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Week6 Phy - 2

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20 views44 pages

Week6 Phy - 2

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M
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© © All Rights Reserved
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3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

• Signals travel through transmission media, which are


not perfect.

• The imperfection causes signal impairment.

• This means that the signal at the beginning of the


medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium.

• What is sent is not what is received.

• Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion,


and noise.
3.1
Figure 3.25 Causes of impairment

3.2
Attenuation

◼ Means loss of energy -> weaker signal

◼ When a signal travels through a medium it loses


energy overcoming the resistance of the medium

◼ Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss of


energy by amplifying the signal.

3.3
Figure 3.26 Attenuation

3.4
Example 3.28

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the


changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers
can be added (or subtracted).

Signal travels from point 1 to point 4.

3.5
Distortion
◼ Means that the signal changes its form or shape

◼ Distortion occurs in composite signals

◼ Each frequency component has its own propagation


speed traveling through a medium.

◼ The different components therefore arrive with different


delays at the receiver.

◼ That means that the signals have different phases at the


receiver than they did at the source.
3.6
Figure 3.28 Distortion

3.7
Figure 3.29 Noise

3.8
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

◼ To measure the quality of a system the SNR is often


used. It indicates the strength of the signal w.r.t. the
noise power in the system.

◼ It is the ratio between two powers.

◼ It is usually given in dB and referred to as SNRdB.

3.9
Figure 3.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

3.10
3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications is
how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.

Data rate depends on three factors:


1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Topics discussed in this section:


▪ Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
▪ Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
▪ Using Both Limits
3.11
Nyquist Theorem

◼ Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of a


transmission system

◼ Nyquist theorem states that for a noiseless channel:

C = 2B log22n

C= capacity in bps

B = bandwidth in Hz
3.12
Shannon’s Theorem

◼ Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a system in the


presence of noise.

C = B log2(1 + SNR)

3.13
3-6 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of


the network—how good is it?

Topics discussed in this section:


▪ Bandwidth - capacity of the system
▪ Throughput - no. of bits that can be pushed through
▪ Latency (Delay) - delay incurred by a bit from start to finish
▪ Bandwidth-Delay Product

3.14
Note

In networking, we use the term bandwidth in


two contexts.

▪The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of


frequencies in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

▪ The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the


speed of bit transmission in a channel or link. )Capacity(

3.15
Host: sends packets of data

◼ How to calculate Throughput ??

◼ Some extra data should be transmitted (addressing,


acknowledgments, error correction, ……)

◼ At each node there is some delay

◼ How far the destination

16
Four sources of packet delay

◼ dproc: processing delay


◼ Check bits errors
◼ Find output link

◼ dqueue: queueing delay


◼ Time waiting at output link for transmission
◼ Depend on congestion level of routers

◼ dtran: transmission delay = L/R Try:


◼ L: packet length (bits) tracert –d www.google.com
◼ R: link bandwidth (bps) tracert –d www.ekb.eg

◼ dprop: propagation delay = d/s


◼ d: length of the link (bits)
◼ s: propagation speed (~3x108 m/sec)
17
Host: sends packets of data

◼ Host sending function:

◼ Takes application message

◼ Breaks into smaller chunks


(packets) of length L bits

◼ Transmits packets into access


network at transmission rate R

18
Packet-switching: store-and-forward

◼ Takes L/R seconds to transmit L bit packet into link at R bps

◼ Store and forward: entire packet must arrive at router


before it can be transmitted on the next link

◼ End-end delay = 2L/R (assume zero propagation delay)

19
Packet-switching: store-and-forward

◼ Takes L/R seconds to transmit L bit packet into link at R bps

◼ Store and forward: entire packet must arrive at router


before it can be transmitted on the next link

◼ End-end delay = 2L/R (assume zero propagation delay)

20
Figure 3.32 Filling the link with bits in case 2

3.21
4-3 TRANSMISSION MODES

The transmission of binary data across a link


can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode.

In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with


each clock tick.

In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.


Figure 4.31 Data transmission and modes

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Figure 4.32 Parallel transmission
Figure 4.33 Serial transmission
Bandwidth Utilization

Multiplexing and Spreading


Note

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of


available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by


multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the
bandwidth between multiple users.
Figure 6.1 Dividing a link into channels
Figure 6.2 Categories of multiplexing
Figure 6.4 FDM process
FM
Figure 6.5 FDM demultiplexing example
Figure 6.6 Example 6.1
Figure 6.7 Example 6.2
Figure 6.9 Analog hierarchy
Figure 6.10 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
Figure 6.12 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Data Rate Management

◼ Not all input links have the same data rate.

◼ Some links maybe slower. There maybe


several different input link speeds.
Figure 6.20 Multiple-slot multiplexing
Figure 6.21 Pulse stuffing
Inefficient use of Bandwidth

◼ Sometimes an input link may have no


data to transmit.

◼ When that happens, one or more slots


on the output link will go unused.

◼ That is wasteful of bandwidth.


Figure 6.18 Empty slots
Figure 6.26 TDM slot comparison
Questions ???

Good luck next week


Do your best

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