate.
Coffee is for drinking.

3.1.6. Other post-modifiers with restrictive meaning

The English language also has some other constructions that do not have all the
syntactic and semantic characteristics of restrictive relative clauses, but which have the
function of restricting the possible referents of the Noun Phrases they post-modify.
e.g. The words said there were very unpleasant for all of us.
The book lying on the table is mine.
The man in that house is a murderer.
I met a lot of people from England.

In each case the structure in boldface plays the same role as a restrictive relative clause:
the words that/which were said; the book which/that was lying on the table; the man who is in
the house; the people that come from England/ that were born in England.

Some grammarians named this type of constructions “reduced relative clauses”, namely
structures in which the relative pronoun and the verb be have been omitted.
This transformation reduces the relative clause to a past particle (example 1), to an
–ing clause (example 2), or to a prepositional phrase (examples 3 and 4).
Although there are some grammarians who reject the idea that these structures derive
from restrictive relative clauses, we will further analyse them in order to better understand the
post-nominal constructions.
 Using the reduced relative clause model, a construction like the children who are
playing in the schoolyard can be reduced to the children playing in the garden and the book
that is lying on the table to the book lying on the table. In the latter example the prepositional
phrase lying on the table does not function as an adverbial modifier of place. Let us consider
the following example: The cars in the garage are being repaired. This sentence does not tell
us where the cars are being repaired, but which cars are repaired, i.e. the cars from inside the
garage, not from the yard. So, in the garage functions as post-modifier.
Nevertheless, this transformation does not work in all situations:
e.g. The woman in a red dress is my friend.
Children in good physical shape are selected for the college team.

None of these constructions can be replaced by a restrictive relative clause: *the woman
who is in the red dress is my friend; *children who are in good physical shape.
Because there are so many exceptions to this rule, the clauses and phrases discussed
here are labeled as restrictive post-nominal modifiers. They are typically past participle
clauses, present participle clauses and prepositional phrases. In rare cases they can be expressed
by lexical adjectives and adverbs:
e.g. Many girls wear yellow.
The people here are very nice.

3.2. Non-restrictive (non-defining) relative clauses

The non-restrictive relative clauses perform a function completely different from that
of the restrictive ones. They only provide additional information about the Noun Phrase they
determine and they are not embedded. In written texts they are separated by commas unlike
restrictive relative clauses.
e.g. Anthony Hopkins, who is a famous British actor, has won an Oscar.
My mother is visiting my brother, who is living in London.

Although the information that non-restrictive relative clauses provide is additional, this
does not mean that it is useless or irrelevant. Sometimes, the information can be very important,
as in the following example:
e.g. These batteries, which should be changed monthly, will keep the appliance function
properly.

Non-restrictive relative clauses are almost never introduced by that after [+animate]
Noun phrases and only occasionally after [-animate] Noun phrases. A sentence like His new
novel, that is a best-seller, is excellent is not usual for many speakers.
Unlike restrictive relative clauses, non-restrictive relative clauses can refer to other
structures than Noun phrases. Because the referents of these clauses are structures, not people,
the introductory element is always the pro-form which. The antecedent can be:
 (i) predicate
e.g. My daughter wants to go to Disneyland, which many kids do.

(ii) predicative adjective

e.g. I know you are furious, which you have every right to be.

(iii) the whole sentence

e.g. Today is Friday, which means I can go away for the weekend.

Non-restrictive relative clauses can be reduced to non-finite forms, especially to past

participle clauses:
e.g. Michael Jordan, considered the best player in the team, is famous all over the world.
My aunt Elisabeth, called Liz by everybody, has nine children.
Mrs. Jones, appointed president of the company, is a very stubborn person.

3.2.1. The Appositive

They are non-restrictive relative clauses rendered by Noun phrases, not clauses. They
also refer to the same entity as the Noun phrase they follow. The following examples show the
difference between non-restrictive relative clauses and the appositives:
e.g. My brother, who is a doctor, lives in London. - non-restrictive relative clause
My brother, a doctor in London, will marry next week. - appositive
My village, which is a tight community, is fascinating.
non-restrictive relative clause
My village, a tight community, is fascinating.
appositive

3.2.2. Discourse Functions of non-restrictive relative clauses and appositives

Both non-restrictive relative clauses and appositives introduce unfamiliar people into
discourse by using a common Noun phrase and proper nouns followed by explanations as in
the following example:
e.g. We met a young man, a professor at Yale, who was teaching history at that time, during
our holiday in the U.S.A.

Appositives and non-restrictive relative clauses are extremely used in newspapers and
journals because newspaper articles always introduce new information about new events in
discourse:
e.g. The workhorse of this system is the light-sensitive hormone melatonin, which is
produced by the body every evening and during the night.
 Both non-restrictive relative clauses and appositives are also constantly used in contexts
in which the speaker or the writer tries to explain and define something. They are present in
textbooks, reference books and manuals.
e.g. Non-bypassed models have dedicated bypass terminals, which allow the soft starter to
continue providing protection and monitoring functions even when bypassed via
external contactor.

Both non-restrictive relative clauses and appositives also frequently occur in informal
discourse. In the following example, the author uses non-restrictive relative clauses in order to
introduce new characters and, at the same time, provide new information about them.
e.g. I heard about Jack’s father, his stepfather, Thomas, who became the manager of the
best hospital in town.

3.2.3. Restrictive Appositives

There is another construction which resembles both restrictive and non-restrictive
relative clauses. They are called “restrictive appositives”. They are introduced by the relative
pronoun that preceded by an abstract noun:
e.g. The fact that he won amazed us all.
I enjoyed the idea that he would visit us.
I had the hope that he would give me my money back.

These clauses are different from normal/standard relative clauses. The introductory
element is always that, never a wh- word and this introductory element does not have any
function in the clause. If the preceding Noun phrase is part of the verbal phrase (the second and
the third examples above) the subordinator that can always be deleted from the restrictive
appositive. When the introductory element is part of the Subject (like in the first example) the
deletion can be done but the remaining sentence is problematic for many speakers:
e.g. ?The fact he won amazed us all.

Restrictive relative clauses are sometimes extraposed in casual discourse.

e.g. The idea that he will win is strange.
The idea is strange that he will win.

When the restrictive relative clauses are extraposed, no cataphoric it is required since
the preceding Noun phrase still functions as Subject.
Infinitive clauses can also function as restrictive appositives and they follow abstract
nouns:
e.g. Her desire to marry him is normal.
I had the opportunity to live abroad.
 We can paraphrase the first sentences and say Her desire, which is to marry him, is
normal, but this form is quite unusual.
Infinitive restrictive appositives cannot be extraposed.

3.3. Introductory Emphatic Sentences (Cleft Sentences)

An introductory emphatic sentence (cleft sentences) is an information-packaging
construction (Huddleston and Pullum, 2007: 239) which “packs” the information in a special
way by emphasizing a particular element of the sentence. Every cleft sentence has a syntactic
counterpart which has the same meaning in most cases. These two constructions will be dealt
with in this chapter, the author analyzing the situations in which emphatic constructions rather
than their basic counterparts should be use. The cleft constructions can be divided into two
major types: it-cleft constructions and pseudo-cleft constructions.

3.3.1. IT-cleft Constructions

Generally, a construction can have more than one cleft counterparts, one for each Noun
phrase. For example, for the following non-cleft construction
e.g. James gave this book to Sarah.

there are 3 possible cleft counterparts:

e.g. It was James who gave this book to Sarah.
It was Sarah who was given this book by James.
It was this book which was given to Sarah by James.

In order to form an it-cleft construction from a syntactically more basic non-cleft

construction, the sentence is divided into two different parts (Huddleston and Pullum, 2007:
251):
(i) the foregrounded, marked in bold in the above examples and
(ii) the backgrounded, underlined in the above examples
The parts of speech that can be selected for functioning as the foregrounded element
are different: the Subject, the Direct Object, the Indirect Object (in our example).
(i) the foregrounded element functions as the complement of the verb to be. The Subject
is always expressed by the empty pronoun it.
The foregrounded element is a Noun phrase and its functions are the same as those in
the corresponding non-cleft counterpart. Apart from the Subject and Objects (illustrated in our
example), it can also function as:
(i) Subject of the subordinate clause:
e.g. They suggested you should leave. Non-cleft
It’s you they suggested you should leave. It-Cleft
(ii) complement of a preposition:
e.g. I introduced Mike to John. Non-cleft
It was John who I introduced Mike to. It-Cleft
 (iii) adverbial modifier of manner
e.g. He cut the fabric with a knife. Non-cleft
It was with a knife that he cut the fabric. It-Cleft
(iv) adverbial modifier of time
e.g. She always travels by car. Non-cleft
It is always that she travels by car. It-Cleft
(v) adverbial modifier of purpose
e.g. I gave up smoking to feel fitter. Non-cleft
It was to feel fitter that I gave up smoking. It-Cleft

Note: The Prepositional phrase (with a knife), the adverb (always) and the non-finite clause (to
feel fitter) are all adjuncts of various kinds.
Apart from these possibilities, there is one more type of relative clause which does not
modify a Noun phrase. In the example He cut the fabric with a knife, that he cut the fabric
does not modify the noun knife:
e.g. *This is [the knife that he cut the fabric].
In order to form a correct sentence we have to retain the preposition with:
e.g. This is [the knife he cut the fabric with].

