MODULE II PROPERTIES OF INTEGERS AND FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF COUNTING

Well ordering Principle: Every non-empty subset of contains a smallest element.

[or we say that is well ordered]

Principle of Mathematical Induction:-

Let denote an open statement that involves n (positive integer).

(a) If is true & (b) If whenever is true (for some particular, but arbitrarily chosen then

is true, Then is true for all

Method of Mathematical Induction:

Basic step1: Verify that is true. i.e. verify that is true for
Induction step 2: Assume that is true, where is an integer Show that is true.
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Problems:

1. Prove by mathematical induction: For all

2. Prove by mathematical induction: For each

3. Prove by Mathematical induction that for every integer

4. Prove by mathematical induction that 5 divides

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Alternate form of induction principle:
Let S(n) denotes an open statement that involves a positive integer n. Suppose that
1)For positive integers 1,2,3,..,p ,the statements S(1),S(2),...,S(p) are true and

2) If whenever S(1),S(2),...,S(k), where

k ≥ p ,are true then S(k+1) is true.Then S(n) is true ∀ n∈ Z +

Problems:
1. Prove that every positive integer can be written as a sum of 5’s and / or 7’s.
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Exercises:

1. Prove by Mathematical induction that

2. If is any positive integer, prove that using M.I.

1
3. If is any positive integer, prove that 1.3+2.4 +3.5+⋯ ⋯+n(n+2)= n(n+1)(2n+ 7) using M.I.
6

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Recursive Definitions:
Sequences: A sequence is an arrangement of elements of a set in order as the first element, the
 a , a , a ,. . .a n , ... is a sequence in which a 1 is the first element, a 2 is
Second element, and so on. Thus, 1 2 3

the second element,...,

a n is the nth element, and so on. Here, the element
a n is called the general term
or the nth term of the sequence & the sequence is denoted by
{an }.

For describing a sequence, two methods are commonly used:

(1) The explicit method & (2) Recursive method

In the explicit method, the general term of the sequence is explicitly indicated.

In the recursive method, first few terms of the sequence are explicitly indicated & the general term is

specified through a rule ( formula) which indicates how to obtain new terms of the sequence

from the terms already known.When a sequence is described by a recursive method, we say the sequence is

defined recursively.

Eg: Consider the sequence E formed by all positive even integers. Then E can be specified
+
1) Explicitly by E={an } , where a n=2n , n ∈ Z .
2) Recursively by E={an } , where 1
a =2 ∧ an =a n−1 + 2, ∀ n≥2 .
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Problems:

1. Obtain a recursive definition for the sequence

{an } in each of the following cases.
(i) n
a =5 n a =6n
(ii) n
a =3 n+7
(iii) n
a =n2
(iv) n
Ans: (i) Here a 1=5, a 2=10, a 3=15, a 4=20 and so on.
We can write these as a 1=5 and a n=a n−1 +5 for n ≥ 2.
This is a recursive definition of the given sequence.
(ii): here a 1=6, a 2=62, a 3=63 , a 4=6 4 and so on.
We can write these as , a 1=6 and a n+1=6 an for n ≥ 1.
(iii): here a 1=10, a 2=13, a 3=16, a 4=19 and so on.
We can write these as , a 1=10 and a n=a n−1 +3 for n ≥ 2.
(iv): here a 1=1, a 2=4 , a 3=9, a 4=16 and so on.
Now a 2−a1=4−1=3=2 ×1+1
a 3−a2 =9−4=5=2 ×2+1
a 4−a3=16−9=7=2 ×3+ 1 and so on.
We take a n+1−an=2 n+1 ⟹ an +1=an +2 n+1 for n ≥ 1.
Thus a 1=1 and a n+1=an +2 n+1 for n ≥ 1.
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{a } a =4
2. A sequence n is defined recursively by 1
∧ an =a n−1 +n , ∀ n≥2 . Find {an } in
explicit form.

