UNIT-I

PNJUNCTIONDIODE

INTRODUCTON

Basedontheelectricalconductivityallthematerialsinnatureareclassifiedasinsulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.

Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity when
voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the orderof
1010 to 1012Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown in the fig.1.1. Band structureof a
material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy. Valance band is the range of
electron energy where the electron remain bended too the atom and do not contribute to the electric
current. Conduction bend is the range of electron energies higher than valance band where electrons
are free to accelerate under the influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as forbidden band
gap. It is the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to conduction band i.e. the
energy required for a valance electron to become a free electron.
1 eV=1.6 x10-19J
For an insulator, as shown in the fig.1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev.
Because of this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is
poor. Even an increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from
VB to CB.

CB
CB
CB
o
Eo=≈6eV
Forbiddenband
gapEo ≈6eV

VB
VB

VB

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

FiG:1.1Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor
Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is
applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold. The
resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6Ω-cm.The Valance and conduction bands
overlap (fig1.1) and there is no energy gap for the electrons to move from valance band to conduction
band. This implies that there are free electrons in CB even at absolute zero temperature (0K).Therefore
at room temperature when electric field is applied large current flows through the conductor.

Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the
insulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 10 4Ω-cm. Two of the most
commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance
electrons. The forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and
GaAs is 1.21, 0.785 and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K). At 0K and at low
temperatures, the valance band electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus
semiconductors act a insulators at 0K. as the temperature increases, a large number of valance
electrons acquire sufficient energy to leave the VB, cross the forbidden band gap and reach CB. These
are now free electrons as they can move freely under the influence of electric field. At room
temperature there are sufficient electrons in the CB and hence the semiconductor is capable of
conducting some current at room temperature.
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge or
current.Typicalresistivityvaluesforvariousmaterials’aregivenasfollows.

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

10-6Ω-cm(Cu) 50Ω-cm(Ge) 1012Ω-cm
(mica)

50x103Ω-cm(Si)

Typical resistivity values

Semiconductor Types

A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction in

intrinsic sc is either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most important
semiconductors used. Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc.
 Let us consider the structure of Si. A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons. These 4
electrons are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent bond. Fig.
1.2a shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K). Hence a pure SC acts has poor
conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute zero temperature.

Covalent bond

Valence electron

Fig.1.2a crystal structure of Si at 0K

Atroomtemperaturesomeofthecovalentbondsbreakuptothermalenergyasshowninfig
1.2b. The valance electrons that jump into conduction band are called as free electrons that are
available for conduction.

Free electron

Valance electron

hole

Fig.1.2b crystal structure of Si at room

temperature 0K
 The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually referred to as
hole which is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a manner similar to that of
free electron.

Themechanismbywhichaholecontributestoconductivityisexplainedasfollows:

When a bond is in complete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for avalance electron in
the neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a bond to fill
a hole moves in a direction opposite to that of the electron. This hole, in its new position may now be
filled by an electron from another covalent bond and the hole will correspondingly move one more
step in the direction opposite to the motion of electron. Here we have a mechanism for conduction of
electricity which does not involve free electrons. This phenomenon is illustrated in fig1.3

Electron movement

Hole movement

Fig.1.3a

Fig.1.3b Fig.1.3c
 Fig 1.3a show that there is a hole at ion 6.Imagine that an electron from ion 5 moves into the
hole at ion 6 so that the configuration of 1.3b results. If we compare both fig1.3a &fig 1.3b, it appears
as if the hole has moved towards the left from ion6 to ion 5. Further if we compare fig 1.3b and fig1.3c,
the hole moves from ion5 to ion 4.This discussion indicates the motion of hole is in a direction opposite
to that of motion of electron. Hence we consider holes as physical entities whose movement
constitutes flow of current.

In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons.

EXTRINSICSEMICONDUCTOR

Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amounts of
current at room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor can be
increased significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor. By adding
impurities it becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called as
doping. The amount of impurity added is 1 part in 106 atoms.

N type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a pentavalent atom then the resultant semiconductor
is called N-type semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth,
Antimony etc.

A pentavalent impurity has five valance electrons. Fig 1.4a shows the crystal structure of N-type
semiconductor material where four out of five valance electrons of the impurity atom(antimony) forms
covalent bond with the four intrinsic semiconductor atoms. The fifth electron is loosely bound to the
impurity atom. This loosely bound electron can be easily

Fifth valance electron of SB

CB
Ec
Ed
Donor energy level

Ev VB

Fig.1.4acrystalstructureofNtypeSC Fig.1.4bEnergybanddiagramofNtype
Excited from the valance band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or increasing
the thermal energy. The energy required to detach the fifth electron form the impurity atom is very
small of the order of 0.01ev for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.

The effect of doping creates a discrete energy level called donor energy level in the forbidden band
gap with energy level Ed slightly less than the conduction band (fig 1.4b). The difference between the
energy levels of the conducting band and the donor energy level is the energy required to free the fifth
valance electron (0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si). At room temperature almost all the fifth electrons
from the donor impurity atom are raised to conduction band and hence the number of electrons in the
conduction band increases significantly. Thus every antimony atom contributes to one conduction
electron without creating a hole.

In the N-type sc the no. of electrons increases and the no. of holes decreases compared to those
available in an intrinsic sc. The reason for decrease in the no. of holes is that the larger no. of electrons
present increases the recombination of electrons with holes. Thus current in N type sc is dominated by
electrons which are referred to as majority carriers. Holes are the minority carriers in N type sc

P type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a trivalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is
called P-type semiconductor. Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron, Gallium, indium etc.

The crystal structure ofp type sc is shown in the fig1.5a. The three valance electrons of the impurity
(boon) forms three covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms and a vacancy exists in the fourth bond
giving rise to the holes. The hole is ready to accept an electron from the neighboring atoms. Each
trivalent atom contributes to one hole generation and thus introduces a large no. of holes in the
valance band. At the same time the no. electrons are decreased compared to those available in
intrinsic sc because of increased recombination due to creation of additional holes.

hole

Fig.1.5acrystalstructureofPtypesc
 Thus in P type sc , holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since each
trivalent impurity atoms are capable accepting an electron, these are called as acceptor atoms. The
following fig 1.5b shows the pictorial representation of P type sc

hole(majority carrier)

Electron(minority carrier)

Acceptor atoms

Fig.1.5bcrystalstructureofPtypesc

 TheconductivityofNtypescisgreaterthanthatofPtypescasthemobilityofelectronis greater
than that of hole.