(ii) the backgrounded element is expressed as a relative clause introduced by the relative
pronoun who. The relative clause does not depend on James. James who gave this book to
Sarah does not form a syntactic constituent. In normal relative clauses the Noun phrase that
triggers it forms a syntactic constituent along with the relative clause:
e.g. It was James [who gave this book to Sarah].
They were [my friends who advised me not to do it].

In some cases, there is some ambiguity between it-cleft sentences and relative clauses.
A sentence like It was Dior’s collection that I liked best can be analysed in two ways;
- as an it-cleft sentence: the pronoun it is an empty pronoun and it may be used to answer
the question: What did I like best?;
- as a non-cleft sentence, it is a personal pronoun referring to Dior’s collection. Dior’s
collection that I liked best forms a constituent.
The backgrounded element presents the information as a presupposition, the content of
this information is considered correct or taken for granted.
Generally, presupposition is not affected when we negate the content of the sentence
and this is the main difference between cleft sentences and their non-cleft counterparts:
e.g. I didn’t make a birthday cake for John. Non-cleft
It wasn’t for John that I made a birthday cake. It-cleft
 The non-cleft sentence simply denies that I made a cake for John, it does not state that
I made a cake for someone else. The if-cleft has a different content: the presupposition that I
made a cake is valid, but it denies that I made it for John.
In the case the information is old, having been introduced earlier in the discourse, but
there are some cases in which the presupposition introduces new information:
e.g. Darwin has been considered to be a genius. It was he who wrote the famous work “The
Origin of Species” which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology.

3.3.2. Pseudo-cleft Constructions

They are similar to it-cleft sentences, being divided into foregrounded and
backgrounded elements. The backgrounded element represent the presupposed information.
The difference between these two types of cleft sentences is that the backgrounded element is
placed in a fused relative construction:
e.g. What we need is love. Non-cleft
What we need is love. Pseudo-cleft
It is love what we need. It-cleft
He said he would move. Non-cleft
What he said is that he would move. Pseudo-cleft
I’ll travel to Spain. Non-cleft
What I will do is travel to Spain. Pseudo-cleft

The backgrounded element is in bold, and the foregrounded element is underlined. The
backgrounded material forms a fused relative construction. In the first pair of examples, the
non-cleft sentence asserts that we need something. Like in the above example, the
presupposition is still valid in the negative counterpart:
e.g. What we need is not love, it’s sympathy.

The foregrounded elements overlap only partially in it-cleft and pseudo-cleft

constructions. The main difference is that pseudo-cleft sentences can have subordinate clauses
as foregrounded elements whereas the it-cleft constructions cannot. In the examples discussed
earlier we notice that only the first one can form an it-cleft counterpart, the other two cannot:
e.g. It is love that we need.
*It is that he would move that he said.
*It is travel to Spain that I will do.

Note: Who is not normally used in fused relative clauses in everyday discourse; this is why the
pseudo-cleft sentences do not allow Noun phrases as foregrounded elements. We can not say:
*Who introduced Mike to John was me; we use instead an it-cleft construction: The one who
introduced Mike to John was me.
A special type of pseudo-cleft sentences is the specifying be construction in which a
Subject or a complement can be reversed:
e.g. Love is what we need.

Note: The pseudo-cleft constructions are less systematically related to their non-cleft
counterparts than the it-cleft constructions. There are cases of pseudo-cleft constructions
without non-cleft counterparts:
e.g. What I listened to was a symphony. Pseudo-cleft
*I listened to
 Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses are extremely different in form. They include clause types that do
not appear in other constructions, and, consequently, it is much easier to group adverbial
clauses according to semantic criteria rather grammatical form. Not all adverbial clauses are
embedded (subordinate) clauses. Some of them may be part of the predicate of a higher clause,
while others simply stand apart from the sentence.

4.1 Adverbial Clauses of Place

Unlike other types of adverbial clauses, Adverbial Clauses of Place are less frequently
encountered in the English discourse and can take a limited number of forms. As a rule,
adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the subordinators where and wherever.
Where is used when the place it refers to is specific:
e.g. I want to spend my summer holiday where I was born.
She had to go back to the shop where she had forgotten her card.

Wherever refers to an indeterminate place:

e.g. We can spend our summer holiday wherever you want to.
Mother always accepted to go for the weekend wherever my brothers and I fancied to.

In some cases, it is difficult to tell whether a where(ever) form is an adverb of place or

an adverb of direction. As a rule, adverbs of direction are expressed by Prepositional Phrases
in which the preposition indicates a direction, but such prepositions rarely take wh- clauses as
objects. Nevertheless, the preceding verb can give a clue regarding the adverb’s semantic type.
For example, in I will wait where I am now, we can assume that both the clause and the pro-
form where are adverbs of place.

Note: Not all clauses introduced by the adverb where are adverbial clauses of place; sometimes
they function as Direct Object Clauses.
e.g. I know where he is going. Direct Object Clause
I go where he is going. Adverbial Clause of Place
In both cases where functions as an adverb.

4.2 Adverbial Clauses of Time

Adverbial Clauses of Time are quite common in English especially due to the fact that
there are several types of clauses which can communicate time frame. According to Berk
(2004), the adverbial clauses of time can be divided into several types according to the moment
they refer to.

4.2.1 Adverbial Clauses of Boundary

 (i) The main pro-form that can be used as a subordinator in an adverbial clause of time
is when. In an example such as I will come when you are ready, when functions as an adverb
of time within the clause, which function itself as an adverbial clause of time.
In this case when does not refer to a specific moment in time, but it stands for an
unspecified time frame.

(ii) Another frequently used subordinator is after which is generally used in finite
adverbial clauses of time.
e.g. I will come after you call me.

The subordinator after refers to an open time frame that begins subsequent to the event
or action expressed by the verb of the main clause.
(iii) As soon as marks a specific time frame which starts when the action of the main
clause ends:
e.g. I will come and take you as soon as I finish my job.

(iv) The preposition until is generally considered to express duration:

e.g. I will wait for you until it gets dark.
However, until can be used in adverbial clauses of time when the verb in the main
clause is in the negative:
e.g. She didn’t want to do her homework until her parents arrive.

In this type of sentences the event in the adverbial clause of time does not begin until
the action in the main clause occurs.
(v) The subordinator while is used in clauses in which the speaker wants to express two
events taking place at the same time:
e.g. Mike watched TV while Jane slept.
I will finish cooking while you are cleaning the house.

4.2.2 Adverbial clauses of frequency

The adverbial clauses of frequency are not as common as the adverbial clauses of
boundary. They are introduced by the subordinator whenever and some other subordinators
containing the construction as……as.
e.g. How often does he leave the country?
He leaves the country whenever he has a business trip.
How often do you go to the theatre?
I go to the theatre as often as I can.

4.2.3. Adverbial clauses of duration

 There are some adverbial clauses of time that express the duration of an event. The
most common preposition that it is used in this type of constructions is since because it
emphasizes the duration of the action expressed by the predicate in the main clause.
e.g. I have known Alex since we were kids.
We have been working together since he joined our company.

The subordinator since can be sometimes be preceded by ever. The difference between
since and ever is that the latter intensifies the idea of duration.
e.g. I have known Alex ever since we were kids.

Another subordinator that introduces adverbial clauses of duration is as long as.

e.g. We have shared the same apartment as long as we were students in London.
How long will you stay here?
I will stay here as long as it takes to finish all my work.