3. A sequence
{an } is defined recursively by a 0=1 , a1=1 , a2=1∧an =an−1 +a n−3 , ∀ n≥3 .
Prove that n+2
a √ for all integers n≥0 .
≥( 2)n
4. let a 0=1 , a1=2 , a2=3 and a n=a n−1 +¿a + a ¿ for n ≥ 3. Prove that a n ≤ 3 , ∀ n ∈ z
n +¿ .¿
n−2 n−3
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The Fibonacci numbers & Lucas numbers:
The Fibonacci numbers are defined recursively by
F 0=0 , F 1=1 , ∧ F n =Fn−1 +F n−2 , for ∀ n≥2 .
The Lucas numbers are defined recursively by
L0 =2 , L1 =1 , ∧ Ln=Ln−1 +Ln−2 , for ∀ n≥2 .
Note:
1. The sequence formed by the Fibonacci numbers is called the Fibonacci Sequence.
It is given by 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21...
2. The sequence formed by the Lucas numbers is called the Lucas Sequence.
It is given by 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47...
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The Rules of Sum and Product:
The sum rule: If a task T 1 can be performed in m different ways and another task T 2 can be
performed in n different ways and if these two tasks cannot be performed simultaneously,
then one of the two tasks can be performed in m+n ways.
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Eg1: Suppose there are 16 boys and 18 girls in a class and we wish to select one of these students as the
class representative. The number of ways of selecting a boy is 16 and the number of ways of selecting a girl
is 18. ∴ The number of ways of selecting a student is 16+18=34.
Eg2: Suppose a college library has 12 books on Mathematics, 10 books on Physics, 16 books on CS & 11
books on Electronics. Suppose a student wishes to choose one of the books for study. The number of ways
in which he can choose a book is 12+10+16+11=49.
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Eg3: Suppose T 1 is the task of selecting a prime number less than 10 and T 2 is task of selecting an even
number less than 10. Then T 1 can be performed in 4 ways and T 2 can be performed in 4 ways. But, since 2
is both a prime and an even number less than 10, the task can be performed in 4+4-1=7 ways.
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The Product rule: If a task T 1 can be performed in m different ways and for each of these ways,
another task T 2 can be performed in n different ways, then both of the tasks can be performed in mn
ways.
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Eg 1: Suppose a person has 8 shirts and 5 ties. Then the number of ways that he can choose a shirt and a tie
is 8¿ 5= 40.
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Eg 2: Suppose we wish to construct sequences of four symbols in which the first 2 are English letters and
the next two are single digit numbers. If no letter or digit is repeated, then the number of different sequences
that we can construct is 26¿ 25¿ 10¿ 9=58500.If repetition of letters and digits is allowed, then the
number of different sequences that we can construct is 26¿ 26¿ 10¿ 10=67600.
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Eg 3: Suppose a restaurant sells 6 South Indian dishes, 4 North Indian dishes, 3 hot beverages & 2 cold
beverages. For breakfast, a student wishes to buy 1 south Indian dish & 1 hot beverage, or 1 North Indian
dish & 1 cold beverage. Then he can have the 1st choice in 6 ¿ 3= 18 ways & 2nd choice in 4¿ 2=8 ways.
The total no. of ways he can buy his breakfast items is 18+8=26.
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Permutations: A permutation means an arrangement of r objects from n distinct objects in a line. The
n
number of arrangements of n objects of which r are taken at a time, denoted by P(n , r ) or Pr is given by
n!
P(n , r ) = (n−r)! where 0¿ r ≤n and n !=n (n−1 ) (n−2 ). . .. .3 . 2.1 . & 0 ! =1 . The number of

different arrangements of n distinct objects, taken all at a timen ! i.e P(n , n ) =n !