 ForthesamelevelofdopinginNtypescandPtypesc,theconductivityofanNtypescis around
twice that of a P type sc

CONDUCTIVITYOFSEMICONDUCTOR

In a pure sc, the no. of holes is equal to the no. of electrons. Thermal agitation continues to
producenewelectron-holepairsandtheelectronholepairsdisappearbecauseof recombination. with each
electron hole pair created , two charge carrying particles are formed . One is negative which a free
electron with mobility µn is. The other is a positive i.e., hole with mobility µp. The electrons and hole
move in opposite direction in a an electric field E, but since they are of opposite sign, the current due
to each is in the same direction. Hence the total current density J within the intrinsic sc is given by

J =Jn+Jp

=qnµnE+ qpµpE

= (nµn +pµp)qE

=ςE

Wheren=no.ofelectrons/unitvolumei.e.,concentrationoffreeelectrons P= no.

of holes / unit volume i.e., concentration of holes

E=appliedelectricfieldstrength,V/m

q=chargeof electronorhole In Coulombs

 Hence, ς is the conductivity of sc which is equal to (nµn+pµp)q. he resistivity of sc is
reciprocal of conductivity.

Ρ=1/ς

It is evident from the above equation that current density with in a sc is directly proportional to
applied electric field E.

For pure sc, n=p=ni where ni=intrinsic concentration. The value of ni is given by n
2 3
=AT
i exp (-E GO /KT)

therefore, J= ni(µn +µp)qE

Hence conductivity in intrinsics c is ςi=ni(µn+µp)q

Intrinsic conductivity increases at the rate of 5% peroC for Ge and 7%peroC for Si.

Conductivity in extrinsic sc (N Type andP Type):

The conductivity of intrinsic sc is given by ςi= n i ( µn +µp) q = (n µn

+ p µp)q For N type , n>>p

Therefore ς= q n

µn For P type, p>>n

Therefore ς= q p

µp

CHARGEDENSITIESINPTYPEANDNTYPESEMICONDUCTOR:

Mass Action Law:

Under thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of the no. of holes and the
concentration of electrons is constant and is independent of amount of donor and acceptor impurity
doping.

n.p=n2i

where n= electron concentration p = hole concentration ni2=intrinsic concentration

 Hence in N type sc , as the no. of electrons increase the no. of holes decreases. Similarly in P
type as the no. of holes increases the no. of electrons decreases. Thus the product is constant and is
equal to n2i in case of intrinsic as well as extrinsic sc.

The law of mass action has given the relationship between free electrons concentration and
hole concentration. These concentrations are further related by the law of electrical neutrality as
explained below.

Law of electrical neutrality:

Sc materials are electrically neutral. According to the law of electrical neutrality, in an

electrically neutral material, the magnitude of positive charge concentration is equal to tat of negative
charge concentration. Let us consider a sc that has ND donor atoms per cubic centimeter and NA
acceptor atoms per cubic centimeter i.e., the concentration of donor and acceptor atoms are N D and
NA respectively. Therefore ND positively charged ions per cubic centimeter are contributed by donor
atoms and NA negatively charged ions per cubic centimeter are contributed by the acceptor atoms. Let
n, p is concentration of free electrons and holes respectively. Then according to the law of neutrality

ND +p=NA+n ........................................................................................................... eq1.1

For N type sc, NA=0andn>>p. Therefore ND≈n .................................................................... eq1.2

Hence for N type sc the free electron concentration is approximately equal to the concentration
of donor atoms. In later applications since some confusion may arise as to which type of sc is under
consideration a the given moment, the subscript n or pis added for N type or P type respectively.
Hence eq1.2 becomes ND≈ nn

Therefore current density in N type sc is J=NDµnqE

And conductivity ς= ND µn q

For P type sc, ND=0andp>>n. Therefore NA≈p

Or NA≈pp

Hence for P type sc the hole concentration is approximately equal to the concentration of acceptor
atoms.

Therefore current density in N type sc is J =NAµpqE And conductivity ς=NAµpq

Mass action law for N type, nnpn= ni2

pn= ni2/ND since(nn≈ND)

Mass action law for P type, nppp=n2 i

np= n2i /N A since(p≈N)

p A

QUANTITATIVE THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

PN JUNCTION WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE OR OPEN CIRCUIT CONDITION:

In a piece of sc, if one half is doped by p type impurity and the other half is doped by n type
impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or zones is called PN junction. As
shown in the fig the n type material has high concentration of free electrons, while p type material has
high concentration of holes. Therefore at the junction there is a tendency of free electrons to diffuse
over to the P side and the holes to the N side. This process is called diffusion. As the free electrons
move across the junction from N type to P type, the donor atoms become positively charged. Hence a
positive charge is built on the N-side of the junction. The free electrons that cross the junction uncover
the negative acceptor ions by filing the holes. Therefore a negative charge is developed on the p –side
of the junction..This net negative charge on the p side prevents further diffusion of electrons into the p
side. Similarly the net positive charge on the N side repels the hole crossing from p side to N side. Thus
a barrier sis set up near the junction which prevents the further movement of charge carriers i.e.
electrons and holes. As a consequence of induced electric field across the depletion layer, an
electrostatic potential difference is established between P and N regions, which are called the potential
barrier, junction barrier, diffusion potential or contact potential, Vo. The magnitude of the contact
potential Vo varies with doping levels and temperature. Vo is 0.3V for Ge and 0.72 V for Si.

Fig1.6: Symbol of PN Junction Diode

The electrostatic field across the junction caused by the positively charged N-Type region tends
to drive the holes away from the junction and negatively charged p type regions tend to drive the
electrons away from the junction. The majority holes diffusing out of the P region leave behind
negatively charged acceptor atoms bound to the lattice, thus exposing a negatives pace charge in a
previously neutral region. Similarly electrons diffusing from the N region expose positively ionized
donor atoms and a double space charge builds up at the junction as shown in the fig. 1.7a
 Fig 1.7a

It is noticed that the space charge layers are of opposite sign to the majority carriers diffusing
into them, which tends to reduce the diffusion rate. Thus the double space of the layer causes an
electric field to be set up across the junction directed from N to P regions, which is in such a direction
to inhibit the diffusion of majority electrons and holes as illustrated in fig 1.7b. The shape of the charge
density, ρ, depends upon how diode id doped. Thus the junction region is depleted of mobile
charge carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer, space region, and transition region. The depletion
region is of the order of 0.5µm thick. There are no mobile carriers in this narrow depletion region.
Hence no current flows across the junction and the system is in equilibrium. To the left of this
depletion layer, the carrier concentration is p= NA and to its right it is n= ND.
 Fig 1.7b

FORWARDBIASEDJUNCTIONDIODE

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes
greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7voltsforsiliconand0.3voltsforgermanium, the
potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow. This is because the
negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to cross over
and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the
positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point,
Called the"knee"onthestaticcurvesandthenahighcurrentflowthroughthediodewithlittle increase in the
external voltage as shown below

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Fig1.8a: Diode Forward Characteristics

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becomingverythinandnarrowwhichrepresentsalowimpedancepaththroughthejunctionthereby allowing
high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on
the static I-V characteristics curve above as the "knee" point.

Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer

Fig1.8b:Diode Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents
to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference
cross the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v
for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes. Since the diode can conduct
"infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are
used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current
specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for
resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

1.1.2PNJUNCTIONUNDERREVERSEBIASCONDITION:

Reverse Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type
materialandanegativevoltageisappliedtotheP-typematerial.ThepositivevoltageappliedtotheN- type
material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes
in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode. The net
result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high
impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus
preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the Depletion

Fig1.9a:Diode Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current
does flow through the junction which can be measured in microamperes, (μA). One final point, if the
reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will
causethePNjunctiontooverheatandfailduetotheavalancheeffectaroundthejunction.Thismay cause the
diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a
step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Fig1.9b: Diode Reverse Characteristics

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilizing circuits where a series
limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum
value there by producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly
known as Zener Diodes

VICHARACTERISTICSANDTHEIRTEMPERATUREDEPENDENCE
Diode terminal characteristics equation for diode junction current:


ID 1)
Where VT=KT/q; I(evT
0

VD_ diode terminal voltage, Volts

Io_temperature- dependent saturation current, µA
T _ absolute temperature of p-n junction, K
K _ Boltzmann’s constant 1.38x 10 -
23J/K) q _electron charge1.6x10-19 C
=empiricalconstant,1forGeand2forSi

Fig1.10:Diode Characteristics

Temperature Effects on Diode

Temperaturecanhaveamarkedeffectonthecharacteristicsofasiliconsemiconductordiode as
shown in Fig. 11 It has been found experimentally that the reverse saturation current Io will just
about double in magnitude for every 10°C increase in temperature.

Fig1.11Variation in Diode Characteristics with temperature change

It is not uncommon for a germanium diode with an I o in the order of 1 or 2 A at 25°C to have a leakage
currentof100A -0.1mA at a temperature of 100°C.Typical values of Io much lower than that of
germanium for similar power and current levels. The result is that even at high temperatures the
levels of Io for silicon diodes do not reach the same high levels obtained. For germanium—a very
important reason that silicon devices enjoy a significantly higher level of development and utilization in
design. Fundamentally, the open-circuit equivalent in the reverse bias region is better realized at
any temperature with silicon than with germanium. The increasing levels of Io with temperature
account for the lower levels of threshold voltage, as shown in Fig.1.11.Simplyincrease the level of I o in
and not rise in diode current. Of course, the level of T K also will be increase, but the increasing
level of Io will overpower the smaller percent change in TK. As the temperature increases the forward
characteristics are actually becoming more “ideal,”

IDEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL RESISTANCE LEVELS

DC or Static Resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in an
operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time. The resistance of the diode
at the operating point can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown
in Fig. 1.12 and applying the following Equation:

The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels obtained for
the vertical rise section of the characteristics. The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will
naturally be quite high. Since ohmmeters typically employ a relatively constant-current source, the
resistance determined will be at a preset current level (typically, a few mill amperes).
 Fig1.12 Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

AC or Dynamic Resistance
It is obvious from Eq. 1.3 that the dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the
characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is
applied, the situation will change completely. The varying input will move the instantaneous operating
point up and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and
voltage as shown in Fig. 1.13. With no applied varying signal, the point of operation would be the Q-
point appearing on Fig. 1.13 determined by the applied dc levels. The designation Q-point is derived
from the word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.”A straight-line drawn tangent to the
curve through the Q-point as shown in Fig.1.13 will define a particular change in voltage and current
that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic resistance for this region of the diode characteristics.
In equation form,

Where Δ Signifies a finite change in the quantity

Fig1.13: Determining the ac resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

 DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device, system, or such in a particular operating region. In other words,
once the equivalent circuit is defined, the device symbol can be removed from a schematic and the
equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting the actual behavior of the system. The
result is often a network that can be solved using traditional circuit analysis techniques.

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode is to approximate the
characteristics of the device by straight-line segments, as shown in Fig. 1.31. The resulting equivalent
circuit is naturally called the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit. It should be obvious from Fig.1.31 that
the straight-line segments do not result in an exact duplication of the actual characteristics, especially
in the knee region. However, the resulting segments are sufficiently close to the actual curve to
establish an equivalent circuit that will provide an excellent first approximation to the actual behaviour
of the device. The ideal diode is included to establish that there is only one direction of conduction
through the device, and a reverse-bias condition will result in the open- circuit state for the device.
Since a silicon semiconductor, diode does not reach the conduction state until VD reaches 0.7 V with a
forward bias (as shown in Fig. 1.14a), a battery VT opposing the conduction direction must appear in
the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 1.14b. The battery simply specifies that the voltage across the
device must be greater than the threshold battery voltage before conduction through the device in the
direction dictated by the ideal diode can be established. When conduction is established, the
resistance of the diode will be the specified value of rav.

Fig:1.14a Diode piecewise-linear model characteristics

 Fig:1.14b Diode piecewise-linear model equivalent circuit
The approximate level of rav can usually be determined from a specified operating point on the
specification sheet. For instance, for a silicon semiconductor diode, if IF_ 10 mA (a forward conduction
current for the diode) at VD _ 0.8 V, we know for silicon that a shift of 0.7 V is required before the
characteristics rise.

Fig1.15IdealDiodeandits characteristics

Fig1.16:Diode equivalent circuits(models)

 TRANSITION AND DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE
Electronic devices are inherently sensitive to very high frequencies. Most shunt capacitive
effects that can be ignored at lower frequencies because the reactance XC=1/2πfC is very large
(open- circuit equivalent). This, however, cannot be ignored at very high frequencies. XC will
become sufficiently small due to the high value of f to introduce a low-reactance “shorting”
path. In the p-n semiconductor diode, there are two capacitive effects to be considered. In the
reverse-bias region we have the transition- or depletion region capacitance (CT), while in the forward-
bias region we have the diffusion (CD) or storage capacitance. Recall that the basic equation for the
capacitance of a parallel- plate capacitor is defined by C=€A/d, where € Is the permittivity of the
dielectric (insulator) between the plates of area A separated by a distanced. In the reverse-,bias
region there is a depletion region (free of carriers) that behaves essentially like an insulator between
the layers of opposite charge. Since the depletion width (d) will increase with increased reverse-bias
potential, the resulting transition capacitance will decrease. The fact that the capacitance is
dependent on the applied reverse-bias potential has application in a number of electronic systems.
Although the effect described above will also be present in the forward-bias region, it is over
shadowed by a capacitance effect directly
dependentontherateatwhichchargeisinjectedintotheregionsjustoutsidethedepletionregion. The
capacitive effects described above are represented by a capacitor in parallel with the ideal diode, as
shown in Fig. 1.38. For low- or mid-frequency applications (except in the power area), however, the
capacitor is normally not included in the diode symbol.

