We now study the detailed structure and characteristics of the three types of optical fibres.
24.11.1 SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBRE
Fig. 24.15: Single mode step index fibre (a) R.I. profile (b) ray paths (c) typical dimensions
Structure A single mode step index fibre has a very fine thin core of diameter of 8 μm to 12 μm (see Fig.24.15 c). It is usually made of germanium doped silicon. The core is surrounded by a thick cladding of lower refractive index. The cladding is composed of silica lightly doped with phosphorous oxide. The external diameter of the cladding is of the order of 125 μm. The fibre is surrounded by an opaque protective sheath. The refractive index of the fibre changes abruptly at the core-cladding boundary, as shown in Fig. 24.15 (a). The variation of the refractive index of a step index fibre as a function of radial distance can be mathematically represented as n(r ) = n1 [r < a inside core ] = n 2 [r > a in cladding] (24.19)
Propagation of light in SMF
Light travels in SMF along a single path that is along the axis (Fig.24.15b). Obviously, it is the zero order mode that is supported by a SMF. Both Δ and NA are very small for single mode fibres. This relatively small value is obtained by reducing the fibre radius and by making Δ, the relative refractive index change, to be small. The low NA means a low acceptance angle. Therefore, light coupling into the fibre becomes difficult. Costly laser diodes are needed to launch light into the SMF. 24.11.2 MULTIMODE STEP INDEX FIBRE Structure
Fig. 24.16: Multimode step index fibre (a) R.I. Profile (b) Ray paths (c) typical dimensions. 670 n A Textbook of Optics A multimode step index fibre is very much similar to the single mode step index fibre except that its core is of larger diameter. The core diameter is of the order of 50 to 100 μm, which is very large compared to the wavelength of light. The external diameter of cladding is about 150 to 250 μm (Fig. 24.16 c). Propagation of light in MMF Multimode step index fibres allow finite number of guided modes. The direction of polarization, alignment of electric and magnetic fields will be different in rays of different modes. In other words, many zigzag paths of propagation are permitted in a MMF. The path length along the axis of the fibre is shorter while the other zigzag paths are longer. Because of this difference, the lower order modes reach the end of the fibre earlier while the high order modes reach after some time delay (Fig.24.16b). 24.11.3 GRADED INDEX (GRIN) FIBRE
A graded index fibre is a multimode fibre with a core consisting of concentric layers of different refractive indices. Therefore, the refractive index of the core varies with distance from the fibre axis. It has a high value at the centre and falls of with increasing radial distance from the axis. A typical structure and its index profile are shown in Fig. 24.17 (a). Such a profile causes a periodic focussing of light propagating through the fibre. The size of the graded index fibre is about the same as the step index fibre. The variation of the refractive index of the core with radius measured from the center is given by ⎧ ⎡ α⎤ ⎫ ⎪⎪n 1 − ⎢2Δ⎛⎜ r ⎞⎟ ⎥ , r < a inside core ⎪⎪ n(r ) = ⎨ 1 ⎢⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎬ ⎪ ⎪ (24.20) ⎩⎪n 2 , r > a in cladding ⎭⎪ where n1 is maximum refractive index at the core axis, a the core radius, and α the grading profile index number which varies from 1 to ∞. When α = 2 , the index profile is parabolic and is preferred for different applications. Propagation of light
Fig.24.18 : (a) An expanded ray diagram showing refraction at the various high to low index interfaces within graded index fibre, giving an overall curved ray path. (b) Light transmission in a graded index fibre. Chapter : 24 : Fibre Optics n 671 As a light ray goes from a region of higher refractive index to a region of refractive index, it is bent away from the normal. The process continues till the condition for total internal reflection is met. Then the ray travels back towards the core axis, again being continuously refracted (Fig.24.18a). The turning around may take place even before reaching the core-cladding interface. Thus, continuous refraction is followed by total internal reflection and again continuous refraction towards the axis. In the graded index fibre, rays making larger angles with the axis traverse longer path but they travel in a region of lower refractive index and hence at a higher speed of propagation. Consequently, all rays traveling through the fibre, irrespective of their modes of travel, will have almost the same optical path length and reach the output end of the fibre at the same time (see Fig. 24.18b). In case of GRIN fibres, the acceptance angle and numerical aperture decrease with radial distance from the axis. The numerical aperture of a graded index fibre is given by
2 ⎛r⎞ NA = n 2 (r ) − n 22 ≈ n1 (2 Δ ) 2 1 − ⎜ ⎟ 1
24.12 MATERIALS Optical fibres are fabricated from glass or plastic which are transparent to optical frequencies. Step index fibres are produced in three common forms – (i) a glass core cladded with a glass having a slightly lower refractive index, (ii) a silica glass core cladded with plastic and (iii) a plastic core cladded with another plastic. Generally, the refractive index step is the smallest for all glass fibres, a little larger for the plastic clad silica (PCS) fibres and the largest for all plastic construction.
24.12.1 ALL GLASS FIBRES
The basic material for fabrication of optical fibres is silica (SiO2). It has a refractive index of 1.458 at λ = 850 nm . Materials having slightly different refractive index are obtained by doping the basic silica material with small quantities of various oxides. If the basic silica material is doped with germania (GeO2) or phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5), the refractive index of the material increases. Such materials are used as core materials and pure silica is used as cladding material in these cases. When pure silica is doped with boria (B2O3) or fluorine, its refractive index decreases. These materials are used for cladding when pure silica is used as core material. Examples of fiber compositions are • SiO2 core – B2O3.SiO2 cladding • GeO2.SiO2 core – SiO2 cladding The glass optical fibres exhibit very low losses and are used in long distance communications.
24.12.2 ALL PLASTIC FIBRES
In these fibres, perspex (PMMA) and polysterene are used for core. Their refractive indices are 1.49 and 1.59 respectively. A fluorocarbon polymer or a silicone resin is used as a cladding material. A high refractive index difference is achieved between the core and the cladding materials. Therefore, plastic fibres have large NA of the order of 0.6 and large acceptance angles up to 77°. The main advantages of the plastic fibres are low cost and higher mechanical flexibility. The mechanical flexibility allows the plastic fibres to have large cores, of diameters ranging from 110 to 1400 μm. However, they are temperature sensitive and exhibit very high loss. Therefore, they are used in low cost applications and at ordinary temperatures (below 80°C). Examples of plastic fiber compositions are