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: Suppose it is required to find the number of permutations that can be formed from a
A Generalisation
n n
collection of n objects of which 1 are of one type, 2 are of a second type,......
n k are of k th type, with
n1 +n2 +. . ..+n k =n . Then, the number of permutations of the n objects (taken all at a time) is
n!
n1 ! n 2! ......n k !
Problems:
1. How many different strings of length 4 can be formed using the letters of the word FLOWER? (try in
notes!)
Ans: 360.
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2. Find the number of permutations of all the letters in the following words:
(i) SUCCESS (ii) DIFFICULT (iii) STRUCTURES (iv) ENGINEERING
Ans:(i) The given word has 7 letters of which three are S, two are C , and one each are U& E . Therefore
7!
=420
required number of permutation is 3! 2! 1! 1! .
(ii) 90720 (iii) 226800 (iv) 277200
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3. Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word MASSASAUGA.(i) In how many of these, all
four A’s are together? (ii) How many of them begin with S?
Ans: The given word has 10 letters of which four are A, three are S, one each are M ,U & G. Therefore the
10!
=25200.
required number of permutation is 4! 3! 1! 1! 1!
If in a permutation all A’s are together, we treat all of A as single letter. Then the letters to be permuted are
7!
=840
(AAAA), S, S, S, M, U, G (which are 7 in number). Hence the number of permutation is 1! 3! 1! 1! 1! .
For permutation begin with S, there occurs 9 position to fill, where two are S, four are A, and one each are
9!
=7560
M, U & G. The number of permutation is 2! 4! 1! 1! 1! .
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4. Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI. (i) How
many of these begin with an I ? (ii) How many of them begin & end with an S? (solve it in notes)
Ans: n.o of permutation of letter = 34650
For permutation begin with I, The number of permutation is 12600.
For permutation begin and end with S, the permutation is 3780.
Further, the two S can be arranged among themselves in 2 ways. Therefore the number of permutation is
3780 x 2=7560.
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5. How many arrangements are there for all letters in the word SOCIOLOGICAL?
In how many of these arrangements (i) A & G are adjacent? (ii) All the vowels are Adjacent?
Ans: The given word has 12 letters of which three are O, two each of I, L &C and one each are S ,A &G.
12!
=9979200
Therefore the number of permutation is 3! 2! 2! 2! 1! 1! 1! .
(i) If in an arrangement, A & G are to be adjacent, we treat A and G together as a single letter, three
number of O’s, two each of C,I &L and one of S, totally 11 letters.
11!
=
Therefore number of arrangement is 1! 3! 2! 2! 2! 1! 831600.
Further, the letters A & G can be arranged among themselves in 2 ways.
Therefore the number of permutation is 831600 x 2=1663200.
(ii) If in an arrangement, all the vowels are to be adjacent , we treat all the vowels (namely A,O&I) present
in the given word as a single letter and two each of C &L, and one each of S&G. Totally 7 letters, these can
7!
=1260
be arranged in 2! 2! 1! 1! 1! .
Further, the given word contains three of O’s, two of I’s and one A, the letters A,O,I can be arranged among
6!
=60
themselves in 3! 2! 1! .
Therefore the total number of arrangements in this case is 1260 x 60 =75600.
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6. It is required to seat 5 men & 4 women in a row so that the women occupy the
even places. How many such arrangements are possible?
Ans: Here 5 men may be seated in odd places in 5! ways.
And 4 women may be seated in even places in 4! Ways. And corresponding to
each arrangement of the men there is an arrangement of the women.
Therefore the total number of arrangement of the desired type is 5! X 4! =2880.
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7. Four different mathematics books, five different computer science books & two
different control theory books are to be arranged in a shelf. How many different
arrangements are possible if (a) the books in each particular subject must all be
together? (b) Only the mathematics books must be together?
Ans: (a) The Mathematics books can be arranged themselves in 4! ways, the Computer Science books in 5!
ways and control theory books in 2! Ways. And the 3 groups in 3! Ways. Therefore total number of
arrangement is(4 ! ×5! × 2 !)× 3 !=34560 .
(b) Consider the 4 Mathematics books as one single book .Then we have 8 books which can be arranged in
8! Ways. In all these ways the Mathematics books are together. But the Mathematics books can be arranged
among themselves in 4! Ways. Hence the number of arrangements is 8! ×4 ! =967680
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8. How many positive integers n can we form using the digits 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7 if we
want n to exceed 5,000,000?
Ans: Here n must be of the form
n=x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x5 x6 x7 .Where x 1 x 2 ...... x 7 are the given digits with
x 1= 5, 6 or 7.Suppose if we take x 1= 5 , then x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 is an arrangement of the remaining 6 digits
6!
=360
which contains two of 4’s and one each of 3,5,6,7. The number of such arrangement is 2! 1! 1! 1! 1! .
Next suppose if we take
x 1= 6, then x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 is an arrangement of the remaining 6 digits which