Fig1.17: Including the effect of the transition or diffusion capacitance on the semiconductor diode

Diode capacitances: The diode exhibits two types of capacitances transition capacitance and diffusion
capacitance.
 Transition capacitance: The capacitance which appears between positive ion layer in n-region
and negative ion layer in p-region.
 Diffusion capacitance: This capacitance originates due to diffusion of charge carriers in the
opposite regions.
The transition capacitance is very small as compared to the diffusion capacitance.
In reverse bias transition, the capacitance is the dominant and is given by:
 Where CT-transition capacitance A
- diode cross sectional area
W-depletion region width
In forward bias, the diffusion capacitance is the dominant and is given by:

Where CD-diffusion capacitance

dQ-change in charge stored in depletion region
V- change in applied voltage
-time interval for change in voltage
g- diode conductance
r-diode resistance
The diffusion capacitance at low frequencies is given by the formula:

The diffusion capacitance at high frequencies is inversely proportional to the frequency and is given by
the formula:

Note: The variation of diffusion capacitance with applied voltage isused in the design of varactor.

Load line & small signal model of Diode

In graphical analysis of nonlinear electronic circuits, a load line is a line drawn on the current–
voltage characteristic graph for a nonlinear device like a diode or transistor. It represents the constraint
put on the voltage and current in the nonlinear device by the external circuit. The load line, usually a
straight line, represents the response of the linear part of the circuit, connected to the nonlinear device in
question. The points where the characteristic curve and the load line intersect are the possible operating
point(s) (Q points) of the circuit; at these points the current and voltage parameters of both parts of the
circuit match.

The example at right shows how a load line is used to determine the current and voltage in a
simple diode circuit. The diode, a nonlinear device, is in series with a linear circuit consisting of a resistor, R
and a voltage source, VDD. The characteristic curve (curved line), representing the current I through the
diode for any given voltage across the diode VD, is an exponential curve. The load line (diagonal line),
 representing the relationship between current and voltage due to Kirchhoff's voltage law applied to the
resistor and voltage source, is

Semiconductor circuits typically have both DC and AC currents in them, with a source of DC current
to bias the nonlinear semiconductor to the correct operating point, and the AC signal superimposed
on the DC. Load lines can be used separately for both DC and AC analysis. The DC load line is the
load line of the DC equivalent circuit, defined by reducing the reactive components to zero
(replacing capacitors by open circuits and inductors by short circuits). It is used to determine the
correct DC operating point, often called the Q point.

Once a DC operating point is defined by the DC load line, an AC load line can be drawn
through the Q point. The AC load line is a straight line with a slope equal to the
AC impedance facing the nonlinear device, which is in general different from the DC resistance.
The ratio of AC voltage to current in the device is defined by this line. Because the impedance
of the reactive components will vary with frequency, the slope of the AC load line depends on
the frequency of the applied signal. So there are many AC load lines, that vary from the DC load
line (at low frequency) to a limiting AC load line, all having a common intersection at the DC
operating point. This limiting load line, generally referred to as the AC load line, is the load line
of the circuit at "infinite frequency", and can be found by replacing capacitors with short
circuits, and inductors with open circuits.

Small-Signal Diode Model

Saying a model for an electronic component is a “small-signal” model means something very
specific. In particular, we mean that the voltage drop across the component is only a small fraction
above or below some desired operating voltage. Developing a small-signal model is all about
approximating the voltage drop across the diode and the diode current using a derivative. The goal is to
describe how the output (the diode current) changes when there is a small change in the input (the
voltage drop).

To start, let’s look at the equation for the current in a diode as a function of voltage drop across the
diode:
 Current in a diode as a function of voltage drop across the diode. Please define n, k, and T

Here we need to approximate the current as a function of voltage near some operating voltage. First,
define V0 as the operating voltage across our diode. The goal of a small-signal model is to get a value
for the admittance (or impedance) of the component. The admittance is simply the derivative of the
diode current, with respect to the voltage drop evaluated at the operating point:

Admittance of the diode at its operating point

It’s important to note that a change in the operating point V0 also changes the admittance. This is
to be expected, as the current in a diode is a nonlinear function of the voltage drop. With this in mind,
we can approximate the diode current as a linear function of voltage drop across the diode, i.e., as I =
VY:

Small signal model for the current in a diode as a function of its admittance and voltage drop V
near the operating point V0.
 BREAK DOWN MECHANISMS
When an ordinary P-N junction diode is reverse biased, normally only very small reverse
saturation current flows. This current is due to movement of minority carriers. It is almost independent
of the voltage applied. However, if the reverse bias is increased, a point is reached when the junction
breaks down and the reverse current increases abruptly. This current could be large enough to destroy
the junction. If the reverse current is limited by means of a suitable series resistor, the power
dissipation at the junction will not be excessive, and the device may be operated continuously in its
Break down region to its normal (reverse saturation) level. It is found that for a suitably designed
diode, the breakdown voltage is very stable over a wide range of reverse currents. This quality gives
the breakdown diode many useful applications as a voltage reference source.

The critical value of the voltage, at which the breakdown of a P-N junction diode occurs, is called the
breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the depletion region, which, in
turn, depends on the doping level. The junction offers almost zero resistance at the break down point.

There are two mechanisms by which break down can occur at a reverse biased P-Njunction:

1. Avalanche breakdown and

2. Zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown

The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing through the junction acquire a
kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse
voltage (say 5 V or more), the kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes so large that they knock out
electrons from the covalent bonds of the semiconductor material. As a result of collision, the liberated
electrons inturn liberate more electrons and the current becomes very large leading to the breakdown
of the crystal structure itself. This phenomenon is called the avalanche breakdown. The breakdown
region is the knee of the characteristic curve. Now the current is not controlled by the junction voltage
but rather by the external circuit.

