Chapter 5

Theory of Cooling Load Calculation

The objective of this chapter is to estimate the amount of cooling load
required to keep the passengers in a ship comfortable in summer.

5.1 The Cooling Load

The interior of a building gains heat from a number of sources. If the
temperature and humidity of the air in rooms are to be maintained at a
comfortable level, heat must be extracted to offset these heat gains. The net
amount of heat that is removed is called the cooling load.

5.2 The Heat Storage Effect

A building gains heat from a number of sources. The gross room heat
gain is the rate at which heat is being received in the room at any time. This
heat gain is made up of components from many sources (solar radiation,
lighting, conduction and convection, people equipment, infiltration). All the
heat received from these sources usually does not go immediately to heating
the room air. Some of the heat, especially radiant energy (from sun, lights,
people) is absorbed by the room materials, both the structure and
furnishings. This is called the heat storage effect-heat is absorbed and stored
in the building materials. As a result the net heat gain to the room air from
the heat source is often less than the gross heat gains. The room cooling load,
the rate of heat that must be removed from the room to maintain the design
conditions, is the sum of these net heat gains.

5.3 Conduction Heat Gains

Conduction of heat through plain surfaces (roof, walls, glass, partition,
floor and ceiling) under steady state conditions can be calculated from the
following equation:
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Q = U × A ×ΔT ……Eq(5.1)

where Q = conduction heat gain through surfaces, kcal/hr

U = overall heat transfer coefficient, kcal/hr.m2.° C

A = area of the surface, m2

ΔT= temperature difference between conditioned and

unconditioned space, ° C

The U values can be calculated from the resistance R values of

building materials (from ASHRAE 1985 fundamentals hand book).
1
U = R + R +R +R + .. .+R ……Eq(5.2)
si 1 2 3 so

1
R = C ……Eq(5.3)

1
R = K ……Eq(5.4)

Where,

Rsi = inside surface thermal resistance

Rso = outside surface thermal resistance

R1, R2, …= thermal resistance of composite layers of fabric

K = thermal conductivity of materials, kcal/hr.m° C

C = surface conductance, kcal/hrm2° C

The dominant factor in building surface conduction is the absence of

steady-state conditions, since the ambient temperature, wind speed and solar
radiation are not constant. It will be readily seen that the ambient will be
cold in the morning, will rise during the day, and will fall again at night. As
heat starts to pass inwards through the surface, some will be absorbed in
warming the outer layers and there will be a time lag before the effect
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reaches the inner face, depending on the mass, conductivity and specific heat
capacity of the materials. Some of the absorbed heat will be retained in the
material and then lost to ambient at night. The effect of thermal time lag can
be expressed mathematically.

The rate of heat conduction is further complicated by the effect of

sunshine onto the outside. Solar radiation reaches the earth’s surface at a
maximum intensity of about 0.9 kW/m 2. The amount of this absorbed by a
plane surface will depend on the absorption coefficient and the angle at
which the radiation strikes. The angle of the sun’s rays to a surface is always
changing, so this must be estimated on an hour-to-hour basis. Various
methods of reaching an estimate of heat flow are used, and the sol-air
temperature provides a simplification of the factors involved. This, also, is
subject to time lag as the heat passes through the surface.

5.4 Solar Radiation through Glass

Radiant energy from the sun passes through transparent materials such
as glass and becomes a heat gain to the room. Its value varies with time,
orientation, shading, and storage effect.

Since solar gain can be a large part of the building load, special
glasses and window constructions have been developed, having two or more
layers and with reflective and heat absorbing surfaces. These can reduce the
energy passing into the conditioned space by as much as 75%.

The solar net heat gain can be found from the following equation.

Q =SHGF ×A × SC × CLF ……E.q(5.5)

where,

Q = net solar radiation heat gain through glass, kcal/hr

SHGF = maximum solar heat gain factor, kcal/hr.m2

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A = area of glass, m2

SC = shading coefficient

CLF = cooling load factor for glass

The maximum solar heat gain factor (SHGF) gives maximum heat
gain values only for the type of glass noted and without any shading devices.
To account for heat gains with different fenestration arrangements, the
shading coefficient SC is introduced.

The shading coefficient (SC) is the proportional amount of maximum

heat gain through arrangements other than 1/8 in single clear glass.

The cooling load factor (CLF) accounts for the storage of part of the
solar heat gain. The values are also dependent on whether or not there are
internal shading devices.

5.5 Lighting
The equation for determining heat gain from lighting is

Q = 0.86 × W × BF × CLF ……E.q(5.6)

Where,

Q = net heat gain from lighting, kcal/hr

W = lighting capacity, watts

BF = ballast factor

CLF = cooling load factor for lighting

In many applications all of the lighting is on at all times, but if it is

not, the actual amount should be used. The value 0.86 converts watts to
kcal/hr.
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The factor BF accounts for heat losses in the ballast in fluorescent

lamps, or other special losses. A typical value of BF is 1.25 for fluorescent
lighting. For incandescent lighting there is no extra loss, and BF = 1.0.

5.6 People
The heat gain from people is composed of two parts, sensible heat and
the latent heat resulting from perspiration. Some of the sensible heat may be
absorbed by the heat storage effect, but not the latent heat. The equation for
sensible and latent heat gains from people are:

Qs = qs× n × CLF ……E.q(5.7)

Ql = ql× n ……E.q(5.8)

Where,

Qs,Ql = sensible and latent heat gains, kcal/hr

qs,ql = sensible and latent heat gains per person

n = number of person

CLF = cooling load factor for people

The rate of heat gain depends on their physical activity. The heat storage
effect factor CLF applies to the sensible heat gain from people. If the air
conditioning system is shut down at night, however, no storage should be
included, and CLF = 1.0.

5.7 Equipment
The heat gain form equipment may sometimes be found directly from
the manufacturer or name plate data. Some equipment produces both
sensible and latent heat.

The heat output from motors and the equipment driven by them results
from the conversion of the electrical energy to heat. The proportion of heat
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generated that is gained by the air conditioned space depends on whether the
motor and driven load are both in the space or only one of them is.

5.8 De-humid Air Quantity

RSHG + RLHG

OA DA
AC
unit

Room
RA (Space)

EA

Fig.5.1 Energy Flow for Air Conditioned Room

When a space is conditioned by using air, the heat removal is

accomplished by de-humid air at a temperature and humidity lower than that
of the room air. If the room temperature and humidity are to be prevented
from changing, this means there must be no energy change in the room. The
quantity of de-humid air can be calculated by the following equation:
RSHG
DA = 0.29 ×( t RA - EST) × CF ……E.q(5.9)

CF = 1 – BF ……E.q(5.10)

Where

DA = de-humid air quantity, CMH (cubic meter per hour)

RSHG = room sensible heat gain, kcal/hr

tRA = room air temperature, °C

EST = effective surface temperature, °C

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(also known as Apparatus Dew point, ADP)

CF = contact factor

BF = bypass factor