Msc Psychology- 1st Sem- Theoretical Perspectives 1

BUDDHISM

HISTORY
Historians estimate that the founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, who lived from 566 to
480 B.C., was born into a wealthy Kshatriya family, in Lumbini, at the foothills of Nepal.
Gautama’s father Shudhodana, a Kshatriya of the Sakya clan, was the king of Kapilavastu
(present-day Nepal), and his mother was Mahamaya. Many predicted that Siddhartha would
become either a great king or a great sage The son of an Indian warrior-king, Gautama led an
extravagant life through early adulthood, reveling in the privileges of his social caste. But when
he was bored of the indulgences of royal life, Gautama wandered into the world in search of
understanding. After encountering an old man, an ill man, a corpse, and an ascetic, Gautama was
convinced that suffering lay at the end of all existence. The first three sights disturbed him,
whereas the fourth one gave him hope and peace. He renounced his princely title and became a
monk, depriving himself of worldly possessions in the hope of comprehending the truth of the
world around him. The culmination of his search came while meditating beneath a bodhi tree at
the age of 35, where he finally understood how to be free from suffering, and ultimately, to
achieve salvation. Following this epiphany, Gautama was known as the Buddha, meaning the
"Enlightened One." The Buddha spent the remainder of his life journeying about India, teaching
others what he had come to understand. After preaching and teaching for many years, Buddha
attained Nirvana at eighty at Kushinagara in eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Buddhism is not what we call a ‘top-down religion’, one in which a deity reveals religious and
spiritual truths to humanity. It is a ‘bottom-up religion’ created by humans as an attempt to
express spiritual concepts. Buddhism is a non-theistic religion, and unlike other world religions,
Buddhism is not a doctrine of revelation. The Buddha did not claim to be the bearer of a message
from high. He made it clear that whatever he taught, he had discovered for himself through his
own efforts.

FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

Buddha spoke of the four noble truths, which are,
(i) the world is full of suffering (ii) suffering is caused by desire (iii) suffering can be removed
(iv) in order to remove suffering one has to overcome desire.

● Life is Full of Suffering (Sarvam Dukkham:): According to the first noble truth all forms
of existence are subject to suffering. For Buddha, it is a universal truth. All known and
unknown facts and forms of life are associated with suffering. Birth, sickness, old age,
death, anxiety, desire, and despair, all such happenings and feelings are based on
suffering. Buddhism recognizes suffering at three levels, such as the suffering we
experience in our daily life, like, birth, sickness, old age, death, despair, pain, desire, etc.
(duhkah-duhkhatta), suffering caused by internal mental conditions and the activities of
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the sense organs (samkara-duhkhatta), and the suffering caused by the impermanence of
objects and our relation to them (viparinama-duhkhatta).
● Suffering has a Cause (Dukkha samudaya): Everything in this cosmos has a cause, and
nothing exists and happens without a cause. If this is the case, suffering should also have
a cause. Buddhism explains suffering through a chain of twelve causes and effects,
commonly known as the Doctrine of Dependent Origination (pratityasamutpada). In the
final analysis, the root of all miseries is desire (Tanha). Desire is all pervasive. Desire for
possession, enjoyment, and a separate individual existence are some of the virulent forms
of desire.
● Cessation of Suffering (Dukkha nirodha): If suffering has a cause, the seeker has to
destroy this cause to stop suffering. So desire has to be extinguished to stop suffering.
Nirvana is the state of being without suffering. It is a state of supreme happiness and
bliss.
● Ways to Destroy Suffering (Dukkha-nirodha-marga): It is the path to moral perfection,
through the practice of morality or virtues. In Buddhism emphasis is on ‘being moral’
than following precepts. Being moral emphasizes total personality. It is not one action
that decides morality but the moral culture of the person. The ways to destroy suffering
consist of the practice of the eightfold virtue, such as Right View, Right Aspiration, Right
Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Awareness, and Right
Concentration.

Among the eight first two are classified in the group of wisdom, the next three are in the group of
morality and the last three are in the group of meditation. They are
i) Right View (samyak drsti) ii) Right Conception (samyak samkalpa) iii) Right Speech (samyak
vak) In the practice of all these virtues one has to avoid extremes and follow the middle path.