Zener breakdown

Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential barrier
increases leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The electric field will break some of
the covalent bonds of the semiconductor atoms leading to a large number of free minority carriers,
which suddenly increase the reverse current. This is called the Zener effect. The breakdown occurs at a
particular and constant value of reverse voltage called the breakdown voltage, it is found that Zener
breakdown occurs at electric field intensity of about 3 x 107 V/m.
 Fig1.18:Diode characteristics with breakdown

Either of the two (Zener breakdown or avalanche breakdown) may occur independently, or
both of these may occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that breakdown below 5 V are caused by
Zener effect. Junctions that experience breakdown above5V are caused by avalanche effect. Junctions
that breakdown around 5 V are usually caused by combination of two effects. The Zener breakdown
occurs in heavily doped junctions (P-type semiconductor moderately doped and N-type heavily doped),
which produce narrow depletion layers. The avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions,
which produce wide depletion layers. With the increase in junction temperature Zener breakdown
voltage is reduced while the avalanche breakdown voltage increases. The Zener diodes have a negative
temperature coefficient while avalanche diodes have a positive temperature coefficient. Diodes that
have breakdown voltages around 5 V have zero temperature coefficient. The breakdown phenomenon
is reversible and harmless so long as the safe operating temperature is maintained.

ZENER DIODES

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When biased
in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but as soon
as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the diodes
breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the
semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in
voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value
(which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved this reverse saturation current remains
fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. This breakdown voltage point, VB is called the
"zener voltage" for zener diodes and can range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor
construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This
zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

Fig1.19:Zener diode characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener
diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of
the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large
changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current
IZ(min)and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage source against
supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost
constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator. The
function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in
spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the Zener diode will
continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum IZ(min)value in the
reverse breakdown region.

SPECIALPURPOSEELECTRONICDEVICES
PRINCIPLEOFOPERATIONANDCHARACTERISTICSOFTUNNELDIODE

A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode which is capable of very fast operation,
well into the microwave frequency region, by using quantum mechanical effects.

It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki when he was with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now known as
Sony. In 1973 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Brian Josephson, for discovering the
electron tunneling effect used in these diodes. Robert Noyce independently came up with the idea of a
tunnel diode while working for William Shockley, but was discouraged from pursuing it.

Fig1.19:Tunnel diode schematic symbol

These diodes have a heavily doped p–n junction only some 10 nm (100 Å) wide. The heavy doping
results in a broken bandgap, where conduction band electron states on the n-side are more or less
aligned with valence band hole states on the p-side. Tunnel diodes were manufactured by Sony for the
first time in 1957 followed by General Electric and other companies from about 1960, and are still
made in low volume today. Tunnel diodes are usually made from germanium, but can also be made in
gallium arsenide and silicon materials. They can be used as oscillators, amplifiers, frequency converters
and detectors. Tunnelling Phenomenon:

In a conventional semiconductor diode, conduction takes place while the p–n junction is forward
biased and blocks current flow when the junction is reverse biased. This occurs up to a point known as
the “reverse breakdown voltage”when conduction begins (often accompanied by destruction of
the device). In the tunnel diode, the dopant concentration in the p and n layers are increased to the
point where the reverse breakdown voltage becomes zero and the diode conducts in the reverse
direction. However, when forward-biased, anodd effect occurs called “quantum mechanical
tunneling ”which gives rise to a region where an increase in forward voltage is accompanied by a
decrease in forward current. This negative resistance region can be exploited in a solid state version of
the dynatron oscillator which normally uses a tetrode thermionic valve (or tube).

Forward bias operation

Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel through
the very narrow p–n junction barrier because filled electron states in the conduction band on the n-
side become aligned with empty valence band hole states on the p-side of the p-n junction. As voltage
increases further these states become more misaligned and the current drops – this is called negative
resistance because current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage increases yet further, the
diode begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction across the p–n
junction, and no longer by tunneling through the p–n junction barrier. Thus the most important
operating region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region.

Reverse bias operation

When used in the reverse direction they are called back diodes and can act as fast rectifiers with zero
offset voltage and extreme linearity for power signals (they have an accurate square law characteristic
in the reverse direction).

Under reverse bias filled states on the p-side become increasingly aligned with empty states on the n-
side and electrons now tunnel through the pn junction barrier in reverse direction – this is the Zener
effect that also occurs in zener diodes.

Technical comparisons

Fig1.20a:current-voltagecharacteristicoftunneldiode

A rough approximation of the VI curve for a tunnel diode, showing the negative differential resistance
region. The Japanese physicist Leo Esaki invented the tunnel diode in 1958.It consists of a p-n junction
with highly doped regions. Because of the thinness of the junction, the electrons can pass through the
potential barrier of the dam layer at a suitable polarization, reaching the energy states on the other
sides of the junction. The current-voltage characteristic of the diode is represented in Figure 1.20a. In
this sketch ip and Up are the peak, and iv and Uv are the valley values for the current and voltage
respectively. The form of this dependence can be qualitatively explained by considering the tunneling
processes that take place in a thin p-n junction.

Energy band structure of tunnel diode:

 Fig1.20bEnergy band structure of tunnel diode
For the degenerated semiconductors, the energy band diagram at thermal equilibrium is presented in
Figure 1.20b.

In Figure 1.20c the tunneling processes in different points of the current voltage characteristic for the
tunnel diode are presented.
 Advantages of tunnel diodes:

 Environment alimmunity i.e. peak point is not a function of temperature.

 Low cost.
 Low noise.
 Low power consumption.
 Highspeedi.e.tunnelingtakesplaceveryfastatthespeedoflightintheorderofnanoseconds
 Simplicity i.e. a tunnel diode can be used along with a d.c supply and a few passive elements to
obtain various application circuits.

Applications for tunnel diodes:

 Local oscillators for UHF television tuners

 Trigger circuits in oscilloscopes
 High speed counter circuits and very fast-rise time pulse generator circuits
 The tunnel diode can also be used as low-noise microwave amplifier.

VARACTORDIODE

Varactordiodeisaspecialtypeofdiodewhichusestransitioncapacitancepropertyi.evoltagevariable capacitance
.These are also called as varicap, VVC(voltage variable capacitance) or tuning diodes.

The varactor diode symbol is shown below with a diagram representation.

Fig1.21a: symbol of varactor diode

When are verse voltages applied to a PN junction, the holes in the p region are attracted to the anode
terminal and electrons in the n-region are attracted to the cathode terminal creating a region where
there is little current. This region, the depletion region, is essentially devoid of carriers and behaves as
the dielectric of a capacitor.