The Sequence of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Time

Adverbial clauses of duration co-occur with the perfect aspect because the idea of
duration is implicit in this aspect. The subordinators of adverbial clauses of time are tools which
enable the speaker or the writer to manipulate the time frame according to their needs.
However, there are some constraints in tense usage in this type of clause. There are several
situations:
(i) the actions expressed by the verb of the main clause and the verb of the temporal
clause are simultaneous. These parallel actions can be indicated by:
- the present tense or the past tense in the main clause is followed by the same tense in
the subordinate clause:
e.g. He helps us when we need.
He helped us when we needed.

- the future tense in the main clause is followed by a present tense in the subordinate
clause:
e.g. He will help us when we need.

(ii) the action expressed by the verb in the main clause takes place after the action
expressed by the verb in the temporal clause:
- the present tense or the future tense in the main clause is followed by the present
perfect in the subordinate clause:
e.g. We will go on holiday after I have finished this project.

- the past tense in the main clause is followed by the past perfect in the subordinate
clause:
e.g. The accused was put to prison after he had intentionally provoked a car accident.
 The children were driven home when they had finished their classes.

Note: When the two actions are parallel, the present perfect is also used in subordinate clause:
e.g. We have made a lot of money since we have left the country.

(iii) the action expressed by the verb of the subordinate clause takes place after the
action expressed by the verb of the main clause:
- the past tense (or past perfect) in the main clause is followed by the past tense in the
temporal clause. This type of temporal clauses is introduced by the conjunctions till, until,
before, when.
e.g. I had left the house before you came.

- the past perfect in the main clause is followed by the past tense in temporal clauses.
This rule is applied with the correlatives hardly/ scarcely…when, no sooner …than.
e.g. He had hardly entered the room when the phone rang.
Hardly had he entered the room when the phone rang.
No sooner had he entered the room than the phone rang.

4.3. Adverbial clauses of manner

The adverbial clauses of manner show the manner in which the Subject carries out the
action expressed by the verb. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, as if, in what manner,
by the preposition like or by the relative adverb how:
e.g. He ate as he hadn’t eaten for months.
He was looking at us as if I were an alien.
Sing how you can.

In everyday speech the preposition like often participates in adverbial clauses of

manner:
e.g. She acts like she didn’t know the answer.
to replace the standard structure She acts as if she didn’t know the answer.

Adverbial clauses of manner can be reduced to gerundial clauses introduced by the

preposition by. The –ing clauses function as clause objects:
e.g. You can pass the exam by studying hard.
Mary was so badly hurt and she was able to answer only by nodding slightly.

A special subtype of adverbial clauses of manner is the adverbial clause of means. It

can be introduced by the preposition without, but not by the preposition with, expressing
negative means:
e.g. You can solve the problem without using violence.
You can win the competition without denigrating the other competitors.
 4.4. Adverbial clauses of comparison
Adverbial clauses of comparison compare the action they express with the action of the
main clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions: as, as if, than:
e.g. He speaks English as well he writes it.
Their son is not as intelligent as the parents thought.
He was looking at me as if I were an alien.

Note: The verb in an adverbial clause of comparison is in the Subjunctive form (present or
Perfect) if it indicates comparison with some hypothetical meaning.
e.g. He spoke to me as if I were his enemy.
He spoke to me as if I had done something wrong.

In American English as if can be replaced with like:

e.g. He was looking at me like I were an alien.

The same verb may sometimes appear both in the main and the subordinate clause:
e.g. Mike drives more carefully than James drives.

The verb of the subordinate clause can be deleted, and the construction becomes
elliptical:
e.g. Mike drives more carefully than James.

Than is used after adjectives and adverbs in comparative degrees:

e.g. He loves her more than he loves his family.
She is prettier than her sister is.

4.5. Adverbial clauses of reason

The adverbial clauses of reason (cause) show the reason for which the Subject carries
out the action expressed by the verb in the main clause. They are introduced by: because, so
that, as, since, considering that, seeing that, on the grounds that, owing to, due to, taking into
account:
e.g. They didn’t arrive on time because the plane was late due to the foggy weather.
I decided to resign so that I would be able to take care of my baby properly.
As he is smart, he will surely succeed.
Seeing that you really want to go, the Committee will make a decision at the next
meeting.
Considering that the outcome was extraordinary, the researchers became famous.

Because is the most commonly used subordinator in an adverbial clause of reason,

being extremely closely related to the idea of reason.
 So that is a subordinator that is commonly used in adverbial clauses of reason, but it
also expresses result.
e.g. I gave him some money so that he could buy the books he needed for college.
That can be omitted, leaving so as the unique subordinator:
e.g. I left early so I wouldn’t be late.

That can sometimes appear alone in adverbial clauses of reason and purpose, but this
construction is not very frequently used:
e.g. Give that others may also give.

The subordinator since is usually associated with duration (e.g. I have lived here since
2000), but it can also introduce adverbial clauses of reason, losing its temporal meaning:
e.g. I left the country since I couldn’t find a job.
I asked him to come over since I needed his help.

Note: The pro-form why never appears in adverbial clauses of reason. In an example such as I
explained to her why I had left the country, why functions as an adverbial modifier of reason
within the nominal clause, but introduces a Direct Object clause.

4.6. Adverbial clauses of result

Adverbial clauses of result are closely related to adverbial clauses of purpose. The
difference is represented by the fact that the former category underscores the final outcome,
rather than the initial motivation. Compare the following examples:
e.g. I worked hard so that I could pass the exam.
He insulted his manager so he was fired.

In the first example the purpose is emphasized, without giving any indication about the
outcome of the fact that I worked hard. In the second example the result is being underscored.
Adverbial clauses of result can be introduced by the conjunctions: so that, so, that and
the correlatives so and such followed by an adverbial clause of result introduced by that. The
correlative so is placed before an adjective phrase or an adverbial phrase, while the correlative
such is used before a noun phrase:
e.g. This girl is so beautiful that she may win the beauty contest. (so + adjective phrase)
He plays the piano so well that he could become a famous pianist. (so + adverbial
phrase)
We had such a great opportunity that we couldn’t miss it.
(such + noun phrase)

The correlatives can be placed in front of the main clause with Subject-Predicate
inversion:
e.g. So beautiful was the girl that she might have won the beauty contest.
 So well does he play the piano that he could become a famous pianist.
Such is the opportunity that we couldn’t miss it.

The adverbial clauses of result can be represented by infinitive clauses with or without
the prepositional phrase in order:
e.g. They worked hard to earn a lot of money.
I learnt Spanish in order to be able to study in Spain.

Infinitive clauses can express ‘potential’ results, and when they do, they frequently
appear first in the sentence:
e.g. In order to pass the exam, you have to study really hard.

4.7. Adverbial clauses of purpose

As we have stated before, the adverbial clauses of purpose are closely related to the
adverbial clauses of result. They are introduced by the same conjunctions: so that, in order
that, that (in more formal style).
e.g. Clean the house so that we could have your birthday party tonight.
His parents have saved money in order that their son could study abroad.

Note: The adverbial clauses of purpose generally contain an Analytic subjunctive formed with
modal auxiliaries: can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should.
e.g. I will have some extra English lessons so that I will/ can/ may study in England.

Negative purpose is indicated by the following conjunctions: so that, lest, for fear that,
in case. Lest and for fear that are used especially in formal English.
e.g. You must call him so that he won’t forget about our tomorrow’s meeting.

In adverbial clauses of purpose introduced by lest, for fear that, in case the verb is
always in positive form. The Analytic subjunctive formed with should is used with these
constructions:
e.g. He ran for fear that he should miss the train.

4.8. Adverbial clauses of concession

Adverbial clauses of concession are among those that modify the whole sentence. This
type of clause states that a real action occurred in spite of the action expressed in the main
clause. They take many different shapes, but in the following examples the proposition
expressed by the main clause is surprising or unexpected in relation with the proposition
expressed by the subordinate clause.
They are introduced by the conjunctions though, although, as, even if, even though, no
matter, in spite of, despite and by the relative pronouns whoever, whatever, whichever and by
the conjunctive adverb however.
e.g. He studied architecture although he didn’t want to.
No matter how hard you may try, you will never beat the champion.
He was still in love with her despite the fact that she cheated on him several times.
We lived with his parents even though he had enough money to live alone.

As can be placed in initial or non-initial position, but it expresses concession only in

non-initial position, being preceded by an adjective or adverb:
e.g. Upset as she was, Jane decided to resign.
As Jane was upset, she decided to resign. (cause)
Hard as he tried, he couldn’t convince her to marry him.

Note: In adverbial clause of concession both the indicative and the subjunctive moods can be
used:
(i) The indicative mood is used when the action is real:
e.g. I will not give up no matter what happened.
Even if he didn’t want to be a teacher, he decided to give it a try.