6!
=180
contains two each of 4 &5, and one each of 3&7. The number of such arrangement is 1! 2! 2! 1! .
x x x x x x
Next suppose if we take x 1= 7, then 2 3 4 5 6 7 is an arrangement of the remaining 6 digits which
6!
=180
contains two each of 4 &5, and one each of 3 & 6. The number of such arrangement is 1! 2! 2! 1! .
Accordingly by the sum rule, the number of n’s of the desired type is 360+180+180=720.
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Combinations: A combination means a selection (choosing) of r objects from a set of n distinct objects
without regard to order.
n
The number of combinations of n objects of which r are taken at a time, denoted by C (n , r) or C r or
n!
( )
n
r is given by C (n , r) = (n−r )! r ! where 0¿ r ≤n .
Note: (i) C (n , r )=C(n , n−r ) (ii) C (n , 0) =C (n , n)=1. (iii) C (n , 1) =C (n , n−1 )=n .
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Problems:
1. How many committees of 5 with a given chairperson can be selected from 12 persons?
Ans: The chairperson can be chosen in 12 ways, and following which, the other four on the
committee can be chosen in C (11,4) ways. Therefore possible number of such committee is
11!
=12×C(11 ,4 )=12× =3960
4! 7!
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2. Find the number of committees of 5 that can be selected from 7 men & 5 women if the
committee is to consist of at least 1 man & at least 1 woman.(Try it !)
Ans: 770
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3.A certain question paper contains three parts A ,B, C with 4 questions in part A, 5 questions in part B and
6 questions in part C. It is required to answer seven questions selecting at least two questions from each part.
In how many ways can a student select his seven questions for answering?
Ans: The different possible ways in which a student can make a selection are:
(i) Two questions from part A, Two from part B and three from part C
(ii)Two questions from part A, three from part B and two from part C
(iii)Three questions from part A, Two from part B and two from part C
Now, selection (i) can be made in C(4,2)XC(5,2)XC(6,3)=1200 ways,
selection (ii) can be made in C(4,2)XC(5,3)XC(6,2)=900 ways and
the selection (iii) can be made in C(4,3)XC(5,2)XC(6,2)=600 ways.
Consequently, the number of possible selection is 1200+900+600=2700 ways.
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4. A party is attended by n persons. If each person in the party shakes hands with all the others in the party,
find the number of handshakes.
Ans: Each handshake is determined by exactly 2 persons. Therefore if each shakes hand with all other
person, the total number of handshakes is equal to the number of combinations of two persons that can be
n! 1
= n ( n−1 )
selected from the n persons. This number is C(n,2)= ( n−2 ) ! 2 ! 2
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5. There are n married couples in a party. Each person shakes hands with every person other than
his or her spouse. Find the total number of handshakes.
Ans: The number of persons at the party is 2n. These 2n persons fall into C(2n,2) pairs out of which
n pairs are married couples. Thus, the number of pairs who are not married couples is
( 2 n) ! 1
C ( 2 n , 2 )−n= −n= 2n ( 2 n−1 )−n=n ( 2n−1 )−n=2 n(n−1).
( 2n−2 ) ! 2! 2
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6. (a)How many diagonals are there in a regular polygon of n sides? (b) Which regular polygon has
the same number of diagonals as sides?
Ans: (a) A regular polygon of n sides has n vertices. Any 2 vertices determine either a side or a diagonal.
Thus, the number of sides + the number of diagonals is C(n,2). Consequently, the number of diagonals
n! 1 1
−n= n ( n−1 )−n= n ( n−3 )
is =C(n,2)-n= ( n−2 ) ! 2 ! 2 2
1
n ( n−3 )=n
(b) If the number of diagonals is same as the number of sides, we should have 2 or
n2 −5 n=0 or n ( n−5 )=0 . ∵ n>0 , we must have n=5.Thus, the regular polygon which has the same
number of diagonals as sides must have 5 sides; that is, it must be a Pentagon.
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7. How many distinct four- digit integers one can make from the digits 1, 3, 3, 7, 7, 8?
Ans: The 4 digit integers that can be formed using the given digits fall into the following 3 categories:
(i)Two of the 4 digits are identical and another two are identical.
There occurs one combination under this category (consisting of two 3’s and two 7’s)
4!
=6
The number of permutations in this combination is 2! 2!
(ii)Two of the 4 digits are identical and another two are distinct.
There occur six combinations under this category. In each of these combinations, the number of
4!
=12
Permutations is 2! 1! .The total number permutations in this category is 6x12=72.
(iii) All the 4 digits are distinct.
There occurs one combination under this category. The number of permutations in this
4!
=24
combination is 1! 1! 1! 1! .
The total number of integers is precisely the total number of permutations in all the categories
mentioned above. This number is 6+72+24=102.
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8. Find the number of arrangements of all the letters in the word TALLAHASSEE. How many of these
arrangements have no adjacent A’s?
Ans: The given word has 11 letters of which three are A’s, two each are L’s, S’, E’s and one each are T and
11!
=831600
H. Therefore the number of permutation is 3! 2! 2! 2! 1! 1! .
 8!
=5040
If we disregard the A’s,the remaining 8 letters can be arranged in 2! 2! 2! 1! 1!