The depletion region increases as reverse voltage across it increases; and since capacitance varies
inversely as dielectric thickness, the junction capacitance will decrease as the voltage across the PN
junctionincreases.SobyvaryingthereversevoltageacrossaPNjunctionthejunctioncapacitancecan be
varied .This is shown in the typical varactor voltage-capacitance curve below.
 Fig1.21b:voltage-capacitancecurve

Notice the non linear increase in capacitance as the reverse voltage is decreased. This non linearity allows
the varactor to be used also as a harmonic generator.

Major varactor considerations are:

(a) Capacitance value
(b) Voltage
(c) Variation in capacitance with voltage.
(d) Maximum working voltage
(e) Leakage current

Applications:

 Tuned circuits.
 FM modulators
 Automatic frequency control devices
 Adjustable band pass filters
 Parametric amplifiers
 Television receivers.

PHOTODIODE

Thephotodiodeisasemiconductorp-njunctiondevicewhoseregionofoperationislimited to the reverse

biased region. The figure below shows the symbol of photodiode

Fig1.26:Symbol of photodiode.

Principle of operation:

A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage,
depending upon the mode of operation. The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric
solar power is a large area photodiode. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias. The
deletion region width is large. Under normal conditions it carries small reverse current due to minority
charge carriers. When light is incident through glass window on the p-n junction, photons in the light
bombard the p-n junction and some energy s imparted to the valence electrons. So valence electrons
break covalent bonds and become free electrons. Thus more electron-hole pairs are generated. Thus
total number of minority charge carriers increases and hence reverse current increases. This is the
basic principle of operation of photo diode.

Fig1.27: Basic Biasing Arrangement and construction of photodiode and symbols

Characteristics of photodiode:

When the P-N junction is reverse-biased, are verse saturation current flows due to thermally generated
holes and electrons being swept across the junction as the minority carriers. With the increase in
temperature of the junction more and more hole-electron pairs are created and so the reverse
saturation current I0 increases. The same effect can be had by illuminating the junction. When light en-
ergy bombards a P-N junction, it dislodges valence electrons. The more light striking the junction the
larger the reverse current in a diode. It is due to generation of more and more charge carriers with the
increase in level of illumination. This is clearly shown in ‘figure for different intensity levels. The dark
current is the current that exists when no light is incident. It is to be noted here that current becomes
zero only with a positive applied bias equals to VQ. The almost equal spacing between the curves for
the same increment in luminous flux reveals that the reverse saturation current I 0 increases linearly
with the luminous flux as shown in figure. Increase in reverse voltage does not increase the reverse
current significantly, because all available charge carriers are already being swept across the junction.
For reducing the reverse saturation current I 0 to zero, it is necessary to forward bias the junction by an
amount equal to barrier potential. Thus the photodiode can be used as a photoconductive device.
 Fig1.28:characteristics of photodiode

On removal of reverse bias applied across the photodiode, minority charge carriers
continue to be swept across the junction while the diode is illuminated. This has the
effect of increasing the concentration of holes in the P-side and that of electrons in
the N-side But the barrier potential is negative on the P-side and positive on the N-
side, and was created by holes flowing from P to N-side and electrons from N to P-
side during fabrication of junction. Thus the flow of minority carriers tends to
reduce the barrier potential.

When an external circuit is connected across the diode terminals, the minority
carrier; return to the original side via the external circuit. The electrons which
crossed the junction from P to N-side now flow out through the N-terminal and into
the P-terminal This means that the device is behaving as a voltage cell with the N-
side being the negative terminal and the P-side the positive terminal. Thus, the
photodiode is & photovoltaic device as well as photoconductive device.
Advantages:
The advantages of photo diode are:
1. It can be used as variable resistance device.
2. Highly sensitive to the light.
3. The speed of operation is very high.
Disadvantages:
1. Temperature dependent dark current.
2. Poor temperature stability.
3. Current needs amplification for driving other circuits.

Applications:

1. Alarm system.
2. Counting system.
Schottky Diode

The Schottky diode is popularly known as a hot-carrier diode, low-voltage diode, or Schottky
barrier diode. It is a type of diode formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. We
know that in a PN junction diode, p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined collectively to
form a PN junction. To the contrary, a Schottky diode replaces the p-type semiconductor with
metals like aluminium.
Schottky diode has multiple characteristics which makes it a better choice over other diodes in
the electronic industry. It displays characteristics like fast switching action and a low forward
voltage drop. The symbolic representation of this diode, the construction of this diode, the
energy band of the diode and what the V-I characteristic graph of this diode looks like.
A Schottky diode is a type of diode with a metal-semiconductor junction instead of the typical
semiconductor-semiconductor junction found in standard diodes. The Schottky diode has
characteristics such as Low Forward Voltage Drop, Fast Switching Speed and other unique
features that make it more suitable for various applications such as rectification, voltage
clamping, voltage regulation, and RF detection.
Schottky Diode Construction
We know that unlike a normal P-N junction diode ,a Schottky diode is equipped with a metallic
contact. On further analysis the construction of the diode is like:
 Schottky diodes are constructed using semiconductor materials. Silicon (Si) is a common
choice, although other materials can also be used.
Working Of Schottky Diode
Given Below is the diagram of Schottky diode

Schottky Diode
A Schottky diode is formed by joining a metal (commonly aluminum or platinum) with a
semiconductor material (usually silicon or gallium arsenide) to create a metal-semiconductor
junction.
 When the metal comes in contact with the semiconductor, a potential barrier, known as
the Schottky barrier, is created at the junction due to the difference in work functions
between the metal and semiconductor. This barrier prevents the flow of electrons from the
metal into the semiconductor.
 When a forward bias voltage is applied across the Schottky diode (anode connected to the
metal side, cathode connected to the semiconductor side), the applied voltage reduces the
height of the Schottky barrier.
 The lowered barrier allows electrons to easily flow from the metal into the semiconductor,
resulting in a low forward voltage drop (typically 0.2 to 0.4 volts for silicon Schottky diodes).
This characteristic minimizes power dissipation and makes the diode suitable for low-
voltage applications.
 Schottky diodes exhibit very fast switching action due to the absence of a depletion region,
which is present in traditional PN junction diodes. This makes them ideal for high-
frequency applications where rapid switching is required.
 In the reverse bias condition (positive voltage on the semiconductor side, negative voltage
on the metal side), the Schottky diode exhibits a small reverse leakage current due to
thermionic emission of electrons over the lowered Schottky barrier.
 Unlike PN junction diodes, Schottky diodes have virtually no reverse recovery time. This
means there is no delay when transitioning from the conducting to non-conducting state,
making them suitable for high-frequency rectification.
V-I Characteristic of Schottky Diode
Given below is the V-I characteristics of Schottky diode

V-I characteristics of Schottky diode

The V-I characteristics of Schottky diodes are very much similar to the PN junction diode.
Current is the dependent variable while voltage is the independent variable in the Schottky
diode.
Applications of Schottky Diode
Some common applications of Schottky diode include:
 Power rectifier: When having high power supply, Schottky diode acts as a rectifier. The high
current density and low voltage drop shows that the wastage of power is lesser than the
normal PN junction diodes which makes them more efficient.
 RF mixer: Schottky diodes are widely used in RF and microwave circuits due to their fast
switching speed and low noise characteristics. They can be used as detectors, mixers, and
frequency multipliers in these circuits.
 Electronic appliances: Schottky diodes finds its use in logic gates, digital circuits, and
memory devices. Their low forward voltage drop and high efficiency makes them ideal for
applications such as voltage regulators and DC-DC converters.