(ii) The Subjunctive mood is used in order to express a hypothetic, possible situation:
e.g. Whatever you may say I will not believe you.

4.9. Adverbial clauses of condition

Conditional clauses are often discussed in the context of adverbial clauses, but it is not
clear whether they are really adverbials. The Conditional, present or perfect, expresses an
action or state whose realization/achievement depends on a condition and this is the reason
why conditional sentences are considered special in the sense that both clauses (main and
conditional) do not express actual events in most cases.
They are introduced by the following conjunctions: if (in most cases), unless, whether,
but for, in case, on condition that, so long as, provided/ providing (that), suppose/ supposing
(that).
- Unless is a negative conjunction meaning “if not”. It is always used with a positive form of
the verbs:
e.g. Unless you tell him the truth, he will not forgive you.

- Whether also means “if” but is preferred when an alternative action is expressed, “whether …
or”:
e.g. You have to study hard whether you like it or not.

- But for is used when the verb to be forms the predicate of the sentence and is in negative (for
type II and III):
e.g. If it had been for him, I wouldn’t have given up smoking.
But for him I wouldn’t have given up smoking.
- In case usually expresses a future condition that may or may not appear:
e.g. In case I see her, I will give her your message.

- Suppose/ Supposing that may mean ‘what will happen if’ or ‘what would have happened if’:
e.g. Suppose the train was late!
Suppose I would have missed the train!
It is preferred in exclamative sentences.
- So long as/ Provided that/ Providing that replace the conjunction if when there is a strong
idea of limitation or restriction:
e.g. She can take my car provided she does not drive too fast.

4.9.1. Types of adverbial clauses of condition

The conditional sentences are made up of two parts: the main clause and the if clause
(subordinate clause). There are three main types of adverbial clauses of condition:
(i) Conditional sentence type 1
It expresses a possible situation which does not contradict the present reality and it
usually refers to a future period of time:
e.g. If the weather forecast is good, we will go on holiday.
I will not help you unless you pay me the money.

The condition expressed in the if clause may or may not be fulfilled. As a result, the
action expressed in the main clause may or may not take place. If the condition is fulfilled,
the action in the main clause is likely to happen immediately.

(ii) Conditional sentence type II

It expresses an unreal, improbable condition referring to the present or future.
e.g. If the weather forecast were good, we would go on holiday.

The action expressed in the if clause refers to an unreal, improbable situation in the
present or future. There is no difference in time between type I and type II, they both may
happen in the present or future.
The past tense in the conditional clause is not a past tense proper; it is present
subjunctive. In the main clause the present conditional is used.

Note: the form of the verb to be used in the if clause is were for all persons, although the regular
forms was (for Ist and 3rd persons), and were are more frequently used. The tendency is to use
were for the first person in expressions like:
e.g. If I were you, I would do it.

(iii) Conditional sentence type III

 It expresses an impossible situation and refers to a past situation. These conditionals
are called “impossible” because the action expressed in the if clauses did not happen in the past
and, therefore, the action in the main clause was not fulfilled.
e.g. If the weather had been good, we would have gone on holiday.

The form of the verb in the if clause is past subjunctive (it has the same form as past
perfect in indicative) and the verb used in the main clause is past conditional.

4.9.2. The place of if clauses

The two clauses of any type of conditional sentences can be placed in any order. The
if clause may be placed in front of the main clause or after it:
e.g. If the rain stops, I will go out.
I will go out if the rain stops.

However, if either the main clauses or the conditional one is long or followed by a
prepositional structure or a relative clause etc. it is usually placed in the second position:
e.g. If the rain stops, I will go out as we planned before.

If the conditional clause is in front position it is separated from the main clause by
comma.

4.9.3. Variations of adverbial clauses of condition

(i) Variations of conditional sentences type I
The differences may appear to if clause or to main clause and they consist in changes
of the tenses used.
(i.a) Apart from the present tense simple, other tenses can be used in if clause:
- present tense continuous
e.g. If you are going tomorrow, please give this letter to Jim.

- present perfect
e.g. If you have finished your work, I’ll come to see you.

(i.b) Apart from will several modal verbs are possible in main clause. They have an
extra meaning according to the modal used:
- may/ might that express probability:
e.g. If you study hard, you may pass the exam with flying colors.

- may/ might/ can expressing permission

e.g. If you have finished your homework, you may watch TV.
If your friends let you use their car, you can drive it carefully.
- can expressing possibility
e.g. If we have our car repaired in time, we can still go abroad.

- can expressing ability

e.g. If you learn English, you can study in the U.S.A.

- must expressing strong command or advice

e.g. If you want to live in my house, you must go to work.
If you still want to leave for England, you must learn English.

- should/ought to expressing mild command, request, suggestion e.g.

If you need more time to finish the project, you should tell your boss.

- could can be used in the interrogative expressing suggestion, request, command etc.
e.g. Could you help me to clean the house if the cleaning lady is not coming?

(ii) Variations of conditional sentences type II

Tense variations may appear to if clause and to main clause:
(ii.a) Apart from the present subjunctive, other tenses can be used in if clause:
- past tense continuous
e.g. If they were traveling together, they would be less bored.

- past perfect. This is a combination between types II and III. The action in the conditional took
place in the past, but the consequences of that actions are felt in the present and they may be
felt in the future.
e.g. If he hadn’t killed him, he wouldn’t be in prison now.

(ii.b) In the main clause some modal verbs can be used.

The past conditional continuous can also be employed:
e.g. If I were you and had all the money I wanted, I would be traveling around the
world all the time.

- might expressing probability or a possible result

e.g. If you studied hard, you might pass the exam.

- could expressing the ability of performing an action

e.g. If the workers went on strike, they could get a pay-rise.

- two past tenses expressing automatic or habitual reactions in the past

e.g. If anyone told him he was wrong, he got nervous.
 (iii) Variations of conditional sentences type III
Tense variations may appear to if clause and to main clause:
(iii.a) Apart from the past subjunctive, other tenses can be used in if clause:
- past perfect continuous
e.g. If I hadn’t been reading the book, I would have been in trouble at my literature class
in university.
If Mary had not been trying so hard to improve her style, she would have been denied
the right to participate in the contest.

(iii.b) The perfect conditional in the main clause can be replaced by:
- the continuous form of the perfect conditional
e.g. If Mike hadn’t studied so hard, he would have been working as a mechanic in his
father’s workshop.
- might expressing probability
e.g. If he had called me earlier, I might have had time to arrive.
- could expressing ability or permission
e.g. If we had known what her problem was, we could have helped her to solve it.

4.9.4. The omission of if

The omission of if occurs only in adverbial clauses of condition type II and type III and
only when the conditional clause precedes the main clause. The auxiliary goes to front position
and if is deleted:
e.g. If James had studied harder, he would have got the scholarship.
Had James studied harder, he would have got the scholarship.
If he should go to London, he could buy you what you need.
Should he go to London, he could buy you what you need.

Non-finite clauses

We have discussed finite clauses in this book so far. In this chapter we are going to
analyse non-finite clauses. Finite clauses always have a finite Verbal group, with the first verb
of the Verbal group tensed (present or past). Non-finite clauses are clauses with a non-finite
(tenseless) verbal group and they can function only as subordinate (embedded) clauses.

5.1. Form of non-finite clauses

Some grammarians (Burton- Roberts, 1998) classify, according to their form, non-finite
clauses into four main types, corresponding to four types of tenseless verbal groups: bare
infinitive, to-infinitive, passive participle and –ing participle. Nevertheless, we have to mention
that there are more differences between finite and non-finite clauses than the presence vs. the
absence of tensed verbal groups.
Non-finite clauses lack not only a tensed verbal group, but they may also lack one or
more major constituents, i.e. the Subject. The finite clauses always have a Subject which must
agree in number with the Predicate. The non-finite clauses are not subject to this constraint.
There are two cases in which non-finite clauses lack the subject:
(i) the reference of that constituent is general
e.g. Gossiping is a bad way of spending time.
(ii) its reference is identical to a constituent of a higher- ranked clauses.
e.g. Helen enjoys [gossiping].
Mike hates [Helen gossiping].

There is a clear difference between the first example and the following two. The Subject
is specific in both examples (2) and (3). This is because it is understood as identical with the
subject of the main clause, Helen. The Subject in example (1) is not specific, telling us only
that gossiping is a bad habit irrespective of who does it.
These four types of non-finite verbal groups can be grouped into two bigger groups:
infinitive (bare and to-infinitive) and participle (passive and –ing participle). We are going to
analyse the form of the verbal groups briefly, and then we are going to analyse the functions
of the non-finite clauses.