Kleshas are mental states that cloud the mind and manifest in unwholesome actions. Kleshas
include states of mind such as anxiety, fear, anger, jealousy, desire, depression, etc. The three
kleshas of ignorance, attachment, and aversion are identified as the root or source of all other
kleshas. These are referred to as the three poisons in the Sanskrit tradition, or as the three
unwholesome roots in the Pali tradition. These three root kleshas (and the kleshas generally) are
seen as the very roots of cyclic existence (samsara).
The five Kleshas are Avidya (ignorance), Asmita (egoism or I-am-ness), Raga (attachment),
Dvesha (repulsion and aversion), and Abhinivesha (fear of death and the will to live).
The first stage of working with the kleshas is to simply acknowledge them. Reflection promotes
self-awareness, self-understanding, and self-knowledge to uncover and see the kleshas and their
roots as well as how they create suffering. By simply shining the light of your awareness to these
dark places will lesson their powers of suffering.

The focused use of basic yogic techniques can counteract simple kleshas. Gross kleshas are
overcome with meditation, tapas and seeking wisdom. Yogic techniques are said to burn away
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the impurities of the kleshas to purify the mind. Cultivating Pramana Vritti (the mental state of
right knowledge through direct perception, inference, and trustworthy testimony) is a powerful
tool to overcome more potent kleshas.

Buddhist sutras(Lotus sutra) are intended to communicate the teaching of enlightenment.

Buddhist sutras are designed to interact with one’s mind, to show one’s another view of the
world and another view of oneself. The challenge is to make oneself available for this interaction
to take place.

THE EIGHTFOLD PATH IN BUDDHISM

The eightfold path is the practical application of the four noble truths. They are also closely
connected to the fourth noble truth as a means to destroy suffering. Following are components of
the eightfold path of Buddhism.
● Right View (Samyak-dristi): It consists of the grasp and acceptance of the four noble
truths, rejection of the fault doctrines, and avoidance of immorality resulting from
covetousness, lying, violence, etc.
● Right Aspirations (Samyka-sankalpa): It implies thought on renunciation, thought on
friendship and good will, and thoughts on non-harming.
● Right Speech (Samyak-vac): It inspires one to speak truth primarily, and to speak gentle
and soothing words for the benefit and wellbeing of others. It also promulgates one to
avoid falsehood, slander, harsh words and gossip.
● Right Conduct (Samyak-karma): The Buddha intends by right conduct the practice of f
five moral vows namely, non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing
(asteya),
● Right Livelihood (Samyag ajiva): It consists of the avoidance of a luxurious life and the
acceptance of occupations which do not involve cruelty and injury to other living beings.
The Buddha exhorts to avoid occupations like sale of alcohol, making and selling
weapons, profession of the soldier, butcher, fisherman, etc. ‘
● Right Effort (Samyak vyayama): It includes the effort to avoid the rise of evil and false
ideas in the mind, the effort to overcome evil and evil tendencies, the effort to acquire
positive values like attention, energy, tranquility, equanimity, and concentration, and the
effort to maintain the right conditions for a meritorious life.
● Right Awareness (Samyak Smrti ): It represents the awareness of the body (breathing
positions, movements, impurities of the body, etc.), awareness of sensations (attentive to
the feelings of oneself and of the other), awareness of thought and the awareness of the
internal functions of the mind.
● Right Concentration (Samyak Samadhi): The practice of one-pointed contemplation leads
the seeker to go beyond all sensations of pain and pleasure, and finally to full
enlightenment. It happens in four levels. In the first level, through intense meditation, the
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seeker concentrates the mind on truth and thereby enjoys great bliss. In the second level,
the seeker enters into supreme internal peace and tranquility. In the third level, the seeker
becomes detached even from inner bliss and tranquility. In the fourth level, the seeker is
liberated even from this sensation of bliss and tranquility.
The first two of the eight-fold path, namely, right view and right resolve, are together called
Prajna, because they are related to consciousness and knowledge. The third, fourth, and fifth,
namely, right speech, right conduct, and right livelihood, are collectively known as Sila, because
they deal with the correct and morally right way of living. The last three, namely, right effort,
right awareness, and right concentration are collectively known as Samadhi, because they deal
with meditation and contemplation.

Bodhisattva is the psychological desire to seek interests and happiness for the other beings. The
word 'bodhisattva' itself is prone to a rich etymological analysis. It is composed of two words
'bodhi' and 'sattva' both of which connote deeply spiritually meanings. Bodhi means "awakening"
or "enlightenment," and sattva means "sentient being." The notion of a bodhisattva sacrificing his
complete physical self or at least parts of it conforms to a similar notion expounded in ancient
Buddhist texts. A bodhisattva should regard every action and movement of his body as an
occasion for the cultivation of friendly thoughts for the good of all creatures. The motivation for
living that is different for a bodhisattva. Ordinary people live thinking only about their own
personal, narrow circumstances connected with their desires. In contrast to that, a bodhisattva,
though undeniably still an ordinary human being like everyone else, lives by vow. Because of
that, the significance of his or her life is not the same.