Basic Clippers and Comparator

A clipper in electronics is a circuit created to stop a signal from going over a specific reference
voltage level. The remaining portion of the waveform that is applied is not distorted by a
clipper. The clipping of a portion of a wave from an input signal is done with Clipper Circuits. A
diode is the main component, and it can be used in series or parallel. Clippers have the benefit
of removing the unwanted noise that is present in an AC signal’s amplitude.
What is Clipper?
A clipper is a circuit that clips off the magnitude of voltage of a signal without affecting any
other part of the signal. It removes parts of the signal’s waveform that exceed a given voltage
level. A clipper either clips the specific part or the entire positive or negative half of the signal.
Types of Clippers
The connection and orientation of the diode with the input voltage and the load are used to
categorize the different types of clippers. Series clippers, parallel clippers, and double
clippers are the three different types of clippers. Positive and negative clippers are additional
categories for the series and parallel clippers.
Series Clippers
The diode and output are connected in a series of clipper circuits. In these clippers, when the
diode is forward biased and conducting, the input signal is visible at the output. It is separated
into clippers that are positive and negative.
Series Positive Clipper
The positive half of the waveform is removed or clipped with a series of positive clippers.
The diode is reverse-biased and connected in series with the output in a series positive clipper,
as depicted in the figure below.
Series Positive clipper

Vi is applied as the input signal, and the load resistor receives the output. The voltage at point A
is higher than point B during the input’s positive half-cycle. As a result, there is no current
conduction and the diode is in reverse bias. There is no voltage drop at the Rl because the input
signal cannot pass. As a result, the output does not display the positive half cycle as it does in
the figure.
The voltage at point A is lower than that at point B during the negative half-cycle, causing the
diode to become forward-biased and the signal to pass through it. The signal is visible
throughout the Rl. As a result, the negative half cycle appears at the output after passing
through the circuit.

It shows how it clips the positive half of the input waveform and allows the negative half, as
shown in the figure.
Series Positive Clippers with Bias
A portion of the half cycle, not the entire halve, is clipped by the biasing in the clippers circuit.
To achieve the desired waveforms, a series of positive clippers with either positive or negative
biasing is used.
Positive Bias: The positive of the battery is connected to the P side of the diode in a positive
clipper circuit like the one below.

Series Positive Clippers with Positive Bias.

The diode is switched off because the voltage at point A is higher than that at point B during the
positive half cycle. However, the positive of yet another voltage source is connected to the
diode’s P side. The diode is biased forward by the voltage source or battery.
The diode continues to be in forward bias and conducts if the input voltage is lower than the
battery voltage. As a result, the output displays the signal. The diode becomes reverse-biased
and ceases to transmit the input signal when the input voltage exceeds the battery voltage. As a
result, the output displays the battery voltage Vb.
The input and battery voltage causes the diode to be forward biased during the negative half
cycle. Consequently, the output signal is produced after the input signal has passed through the
diode.
Negative Bias
According to the diagram below, the battery in the negative biased series positive clipper is
connected in reverse with the diode.

Series Positive Clippers with Negative Bias

The negative battery and the input voltage cause the diode to be reversed biased during the
positive half cycle. As a result, only the negative battery voltage is displayed at the output
during the positive half cycle, when the diode does not conduct.
The diode becomes forward-biased during the negative half-cycle when the polarity of the
input voltage is reversed. However, the negative battery causes the diode to be reverse-biased.
In this way, the diode possibly becomes forward one-sided in the event that the information
voltage increments over the battery voltage and the info signal show up at the result.
Otherwise, the output displays a negative voltage from the battery.
Series Negative Clipper
The negative half of the input cycle is clipped by the series negative clipper circuit. Below is a
diagram of its circuitry.
The input voltage causes the diode to be forward-biased during the positive half cycle.
Subsequently, the info signal goes through the diode and shows up in the result.
The diode becomes reverse-biased and does not conduct during the negative half cycle. As a
result, the negative half cycle of the input waveform is clipped, and there is no voltage at the
output.
 Series Negative Clipper

Series Negative Clippers with Bias

Instead of clipping the entire negative half, the waveform is modified by biassing the series
negative clipper with either a positive or negative voltage battery.
Positive Bias
The voltage of the input signal causes the diode to be forward-biased during the positive half
cycle. Nonetheless, the battery voltage causes it to be biased in the opposite direction. The
diode’s state is influenced by both voltage sources. As a result, the diode will only conduct
when the input voltage exceeds the battery voltage because it will be forward-biased.

series negative clipper with positive bias

The input voltage is initially lower than the battery voltage, causing the diode to be reverse
biased and not conduct. As a result, the output shows the battery voltage. When the input
signal rises above the battery voltage, as depicted in the figure, the input signal is visible at the
output for that portion.
The battery voltage and the input voltage cause the diode to be reversed and biased during the
negative half of the cycle. Consequently, during the entire negative half cycle, the output
displays only battery voltage.
Negative Bias
The battery voltage and the input signal cause the diode to be forward-biased during the
positive half cycle. As a result, the signal flows through the diode for the entire positive half
cycle, resulting in the same output as the input.
 series negative clipper with negative bias

The input voltage forces the diode into reverse bias during the negative half-cycle, but the
battery voltage continues to forward bias the diode. Only when the battery voltage exceeds the
input voltage does the diode conduct throughout the entire cycle.
The diode conducts when the input voltage is initially lower than the battery voltage, and the
signal appears at the output. However, as depicted in the figure, when it exceeds the battery
voltage, the diode blocks the input signal and the battery voltage begins to appear at the
output.
Parallel Clipper
A parallel clipper is a circuit connection that connects a diode to a load. It also records the
positive or negative half-cycle of the input waveform. Parallel clippers come in two varieties:
positive parallel clippers and negative parallel clippers.
Parallel Positive Clipper
The input waveform’s positive half cycle is clipped by the shunt positive clipper. The shunt-
positive clipper’s circuit diagram is shown below.