Bare Infinitives Verbal Groups

They are formed only of the short infinitive of the verb:
e.g. She made me realize that I was wrong.
All you have to do is [go away].

To-Infinitive Verbal groups

They contain the long infinitive of the verb plus one or more objects:
e.g. I want [to tell you] that I’m upset with you.
He is thought [to have stolen the famous painting].

Passive Participle Verbal Groups

Like bare infinitives, are made up of only one word, the participle of the verb:
e.g. I want this house [cleaned].
[Repaired completely] I could leave by my car.

Note: We have to bear in mind the fact that only verbs that can take objects, i.e.
monotransitives, ditransitives and complex transitives, can have passive counterparts because
passive entails the transformation of an Object into a Subject, leaving a gap in object position.
 -ing Participle Verbal Groups
Like to-infinitive verbal groups, these verbal groups have a complex structure. In fact,
they have the same structure as to-infinitive. The only difference between them is that to form
of the verb is an –ing participle.
e.g. Mike was busy [trying to get ready for the meeting].
[The policeman having been shot], his partner drove him to the hospital.

Note: these –ing forms cannot be regarded as progressive. This can be easily observed when
using ‘stative’ verbs, e.g. know, possess, which are not normally used in the progressive aspect:
e.g. *They are not knowing what to do.
[Knowing what to do] everything went smoothly.

5.2. Functions of Non-finite Clauses

5.2.1. Functions of Infinitive clauses
Infinite clauses are these non-finite clauses in which the verb occurs in its infinitive
form. As their name suggests, the infinitives are non-finite, i.e. they do not carry tense. Because
the modal auxiliaries always occur in the first position within the verbal groups and because
they do not have infinitive forms, modals never appear in infinitive clauses. In this type of
clauses, we can find: semi-auxiliaries, perfect, progressive and passive constructions. The
following examples the words in bold represent the infinitive clauses, and the underlined words
the type of infinitive:
e.g. I wouldn’t like to have to move. semi-auxiliary
I want Mike to have washed my car by 12. perfect
I hope him to be studying until the exam. progressive
John wants to be elected chairman. passive

Infinitive clauses can perform several functions:

(i) Subjects and Extraposed Subjects
Infinitive clauses frequently take on nominal clauses, namely Subject and Object
clauses, but they are very common in Direct Object position. However, there are cases in which
the –ing clauses function as Subjects:
e.g. Studying Chinese is a very difficult task.
For Sarah to cook dinner was courageous.
To be a teacher is difficult.
To know her is to love her.
An infinitive clause can have an overt or covert (it is not expressed in the sentence, but
it can be recovered from the previous discourse) Subject:
-covert Subject in clause:
e.g. To buy such a car needs a lot of money.
To have sold your house was stupid.
To start smoking is unacceptable.
 -overt Subject in clause:
e.g. For my sister to study in America would be a miracle.
For Jane to win is important.
For my boss to have embezzled is unthinkable.
For the president to resign was a mistake.

“This poses an interesting problem since there is no “higher” Subject from which to
extract the covert Subject of the clause.” (Berk, 1999:247). Nevertheless, covert Subjects can
be recovered from the previous discourse. Sometimes, the covert Subject of an infinitive clause
functioning as Subject is represented by the indefinite pronouns such as anybody, somebody
and so on:
e.g. To travel in the jungle is a very courageous thing.

In many cases in which the infinitive clauses have overt subjects, these Subjects are
preceded by the subordinator for. For is required when an infinitive clause that contains a
Subject is itself a Subject. When this subordinator is omitted in such a sentence, the sentence
becomes ill-formed:
e.g. * My sister to study in America would be a miracle.
*Jane to win is important.
The listeners have the tendency to process the first Noun phrase they hear as the Subject
of the main clause; the subordinator for makes them realize that the first Noun phrase is not the
Subject.

(ii) Direct Objects

Infinitive clauses can have several nominal roles, but they appear most frequently as
Direct Objects.
e.g. I hope to be chairman next year.
I love to travel in savage places.
I believed my neighbour to have broken into my house.
I want everybody to appreciate my efforts.

Like all subordinate clauses, the infinitive clause has an internal structure:
e.g. I want everybody to appreciate my efforts.
Subject Subject Direct Object
Direct Object Clause

She ‘d like you to sell the house next week.

Subject Subject D.O. Adv. modifier of time
Direct Object Clause
 As we mentioned in chapter 1, the English language is a language dominated by the
Subject. With the exception of imperative sentences, all English sentences must have a Subject
of the main verb. In the case of infinitive clauses, the verb is subjectless. Although the Subject
of the infinitive clause is not expressed (overt) the listener can determine its Subject from the
grammatical context. In this case the Subject of the embedded clause is identical with the
Subject of the main clause:
e.g. The student hopes to get a ten.
The student hopes [the student] to get a ten.
Subject Direct Object
Direct Object Clause

The Direct Object refers back to the covert Subject of the clause (the student).
In the following examples we can notice that occasionally the Direct Object expressed
by a non-finite clause which contains an overt Subject will have two subordinators, to and for.
For precedes the Subject of the infinitive clause. There are no semantic criteria regarding the
presence of for-objects to the verb of the main clause:
e.g. Covert Subject in clause
I want to attend Spanish classes.
Mike decided to travel to Paris during summer holiday.
I would like to marry him.
He hoped to have won the tennis tournament.

Overt Subject in clause

Lily wants her mother to get better.
The teacher decided for her students to have the exam on Monday.
I would like my sister to marry him.
He hoped for his wife to be elected president.
Analysing these examples, we observe that verbs such as like can take a for object, but
it does not require it:
e.g. I would like for him to win.
I would like to win.

The verbs that can take infinitive clauses as Direct Objects are all psychological verbs.
Most of these verbs can also take simple Noun phrases:
e.g. I want to go.
I want an ice-cream.

However, there are some verbs, such as long (for), hope that always take Direct Objects
expressed by infinitive clauses:
e.g. I long to sunbathe in Florida.
I hope to be the best.
 Only when they are followed by the particle for these verbs can take direct Objects
expressed by Noun phrases:
e.g. I long for a summer holiday.
I hope for a good exam result.

Note: The infinitive clauses share one common characteristic: the overt (expressed) Subject of
the main clause is identical with the covert (unexpressed) Subject of the non-finite (infinitive)
clauses. The term used for such a construction is equi, that means equal in Latin. In this case
the equi is controlled by the Subject, namely the content of the subordinate clause is determined
by the content of the main clause. If the Subjects of the two clauses are different, the Subject
of the infinitive clause must be expressed.

(iii) Predicate Nominatives

Predicate nominatives expressed by infinitive clauses are very similar with that clauses
functioning as predicatives. Like in the case of that clauses, the infinitive clauses express a
proposition and the Subject to which they refer to is abstract.
As in the previous cases, infinitive clauses functioning as predicate nominatives can
contain overt and covert Subjects, but in these constructions the covert Subject is not
neccessarily identical with the Subject of the main clause:
e.g. Covert Subject
My desire is to travel all over the world.
Our plan was to arrive at the summit before dark.
The best thing would be to let her leave.

Overt Subject
My advice is for Mike to give up smoking.
My dream is for my son to become a doctor.
My idea is for my mother to sell the house.

In the examples with covert Subjects, the Subjects of the main clauses is not expressed
by the pronoun I, but this pronoun functions as the Subject of the infinitive clause:
e.g. My desire is [I] to travel all over the world.
Subject Predicative Nominative
There are cases in which the Subjects of the infinitive clauses are indefinite when the
Subjects are covert:
e.g. The best thing would be [for someone] to let her leave.
Predicative nominative

(iv) Verb Complements

Let us analyse the following examples:
e.g. The manager wanted her assistant to resign. (1)
The manager wanted the report. (2)

In example (1) the infinite clause her assistant to resign is the Direct Object of the verb
wanted. In the example (2) this infinitive clause functioning as Direct Object can be replaced
by a simple Noun phrase, the report.
In example (1) her assistant is the covert Subject of the Direct Object clause:
e.g. The manager wanted James to resign.
Subject
Direct Object Clause

Let us analyse other example: The manager convinced James to resign. In this case her
assistant functions as Subject of the main clause, but it is in the same time the Direct Object of
the verb to resign:
e.g. The manager convinced James [James] to resign.
Direct Object Verb complement

The infinitive clause that follows the Direct Object is verb complement. The difference
between these two examples is represented by the two predicates that behave differently. There
are two tests we can perform in order to prove that these examples require two different
analysis:
(i) the first test is passivization. The Object can become the Subject of the main clause
when this Object functions as verb complement:
e.g. James was convinced to resign.

but it cannot function as Subject of the passive counterpart when it is the Subject of the non-
finite clause:
e.g. *James was wanted to resign.