NIRVANA
The concept of Nirvana is considered as the highest end for human beings. According to
Buddhism, Nirvana is not the blessed fellowship with God. By nirvana Buddha meant only the
extinction of false desire. Nirvana which is the consummation of the spiritual struggle is a
positive blessedness. It is the goal of perfection and not the abyss of annihilation. Through the
destruction of all that is individual in us, we enter into communion with the whole universe and
become an integral part of the great purpose. Nirvana is an eternal condition for being, for it is
not a samsk¡ra or what is made or put together, which is impermanent. The illusion of becoming
is founded on the reality of nirvana. Nirvana is the extinction of greed, hate, anger and delusion.
It is the extinction of becoming or rebirth. It is considered as complete extinction of passions and
consequent suffering.

Pancha Shila/ Five precepts

The Buddhist tradition acknowledges that life is complex and throws up many difficulties, and it
does not suggest that there is a single course of action that will be right in all circumstances.
Indeed, rather than speaking of actions being right or wrong, Buddhism speaks of the being
skilful (kusala) or unskilful (akusala). In Triratna, our faith in the Three Jewels of Buddha,
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Dharma and Sangha finds everyday practical expression in our aspiration to live by ethical
precepts, to the best of our ability.
1. Not killing or causing harm to other living beings. This is the fundamental ethical principle for
Buddhism, and all the other precepts are elaborations of this. The precept implies acting
non-violently wherever possible, and many Buddhists are vegetarian for this reason. The positive
counterpart of this precept is love.
2. Not taking the not-given. Stealing is an obvious way in which one can harm others. One can
also take advantage of people, exploit them, or manipulate them. All these can be seen as ways
of taking the not given. The positive counterpart of this precept is generosity.
3. Avoiding sexual misconduct. Over the centuries different Buddhist schools have interpreted
this precept in many ways, but essentially it means not causing harm to oneself or others in the
area of sexual activity. It includes avoiding breaking commitments in the area of sexual relations,
and avoiding encouraging others to do the same. The positive counterpart of this precept is
contentment.
4. Avoiding false speech. Speech is the crucial element in our relations with others, and yet
language is a slippery medium, and we often deceive ourselves or others without even realising
that this is what we are doing. Truthfulness, the positive counterpart of this precept, is therefore
essential in an ethical life. But truthfulness is not enough, and in another list of precepts (the ten
precepts or the ten kusala dharmas) no fewer than four speech precepts are mentioned, the others
enjoining that our speech should be kindly, helpful, and harmonious.
5. Abstaining from drink and drugs that cloud the mind. The positive counterpart of this precept
is mindfulness, or awareness. Mindfulness is a fundamental quality to be developed the Buddha’s
path, and experience shows that taking intoxicating drink or drugs tends to run directly counter to
this.

In Buddhist philosophy, anattā (Pāli term) or anàtman (Sanskrit term) refers to ‘not-self’ or
‘absence of independent self.’ It rejects the real or permanent self. So, ‘anattā’ conveys the
meaning of the negation of self or soul.

The purpose of Not-self in Early Buddhism can be seen clearly through the relation between self
and dukkha. The purpose of Not-self in Early Buddhism can be seen clearly through the relation
between self and dukkha. Dukkha has other meanings such as dissatisfaction, impermanence,
lack of freedom and imperfection Dukkha is a real fact of life. This fact is the first thing one
must comprehend (pariññeyya) and the following three truths are the result of this one. Any
thoughtful person can see the life, in general, as unsatisfactory. In Buddhist philosophy, dukkha
is one of the three marks of existence (ti-lakkhaṇa), namely aniccā, dukkha, and anattā‘suffering’
or ‘dissatisfaction’, however it is not fully correct. Dukkha means impermanence, lack of
freedom and imperfection Dukkha is a real fact of life. This fact is the first thing one must
comprehend (pariññeyya) and the following three truths are the result to this one. Any thoughtful
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person can see the life, in general, as unsatisfactory. In Buddhist philosophy, dukkha is one of the
three marks of existence (ti-lakkhaṇa), namely aniccā, dukkha and anattā.

Mandala Model of Self (MMS)

The MMS was inspired by Buddhism and constructed to provide a universal model that describes
the well-functioning self in all cultures (Hwang, 2011). The end goal of the self in all cultures is
to authentic and durable happiness (Dambrun and Ricard, 2011; Johnson, 2015).