In each of these arrangements,there are 9 possible locations for the three A’s.These locations can be chosen

in C(9,3) ways.The number of arrangements having no adjacent A’s is

9!
5040×C(9 , 3 )=5040× =5040×84=423360
6! 3!
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Combinations with Repetitions:
Suppose we wish to select, with repetition, a combination of r objects from a set of n distinct objects. The
(n+r−1)!
C (n+r−1, r )= =C( n+r−1 , n−1)
number of such selections is given by r ! (n−1 )!
In other words, this number represents the number of combinations of n distinct objects, taken r at a time,
with repetitions allowed.
The following are the interpretations of this number:
(1) C (n+r−1, r ) Represents the number of ways in which r identical objects can be distributed
among n distinct containers.
(2) It also represents the number of nonnegative integer solutions of the equation
x 1 + x 2 +. .. .+ x n =r .
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Problems:
1. In how many ways can we distribute 10 identical marbles among 6 distinct containers?
Ans : The selection consists in choosing with repetitions, 10 marbles for 6 distinct containers. The
15!
C ( 6+10−1 , 10 )=C (15 ,10 ) = =3003
required number is 10! 5! .
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2. A cake shop sells 20 kinds of cakes. If there are at least a dozen cakes of each kind, in how many ways a
dozen cakes can be chosen?
Ans : 141,120,525.
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3. A bag contains coins of seven different denominations, with at least one dozen coins in each
denomination. In how many ways can we select a dozen coins from the bag?
Ans: The selection consists in choosing with repetitions, 12 marbles for 6 coins of 7 distinct
18 !
C ( 7+12−1 ,12 ) =C ( 18 , 12 )= =18564 .
12 ! 6 !
denominations. The required number is
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4. Find the number of nonnegative integer solutions of the equation
x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 5 =8 .
C ( 5+8−1 , 8 )=C ( 12, 8 )=495
Ans: The required number is
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5. In how many ways can 10 identical pencils be distributed among 5 children in the following cases:
 (i) There are no restrictions. (ii) Each child gets at least one pencil.
(iii) The youngest child gets at least two pencils.
Ans: (i) The selection consists in distributing with repetitions, 10 identical marbles for 5 children. The
14 !
C ( 5+10−1 ,10 )=C ( 14 ,10 )= =1001
required number is 10 ! 4 ! .
(ii) First we distribute 1 pencil to each child. Then there remain 5 pencils to be distributed. The
number of ways of distributing these 5 pencils to 5 children is the required number.
And this number isC ( 5+5−1 ,5 )=C ( 9 , 5 ) =126 .
(iii First we distribute 2 pencil to the youngest child. Then there remain 8 pencils to be distributed.
The number of ways of distributing these 8 pencils to 5 children is the required number.
And this number isC ( 5+8−1 , 8 )=C ( 12, 8 )=495 .
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6. In how many ways can one distribute eight identical balls into four distinct containers so that
(i) no container is left empty. (ii) The fourth container gets an odd number of balls.
Ans: (i) First we distribute 1 ball into each container. Then we distribute remaining 4 balls into 4
containers.The number of ways of doing this is the required number.
This number is C ( 4+4−1 , 4 ) =C ( 7 , 4 )=35