(ii) there is another test which proves that the two constructions have different
structures. Pronouns can be reflexivized only when they have the antecedents within the same
clause. A sentence like *James didn’t want Mary to hurt himself is ill-formed because it does
not obey this rule. James is the Subject of the main clause, whereas the reflexive pronoun
himself is in the embedded clause. The well-formed sentence is James didn’t want Mary to hurt
herself because both Mary and herself occur in the same sentence.
e.g. James didn’t want [Mary to hurt herself].
Subject Subject Direct Object
………………….Direct Object…………………..

Let us now analyse the following example:

e.g. James convinced himself [ to give up smoking].
 Subject Direct Object verb complement

The sentence is well-formed because the masculine Noun phrase is co-referential (i.e.
it occurs in the same clause) with the reflexive pronoun himself.

(iii). A third test which illustrates the difference between the infinitive clauses
functioning as Direct Objects and as verb complements refers to the passive construction within
the embedded clause. The passivization within a clause (main or embedded), like any other
syntactic transformation, has only a limited effect on the rest of the sentence. For example,
when the infinitive clause functions as a Direct Object, the passivization of the active infinite
clause does not imply an important change in meaning of the whole clause:
e.g. Mike wanted his son to clean the car. Active
Mike wanted the car to be cleaned by his son. Passive

Note: In the case of the verbs such as persuade, convince, etc the passive counterpart (the Noun
phrase becomes the Subject of a passive within the clause) has a quite different meaning
compared with the active sentence.
e.g. I convinced my teacher to call my mother.
I convinced my mother to be called by my teacher.

In the first example I am convincing the teacher to do something; in the second example
I am convincing my mother to do something. This happens because the Subject of the infinitive
clause also functions as the Direct Object of the main clause. The equivalent construction is
object controlled, i.e. the Direct Object of the higher clause is also the covert Subject of the
embedded clause:
e.g. I convinced my teacher [my teacher] to call my mother.
Direct Object ………. Verb complement………….
I convinced my mother [my mother] to be called.
Direct Object ………. Verb complement………….

In the examples above the main verb is followed by two compulsory structures, a Noun
phrase functioning as a Direct Object and an infinitive clause functioning as a verb complement
which have the same Direct Object.

Types of constructions with verb complements

Verb complements usually follow several categories of verbs:
(a) verbs that have a deontic meaning and which cannot take a Direct Object expressed
by a clause and they are followed by a Direct Object expressed by a Noun phrase which is itself
followed by a complement clause:
e.g. I forced Jane to leave the room.
I convinced Mike to take the test.
 He allowed us to drive his car.
They permit their friends to use the computer.
He didn’t let his brother play with his toys.
The woman made her daughter study English.

The Direct Objects of the main clause are underlined. These verbs are strongly deontic,
expressing persuasion and coercion.
A special category is represented by the verbs to make and to let which are followed by
bare (short) infinitives:
e.g. I made her realize how wrong she was.
I let him go wherever she wanted to.

Note: Non-native speakers often make mistakes when using these verbs:
e.g. *I made him to admit his mistake.

(ii) the second category is represented by communication verbs. They are followed by
Direct Object expressed by a Noun Phrase and a complement clause and also have a strong
deontic value:
e.g. I told Mike to leave me alone.
I asked her to clean the desk.
The manager ordered his assistant to copy the documents.

Note: Unlike the verbs form the category (i), these verbs do not tell us if the action was fulfilled
or not. Compare: I forced Mike to leave (the action was fulfilled) and I told Mike to leave (It is
not clear if he left or not).

(iii) sensory verbs, but which also express a tinge of deontic modality. All these verbs
are followed by bare (short) infinitives. Sensory verbs which take verb complements expressed
by infinitive clauses are completely different in meaning from the verbs that take objects
expressed by that clauses. In the latter case the verbs are not used with their primary meaning:
e.g. I heard that you took care of your niece.
I saw that didn’t want to marry him.

In the above examples the verbs hear and see do not actually mean that I heard or saw
the fact; I might as well to find the information in other ways (watching TV, reading a
newspaper etc.). When the verbs are followed by an infinitive clause they are used with their
basic meanings:
e.g. I heard Mike come.
I saw her leave.
 The Noun phrase that comes immediately after the sensory verb function as a Direct
Object and it can function as Subject in the passive counterpart. In the passive constructions
the sensory verbs are followed by long infinitives:
e.g. Mike was heard to come.
She was seen to leave.

(iv) apart from the above-mentioned categories, there are some other verbs which
cannot be included in a special category, e.g. to help, to consider. To help may be followed by
either long or bare infinitives:
e.g. The lawyer helped him to escape from prison. (American English)
The lawyer helped him understand his mistake.
I considered my brother to be a genius.
When to consider is followed by a verb complement, it behaves semantically like
complex transitive consider:
e.g. I considered my brother a genius.

(v) Adverbial modifiers

- adverbial modifier of comparison:
e.g. It is better to do nothing than to do something wrong.
I said nothing more than to mention his mistake.

- adverbial modifier of cause:

e.g. I was very sad to find them dead.
I felt relieved to hear the good news.

- adverbial modifier of purpose:

When an infinitive clause functions as an adverbial modifier of purpose, the Subject of
main clause is co-referential with the Subject of the subordinate clause:
e.g. She went to the mall to buy a pair of shoes.

The infinitive clause functioning as adverbial modifier of purpose can be preceded by

in order, so as for emphasizing the idea of purpose:
e.g. She went to the mall in order/ so as to buy a pair of shoes.

When the Subjects of two clauses, the main clause and the subordinate one, are different
we use a to-for construction:
e.g. He went for the woman to check her pulse.

Note: The infinitive clauses can also be reduced to a Prepositional Noun phrase:
e.g. They worked hard to buy a new house.
They worked hard for a new house.
 - adverbial modifier of result
When the Subject of the main clause is co-referential with the Subject of the subordinate
clause, the subordinate clause can be reduced to an infinitive clause. There are several types of
infinitive constructions:
(a) such/so …. as to + Infinitive
e.g. Tell me in such a manner as to be able to understand you.
The room was so cold as to make us leave it.
(b) so as to + Infinitive
e.g. Let’s go quickly so as not to be late.
(c) too + adjective/ adverb + Infinitive
e.g. You are too intelligent to believe such a nonsense.
Too expresses a negative result.
(d) adjective/adverb + enough+ Infinitive
e.g. The man was driving fast enough to reach the hospital in time.

Note: When the Subject of the main clause is different from the Subject of the subordinate
clause the adverbial clause of result can be reduced to a for-to construction:
e.g. The show was too stupid for us to watch.

- adverbial modifier of condition

e.g. To understand him it would be a huge victory.

5.2.1.1. Dual (Double) Infinitive Clauses

Dual Infinitive structures are the structures that share characteristics with both Direct
Object clauses and infinitive complement clauses:
e.g. All the people present expected the Stealers to win.
The president declared the war to be over.
They believed the old man to be the thief.
The doctor proved his assistant to be the killer.

These dual infinitive clauses resemble Direct Objects. In the first place the infinitive
clause can be replaced by a that clause and that clauses which appear immediately after the
verb function as Direct Objects and predicative nominatives:
e.g. The police believe the killer to be caught.
The police believe that killer will be caught.

Note: (a) The infinitive clause can be replaced by a simple pronoun:

e.g. The police believe that.
(b) a passive infinitive clause has the same meaning as its active counterpart:
e.g. I expected the employees to vote him as president.
 I expected him to be voted as president.

All these arguments suggest that the whole infinitive clause functions as the Direct
Object of the higher verb.
Another argument is that the Noun phrase following the predicate of the main clause
can become the Subject of the passive constructions containing this verb. This syntactic
transformation shows that the infinitive clause functions as verb complement.
e.g. My son is expected to write the best paper by his teacher.
The government is believed to be made of professionals.