Parallel positive clipper

The diode is forward-biased during the positive half cycle because the voltage at point A is
higher than the voltage at point B. As a result, the diode conducts the input signal and there is
no voltage difference at the output.
The voltage polarity of the input signal at points A and B reverses during the negative half-cycle,
causing the diode to become reverse biased. As a result, the diode blocks the input signal, and
the voltage across the diode is used as the clipper’s output.
In this manner, the positive half of the input cycle is clipped or removed by the shunt-positive
clippers, leaving the negative half to run.
Parallel positive clipper with Bias
Another fixed voltage source, such as a battery, is used during the biasing process to further
alter the waveform. Either positive biasing or negative biasing can be used to connect the
voltage source.
Positive Bias
The input voltage causes the diode to be forward-biased during the positive half cycle.
However, the voltage of the battery causes it to be biased in the opposite direction. The diode’s
state will be determined by the sum of the two voltages. The diode will be forward-biased if the
input voltage is higher than the battery voltage; otherwise, it will remain reverse-biased.

Parallel positive clipper with positive bias

The diode is reverse biased when the input signal initially falls below the battery voltage,
causing the output signal to appear. However, if the voltage rises above that of the battery, the
diode begins to conduct the signal and only the battery voltage can be seen at the output.
The diode is reverse biased during the negative half cycle as a result of input voltage and
battery voltage. As a result, the output displays the input signal for the entire negative half-
cycle.
Negative Bias The diode is forward-biased for both the input signal and the battery voltage
during the positive half cycle. As a result, the diode conducts throughout the cycle, displaying
only the battery voltage at the output.
 Parallel positive clipper with negative bias

The diode is forward biased for battery voltage and reverses biased for input signal during the
negative half cycle. The state of the diode is determined by the combined impact of the two
voltage sources. When the input voltage is lower than the battery voltage, the diode is forward
biased.
The diode is forward-biased because the input signal is lower than the battery voltage at first.
As a result, the output displays the battery voltage. The diode becomes reverse-biased when
the input voltage exceeds the battery voltage, and as depicted in the figure, the input signal
begins to appear at the output.
Parallel Negative Clipper
The negative half of the input waveforms are clipped off using the negative parallel clippers.

Parallel negative clipper

The diode is reverse-biased during the positive half cycle, blocking the signal that crosses it.
Consequently, the output also displays the positive half.
The signal is carried by the forward-biased diode during the negative half cycle. For the
negative half cycle, there is no voltage at the output. As a result, the negative half of the input
waveform is clipped or removed by the shunt negative clipper
Parallel Negative Clipper with Bias
Positive or negative biasing, also known as positive biasing or negative biasing, is used in
conjunction with the shunt negative clipper to further alter its waveform. By changing the
battery’s voltage, the waveform can be altered.
Positive Bias
The diode is biased forward for battery voltage but reversed for input voltage during the
positive half cycle. Therefore, the only time the input voltage exceeds the battery voltage will
cause the diode to be reversely biased, at which point the input signal will be output.

Parallel negative clipper with positive Bias

The diode is forward biased and conducts the signal when the signal is initially lower than the
battery’s capacity. As a result, the output only displays the battery voltage. however, the diode
becomes reverse biased and the signal appears at the output as shown in the figure when the
input signal is greater than the battery voltage.
The diode is forward biased for both the input signal and the battery voltage during the
negative half cycle. The diode conducts as a result, and only the battery voltage is visible at the
output throughout the entire negative cycle.
Negative Bias
The diode is reverse-biased for both input voltage and battery voltage during the positive half
cycle. As a result, the voltage is blocked by the diode, and the signal remains at the output
throughout the entire positive half cycle.

Parallel negative clipper with negative Bias

When the input voltage is higher than the battery voltage during the negative half cycle, the
diode conducts. As a result, the diode blocks and the signal is output when the voltage is lower
than the battery voltage. Only the battery voltage is visible at the output when the input
voltage exceeds; the diode then begins to conduct.
Dual Clipper
The two diodes and the load resistor are parallel to one another in the double clipper, which is
a combination clipper. When a portion of both the positive and negative input cycle needs to be
cut off, this technique is used.

Dual Clipper

The circuit works on a straightforward principle. The input signal would be visible across the
diode and also at the output if both diodes were reverse biased or if they did not conduct. Now,
if one of the diodes begins to conduct, the output will start to show the voltage of the
corresponding battery.
The diode D1 is forward biased for input voltage during the positive half cycle, while the diode
D2 is reverse biased. But for the battery voltages VB1 and VB2, respectively, the diode D1 and
D2 are reverse biased.
The diode D1 is biased forward for the input voltage and reversed for the battery voltage VB1
during the positive half cycle. While the diode D2 is biased in the opposite direction for both
the battery voltage VB2 and the input voltage,

The diode D1 is initially biased in the opposite direction because the input voltage is lower than
the battery voltage VB1.while the diode D2 is already biased in the wrong direction.
Consequently, the output displays the input signal. Diode D1 begins to conduct when the input
voltage exceeds VB1, and battery voltage VB1 begins to appear at the output
Due to input voltage and battery voltage VB1, the diode D1 is reverse biased during the
negative half cycle. Due to input voltage, the diode D2 is forward biased; however, battery
voltage VB2 causes it to be reverse biased.
The diode D2 is initially biased in the reverse direction and does not conduct because the input
voltage is lower than VB2. Reverse bias is already present in diode D1. As a result, the output
signal is the input signal. The battery voltage VB2 manifests itself at the output when the input
voltage exceeds VB2, at which point the diode begins to conduct.
Application of Clipper
 The clipper circuit limits voltage in power supplies because it provides overvoltage
protection.
 For the separation of synchronizing signals from composite picture signals, clippers are
frequently used.
 An ac signal’s amplitude contains unwanted noise, which clippers remove.
 They are utilized in television transmitters and receivers.
 They are used to create new waveforms like squares, triangles, and others, or to modify
existing waveforms.
Advantages of Clippers
 Clippers are used to remove unnecessary parts of a signal.
 Clippers reduce the noise in a signal.
 Clippers protect devices from high voltage spikes.
 Clippers help reduce size of waveform.
Disadvantages of Clippers
 The capacitance of the diode in a clipper can affect its working if high frequency signal is
input.
 The signal is prone to be distorted if the potential across the diode drops drastically.