(ii) If the fourth container has to get an odd number of balls, we have to put 1 or 3 or 5 or 7 balls into it.

Suppose we put 1 ball into the fourth container, then the remaining 7 balls can be distributed into the
remaining 3 containers in C(3+7−1 , 7 )=C (9 , 7)=36 ways .

Similarly if we put 3 balls into the fourth container, then the remaining 5 balls can be distributed into the
remaining 3 containers in C(3+5−1 , 5 )=C (7 ,5 )=21 ways .

Suppose we put 5 balls into the fourth container, then the remaining 3 balls can be distributed into the
remaining 3 containers in C(3+3−1 , 3 )=C (5 ,3 )=10 ways .

Next putting 7 balls into the fourth container, then the remaining 1 ball can be distributed into the
remaining 3 containers in C(3+1−1 , 1)=C (3 , 1)=3 ways .

Thus, the total number of ways of distributing the given balls so that the fourth container gets an odd number

of balls is 36+21+10+3=70.

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7. In how many ways can we distribute 7 apples and 6 oranges among 4 children so that each child gets at
least 1 apple.
Ans: We first give 1 apple to each child. There exhausts 4 apples. The remaining 3 can be distributed
 among the 4 children in C(4+3-1 , 3)=C9,3)=20 ways. Also 6 oranges can be distributed among the 4
children in C(4+6-1 ,6)=C(9,6) =84 ways. Therefore by the product rule, the number of ways of
distributing the given fruits under the given condition is 20 X 84=1680 ways.
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The Binomial theorem:
If x & y are real numbers & n is a +ve integer, then
¿.
n
The numbers r
( )
for r=0, 1, 2,...n are the Binomial coefficients.
Problems:
Find the coefficient of
9 3 5 2
(1) x y in the expansion of ¿. (2) a b in the expansion of ¿.

[ ]
15
0 2
(3) x 2
in the expansion of 3 x − x . (4) 1) x 6 y 3 in the expansion of ¿.

Ans: (1):
(2):
(3): we have by binomial theorem

[ ] ( )
15 15 15

( ) ( )
15−r
2
3x −
2
=∑ 15 . ( 3 x2 )r −2 =∑ 15 . ( 3 )r (−2 )15−r x 3 r−15 .
x r=0 r x r=0 r
0
In this expansion , the coefficient of x (which corresponds to r = 5) is
15
5
5
( )
10
. (3 ) (−2) =
15!
10 ! ×5 !
5 10
×3 ×2 =83,026,944
9
(4): we have by binomial theorem, ¿ = ∑
r=0
(9r ) . ( x ) ( 2 y )
r 9−r

In this expansion , the coefficient of x 6 y 3 (which corresponds to r = 6) is

9
6
6 6
. ( 2 ) =2 ×() 9!
6 ! ×3 !
=5376

Problems:
Find the coefficient of
a) xy z2 in the expansion of ( 2 x− y−z )4
b) x 2 y 2 z 3in the expansion of ( 3 x−2 y−4 z )7
6
c) x 11 y 4 in the expansion of ( 2 x 3−3 x y 2 + z 2 )
Ans:
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