We can analyse such constructions in two different ways:

(i) the infinitive clause has an overt Subject (expressed) which functions as the Direct
Object of the verb of the main clause:
e.g. I expect [my son] to write [the best paper].
Subject Direct Object
…………….Direct Object………………….
I expect [my son] [my son] to write [the best paper].
Subject Direct Object
……………Verb Complement…………..

When the verb is followed by a Noun phrase functioning as a Direct Object and by a
verb complement, both of them are compulsory. If one of them misses, the meaning of the
sentence can be completely changed:
e.g. I believe him to be a liar.
I believe him.

Many of the verbs used with a dual infinitive construction are complex transitive. In
these cases, the infinitive clause functions as object complement:
e.g. He was appointed president.
He was found guilty.

5.2.1.2. Extraposition of Infinitive Clauses

As in the case of that clauses, infinitive clauses functioning as Subjects are often
extraposed. We can actually say that the sentences with extraposed Subjects sound better than
their counterparts:
e.g. It needs a lot of money to buy such a car.
It was stupid to have sold your house.
It is unacceptable to start smoking.

Extraposition is used especially in sentences with long and complex Subjects:

e.g. For my friend to understand everything that had happened in that terrible night was
impossible.
It was impossible for my friend to understand everything that had happened in that
terrible night.

Note: There are some constructions in which the infinitive clauses occur as Direct Objects of
complex transitive verbs, the Direct Object clause must be extraposed:
e.g. I find it impossible to find my dream house.
My teacher thinks it important to go to college.

Final Remarks
The analysis of the infinitive clauses has always been a problem. Apart from the types
of the infinitive clauses discussed in the previous sub-chapters, there are other infinitive clause
constructions that require a totally different analysis:
e.g. Mike began to shout.
The woman started to run.
My father tried to repair the car.

As we can notice, none of these clauses can have an overt (expressed) Subject:
e.g. *Mike began Jim to shout.
*The woman started his son to run.
* My father tried our neighbour to repair the car.

Grammarians do not agree upon the way these constructions should be analysed. Some
of them consider the above sentences as being one sentence, while others consider them as two
separate clauses.
e.g. Mike [began] [to shout].

5.3. Functions of –ING clauses

The –ing non-finite clauses are introduced by an –ing form. Nevertheless, this form
should not be confused with the progressive form. Unlike the progressive –ing suffix, the
subordinator –ing can be attached to stative verbs:
e.g. I enjoy being with you.
I am upset with you being late.

The –ing clauses have the following characteristics: (i) they are not finite; (ii) they do
not contain modal auxiliaries because the modals do not have participle forms; (iii) they contain
semi-auxiliaries, the perfect aspect and the passive constructions. Because they contain an –
ing form they do not contain the progressive aspect:
e.g. Mike enjoys having to travel so much. semi-auxiliary
I enjoyed having grown up in Spain. perfect
 My daughter enjoys being pampered. passive

There is a great debate about how these gerundial constructions should be called. Some
grammarians (Crystal, 1997) called them ‘gerunds’. A gerund is that part of speech which
derives from a verb and it is used as a Noun, e.g. Reading is fun. This definition is not totally
correct if we take into account that the –ing form never loses its verbal qualities: it can take a
Direct Object, e.g. Reading short stories is fun. The whole –ing construction functions as
Subject of the entire sentence:
e.g. Reading short stories about spies is fun.
……………Subject………………….

The –ing constructions can contain either a gerund (that have a proeminent verbal
character) or a present participle (that have a proeminent nominal character). In some cases,
the –ing forms can have plural forms, can be preceded by determiners or can have modifiers.
All these characteristics are typically associated with nouns:
e.g. His quick understanding of the problem amazed us all.
(-ing form preceded by genitive determiner and adjective)
I like his driving.
(-ing form preceded by genitive determiner and adjective)

The –ing constructions can perform several functions:

(i) Subjects
-Ing clauses can function as Subjects. When they do not have their own Subjects they
have indefinite reference:
e.g. Dancing classical dances is very popular nowadays.
Walking in the rain is dangerous.
Teaching is difficult.

Walking in the rain is dangerous means that walking in the rain is dangerous for
everybody, teaching is difficult for all the people that teach. Nevertheless, there are
constructions in which the Subject is clear from the grammatical context or from discourse.
e.g. Having so many exams in one week is unpleasant.

We can assume that the covert Subject of having is I. There are also cases in which the
covert Subject is expressed in other clause. In the following examples the Subjects are
underlined:
e.g. Deceiving people makes Alex content.
Becoming a famous actress is a dream for my daughter.
Getting up early is hard on John.

(ii) Direct Objects

 Like infinitive clauses functioning as Direct Objects, the –ing clauses which also
function as Direct Objects follow psychological verbs:
e.g. I enjoy traveling abroad.
Jane dislikes having unexpected guests.

Note: In a sentence like My mother hates being late, the covert Subject of having is my mother:
e.g. [My mother] hates [my mother] being late.
Subject Subject
………….Direct Object…..

As we have discussed before, when an –ing clause contains an overt Subject, the
Subject may be marked by a genitive form, e.g. I hate Jamie’s shouting at people, I remember
his getting married. The English grammar considers that the use of the genitive form is correct.
However, in every-day speech the speakers use the object form of the personal pronoun: I
remember him getting married. Moreover, the speakers do not make any difference between a
genitive form and an unmarked form in an –ing clause:
e.g. I like Mary’s playing tennis.
I like Mary playing tennis.

In the first case the speaker likes the way Mary plays tennis, while in the second
example the speaker like the fact that Mary plays tennis.
 Reported Speech

This sub-chapter describes the main structures that are used to report language.
According to Thompson (1994) reports consists of two parts: the message and the reporting
signal.
The message is the part which shows what was said and written.
The reporting signal is the part of the report which states what the speaker reports. It
consists of someone else’s words, it does not express the speaker’s ideas.

6.1. The message

The message can be conveyed by two main types of structures: direct speech structures
and indirect speech structures. We are going to discuss both of them in detail, pointing out the
syntactic structures which can function as message.

6.1.1. Direct speech structures

Direct speech structures are the structures which report what was said or written as if
the speakers were using their own words. The most frequent signal for direct speech structures
in writing is the use of inverted commas.
e.g. Mike said: ‘I was tired’.

The reporting clause usually comes before or after the quote.

e.g. But Mike, who was really upset said: ‘I am furious’.

Sometimes it can also come in the middle of the direct speech structures, especially in
written narratives such as novels.
e.g. ‘I would like to emphasize’, Mike pointed out, ‘that you should work much harder in
order to succeed’.

Note: When the reporting clause comes in the middle of direct speech structures, we have to
decide where to place it because some positions are not possible. Generally, the reporting
clauses come after the first element of the direct speech structures. The main positions are:
(i) after yes, no, okay which imply a question:
e.g. ‘No’, I said, ‘I can’t understand’.

(ii) after the first Noun phrase of the direct speech:

e.g. ‘Your suspicion’, he said, ‘is completely unfounded’.
 (iii) after the first clause of the direct speech if it contains more than one:
e.g. ‘You should have done it’, mother said, ‘but it is too late to be sorry’.

(iv) after an Adverbial phrase or a Prepositional phrase:

e.g. ‘Unfortunately’, he said, ‘I cannot help you’.
‘In my latest novel’, the writer confessed, ‘I tried to explain the importance of being
honest”.

(v) after a wh-question:

e.g. ‘Why’, he asked me, ‘don’t you listen to me?’

(vi) after a vocative

e.g. ‘Ladies and gentlemen’, the president said, ‘I would like to thank you for your support.’

(vii) after an exclamation

e.g. ‘Hey’, the man shouted, ‘what are you doing?’

6.1.2. Indirect speech structures

An indirect speech structure is used to show what it is reported in your own words rather
than in the words the speaker actually used. The indirect reported speech is also used to report
thoughts and feelings.
There are several types of indirect speech structures. The most important types are the
ones consisting in reporting speech. This type of structures consists of two distinctive parts:
the reporting clause, which carries the reporting signal and contains the reporting verb and the
reported clause, which carries the message. According to the kind of structure that embodies
the reported clause, the indirect speech structures can be divided into:
(i) ‘that’ clauses
It is the most common type.
e.g. He told me that he couldn’t help me.
The reported clause is in bold.
In some cases, ‘that’ can be deleted. Nevertheless, the term ‘that’ clauses is still used
for these clauses.
e.g. The president said he wouldn’t agree with the Parliament.