In this model, an individual living in his or her life-world is represented by a circle inside a
square. The self resides inside a circle located between two bi-directional arrows: One end of the
horizontal arrow points to “action” or “praxis”; the other end points to “wisdom” or
“knowledge.” The top of the vertical arrow points to “person,” and the bottom points to
“individual.” All four of these terms are located outside the circle but within the square. This
arrangement of the concepts means that the self is being influenced by forces from the
individual’s external environment. Here, the self is a psychological term, and it is the locus of
empirical experience, and it takes various actions depending on the social context. It also
engages in reflexivity when blocked from attaining its goals. Knowledgeability is the ability of
the self to memorize, store, and organize various forms of knowledge into a well-integrated
system that guides reflexivity and action. An individual’s self-identity and social-identity have
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very important implications for reflexivity. The wisdom contained in the personal stock of
knowledge can lead individuals to act intelligently in various social contexts. the social praxis of
the self in a given context is pulled by two forces—the person as a social agent and the
individual as an organism. To act in a manner accepted by society, individuals who want to
satisfy their own desires must learn how to act in accordance with the sociomoral order, using the
process of socialization guided by their wisdom. According to the MMS (Hwang, 2011), one
important characteristic of individuals is the ability to engage in agency-oriented reflexivity on
the meaning of life. Individuals’ attempts to define their own moral conscience create a
normative wisdom that circulates within the society. This wisdom can be used as material for
thinking or for meta-ethical reflexivity.

Western psychologists recognize egoism as one of the basic motivations of the human mind: It is
desire for pleasure and aversion to pain (Leifer, 1999). In Buddhism, as long as we have the self,
we will be egoistic (Dalai Lama, 1995a). In Buddhism, suffering is caused by desire (Leifer,
1999; Dalai Lama, 2001). Clinging to the self is mainly an attempt to fulfill desires (Dalai Lama,
1995a). death is the greatest inevitable threat and a challenge to the self or the identity of a
human being. The fact that we all will die means that the self will disappear and shows that life is
fragile. The self needs to find a way to cope with death. Arguably the most sophisticated theory
on how the self copes with death is Terror Management Theory (TMT) (Greenberg et al., 1986,
1992), which defines self-esteem as a feeling of significance, a sense of significant meaning
employed to defend against the fear of death.
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The Buddha’s teachings are aimed at helping us escape from the delusion of the self and attain a
nonself state (Dalai Lama, 1995a, 2005). The way to achieve this goal is to implement a
three-way process (Dalai Lama, 1995a; Kelly, 2008) According to the MMS, the first and second
ways of the process are actions aimed at the cessation of desire, and the second way (meditation)
draws on the concepts of person and action. The third way draws on the concept of
wisdom/knowledge.
● The first way is to renounce the worldly things that we desire (Dalai Lama, 2001)
● The second method to eliminate desire-driven conation and behavior is meditation.
● The third way is to obtain the Buddha’s wisdom/knowledge through practicing the
meta-ethical reflexivity that guides the actions of an ideal person.

The state of nonself-plus-compassion is thought to provide one with the fundamental meaning of
being alive (Shiah and Yit, 2012). This is the major reason why the core teaching of Buddhism is
compassion (Dalai Lama, 1995). Because we realize the impermanence experientially, we arrive
at the understanding of nonself. This is not a loss of the self but it is the continuation of
existence.
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The self engages in psychological activities to strengthen itself by applying the hedonic principle
for the purpose of avoiding the pain caused by desire-driven pleasure. However, it does not do so
successfully. In contrast, the nonself aims to overcome this suffering directly and does do it
successfully. It employs the self-cultivation principle by practicing renunciation of desires,
compassion, meditation, and absorbing Buddhist wisdom to see through and overcome the
delusion of the self, leading to a profound transformation integrally connected to the experience
of eliminating the sense of self and its psychological structures (Dalai Lama, 2005; Albahari,
2014). Finally, one derives authentic and durable happiness as a result of cultivating Buddhist
teachings and practices.

CONCLUSION
Buddhist practice traditionally takes place in the context of spiritual development leading to
enlightenment in the form of experience of the nonself, a state of total liberation and authentic
and durable happiness (Dalai Lama, 1995a,b). Thus, Buddhist teachings can be used to help
people maximize their full human potential. In fact, it has long been believed and testified to that
Buddhist teachings and practices successfully remove pain and suffering, implying that they can
be used to deal with all psychological problems (Dalai Lama, 1995a,b, 2005). This has practical
implications for psychotherapy.