In formal situations and in writing ‘that’ is not often deleted. In less formal situations,
‘that’ is deleted after reporting verbs such as say, tell, think. ‘That’ clauses without ‘that’ are
less often found with reporting verbs which give more information about the original speaker.
Such verbs are suspect, complain, maintain.
e.g. I think she thought I was going to leave her.
Mike said he suspected that the company was broken.
 (ii) relative clauses
The main characteristic is that the relative pronoun belongs to the reported speech.
e.g. They drank a beer which Mike said they should buy.

This sentence can be rephrased as Mike said (that) they should buy that beer.
Grammatically, which is the object of buy.
Occasionally, the relative pronoun is deleted.
e.g. He said he finally had the job he had always wanted.

The reported part can be paraphrased as which he had always wanted.

(iii) wh-questions
They are used when the speaker wants to check what somebody else said.
e.g. Sorry, who did you say was coming?
In this case the reporting clause has an interrogative form, whereas the reported clause
remains declarative.

(iv) wh-clauses
There are a lot of reported clauses that are introduced by a wh-word such as what, why,
where, when, who, whom, whose, which and how.
e.g. I asked my mother why she came back so early.
He finally told us what he decided to do.

These clauses can be used to report ‘wh-questions’ (e.g. He came in and asked where
she was), exclamations (e.g. Tony said what a pleasant holiday he had had), a summary of
statements (e.g. I have no hesitation in repeating what was said).
Note: The wh-word can appear after the reporting verb with no following clauses. It generally
happens with why, but it can also happen with other wh-words.
e.g. He gave up trying. I asked him why.
Strange things occurred. Don’t ask me what.

When the wh-word is the object of a preposition, the preposition is extraposed at the
end of the clause; it does not appear before the wh-word.
e.g. The teacher asked me where I came from.
The manager asked me who we were looking for.

Note: In more formal speech or writing the preposition comes sometimes before the
wh-word.
e.g. The president asked in what currency the loan would be given.

(v) ‘whether’ and ‘if’

 Another type of reported clause begins with whether and if.
e.g. I asked if he was still there.
I questioned my students whether they were pleased.

Whether and if can be used for reporting yes/no questions.

e.g. He wanted to ask his manager if he could go.
It is his duty to ask whether he should go.

Notice that whether and if are used for reporting when people are uncertain about
something. When we use whether we can add or not, but it is not compulsory.
e.g. I asked him whether or not he had visited France.

Position of the reported clause

The normal position for the reported clause is after the reporting clause. However, the
reporting clause may appear in the middle of the reported clause especially when we report
thoughts. In this position the reported question is interrogative form:
e.g. Who, Mike asked, will come?
Later, the man asked, did they agree on the matter?

(vi) to-infinitive clauses

A reported clause can also be a to-infinitive clause.
e.g. He claimed not to have done it.
I promised to be there on time.

A subtype of reported infinitive clauses is that preceded by a wh-word. Any of the wh-
words mentioned above can introduce a reported infinitive clause:
e.g. I asked how to repair the window.
Jane wondered where she should go on holiday.

In the examples above the Subject of the reporting clause is also the Subject of the
reported clause. Nevertheless, there are cases in which the Subjects of the two clauses are
different.
e.g. I told her to talk to him.
I asked my mother to give me some money.

With the indirect speech structures the reporting verb is passive, and the hearer becomes
the Subject.
e.g. My boss was forced to resign because of his errors.
 According to Thompson (2004: 16), when the meaning of the to-infinitive clause can
be easily understood, it is possible to leave out most of it. Nevertheless, the particle to is
retained:
e.g. She used to keep quiet when her parents told her to.

(vii) -ing clauses

Generally, the reporting verbs are followed by infinitives, but there is a small number
of verbs which are followed by –ing clauses.
e.g. He admitted being late.
Our teacher recommended us visiting the Art Museum.

6.2. The reporting signal

As we have stated before, the reporting signal is the part of the report which states what
the speaker reports. It consists of someone else’s words, it does not express the speaker’s ideas.
The reporting signal can be formed of different parts of speech or of syntactic structures. It can
be carried out by a noun, an adjective, a verb, an adjunct, a clause.

6.2.1. Reporting nouns

The reporting signal may be carried out by reporting nouns. They appear in the indirect
speech structures carried out by ‘that’ clauses, ‘wh’-clauses and ‘to’-infinitive clauses.
(i) ‘that’ clauses
The indirect speech structures made up of a reporting noun and a reported ‘that’ clause
is very common.
e.g. The big news was his departure that was a secret for everyone.
The company issued a warning that all cars manufactured last year should be brought
back for braking problems.

(ii) wh-clauses
The reporting nouns may also be followed by a wh-clause or whether, but never if.
However, this case is not very common.
e.g. This is not relevant to the question whether we can go or not.

(iii) To-infinitive clause

A number of reporting nouns may also be followed by a reported to-infinitive clause.
e.g. I told him about his mother’s mistake to leave her job.
I told her that the President’s decision was a bad one.

In some cases the Subject of the reported clause may be preceded by a preposition.
e.g. Mike told us about his request to his manager to be appointed supervisor.

6.2.2. Reporting adjectives

 (i) Most of the adjectives can be followed by that clauses:
e.g. Sometimes my mother felt sad that she wasn’t promoted as quickly as she wanted.
Susan wasn’t aware that she had her purse stolen.

Most of these adjectives are used to report language events, but some of them are used
to report feelings or facts.
In the first category we can include adjectives such as: critical, abusive, persistent:
e.g. The leading actor was insistent that the script should be changed.

In the second category the adjective that reports the senser’s feeling is used after a link
verb, usually the verb to be. The speaker mentions the cause of the feeling in that-clause.
e.g. Everybody was happy that the team won the match.
My father was furious that my sister left home without saying a word.
I was hopeful that the problems would be hoped.

(ii) Some of the adjectives can also be followed by to-infinitive clauses and wh-clauses.
e.g. He was happy to have won the lottery.
I was still unsure whether I should say something about our host’s house.

6.2.3. Reporting adjuncts

In the cases we have discussed so far, the reporting signal has been carried out by a
reporting clause. However, the reporting signal can be carried out also by a reporting adjunct.
They may belong to one of the following:
(i) adverbs; e.g. apparently
(ii) prepositional phrases; e.g. according to
(iii) non-finite clauses; e.g. to quote
(iv) subordinate finite clauses; e.g. as far as …is concerned
Reporting adjuncts are used in both direct reported and indirect reported structures.
Generally, they are separated from the rest of the clause by commas with the exception of wh-
clauses.
e.g. As the prime minister claimed, the country had economic problems.
According to my manager, the company is in red.
To quote Einstein, ‘Everything is relative.’

An important characteristic of reporting adjuncts is that the speaker may use some
signals in order to express his/her agreement with the speaker whose words are reported. Most
of these adjuncts are neutral, in that they do not show whether you believe or not what you are
reporting:
e.g. According to Mike, the plane will not take off on time.
 Note: When you use as, you show that you definitely accept the truth of the reported
message. In fact, you present that the speaker agrees with your ideas and not the other way
round.
e.g. As the coach admitted, the team played extremely badly.
Someone can also use reporting adjuncts to show that you believe that the reported
message is true or is doubtful:
e.g. The man has allegedly said to the police “I didn’t kill that woman.”

As Clauses
A very frequent type of reporting signal that can be analysed as a reporting adjunct is a
special use of as clauses. They are separated by the rest of the clause by commas. Nevertheless,
we have to mention that as-clauses are different from other reporting adjuncts because they are
the only constructions that can contain a finite verb. This reporting verb is usually the one
which can be followed by a that-clause.
e.g. As my mother used to say, ‘Study harder and your life will be easier.’
As the president pointed out, the reforms should be carried out.’

A sub-type of as-clauses is represented by the construction as……put it.

e.g. As the manager put it, ‘Now we have to finish the task in time; otherwise, we will be in
red.’

Note: When we use a as-clause in an indirect speech structure, we cannot use that to
begin the reported clause:
e.g. As he declared, the law passed.
He declared that the law passed.

Adverbs as reporting adjuncts

An adverb that can be included as a reporting adjunct is apparently. This is used to
indicate that what it is said is based on what someone heard. It signals a kind of report, but it
does not indicate who is the person who said or written the reporting structure. Other adverbs
used in the same way are: allegedly, supposedly, reportedly.
e.g. They were allegedly accused that they killed that old man.

Position of reporting adjuncts

Generally, the reporting adjuncts are placed in front of the reported clause. However,
there are cases in which the adjuncts are placed after the reported clause.
e.g. At least twenty people were killed, according to officials.
They were allegedly accused of stealing the money.