INFORMATION CAPSULE

Research Services
Vol. 1006 Christie Blazer, Supervisor
October 2010

Student Stress

At a Glance

Students are under pressure from teachers, parents, and college admissions counselors to
maintain high grade point averages, score well on high-stakes tests, participate in a variety of
extracurricular activities, and gain admission to top colleges. In fact, surveys have found that
most students identify academic pressure as the main reason for their stress. While it has
long been assumed that struggling students are most prone to academic stress, recent studies
indicate that high achievers are especially vulnerable to school-related stress. This Information
Capsule summarizes the consequences of chronic school-related stress, including decreases
in academic performance, frequent physical illnesses, and cheating. Causes of school-related
stress, such as overly demanding academic content, overbooked schedules, and pressure to
maintain high grades and gain acceptance to prestigious colleges, are also reviewed. Finally,
strategies designed to help schools, parents, and students alleviate school-related stress are
presented.

Researchers have recently called attention to high levels of student stress in our nation’s schools.
Studies show that students are under pressure from teachers, parents, and college admissions counselors
to maintain high grade point averages, score well on high-stakes tests, participate in a variety of
extracurricular activities, and gain admission to top colleges (Pope, 2010; Sedere, 2010; Conner et al.,
2009; Ramírez, 2009; Cech, 2008; Scott, 2007; Pascucci, 2006). Furthermore, researchers have found
that students are becoming stressed at an earlier age, often at the elementary school level (McClure,
2009; Clemmitt, 2007; Delisio, 2006; Palmer, 2005; Large, 1999).

All types of students are subject to school-related stress. While it has long been assumed that struggling
students are most prone to academic stress, recent studies indicate that high achievers are especially
vulnerable to school-related stress. While some students are able to handle high pressure school
environments, others report feeling chronically stressed, overworked, and sleep deprived. Some use
whatever means necessary to earn high grades and test scores. Consequently, researchers have
chronicled increases in cheating, sleepless nights, depression, drug use, and self-mutilation (Dinesh &
Kumari, 2010; Ghezzi, 2010; Pope, 2010; Conner et al., 2009; Mathews, 2006).

How Prevalent Is School-Related Stress?

In most surveys, students identify academic pressure as the main reason for their stress (Parent Institute,
2010; Ramírez, 2009; Aratani, 2007; Boyce, 2003; de Anda, 1997). In The State of Our Nation’s Youth,
2008-09, the Horatio Alger Association (2008) surveyed a nationwide sample of over 1,000 students
ages 13-19. Almost four in five respondents (79 percent) said that pressure to get good grades created
a problem for them. Sixty-two percent of students agreed with this statement in 2001, an increase of 17

Research Services
Office of Assessment, Research, and Data Analysis
1500 Biscayne Boulevard, Suite 225, Miami, Florida 33132
(305) 995-7503 Fax (305) 995-7521
percent from 2001 to 2008. Over the same time period, the percentage of those classifying grade pressure
as “major” increased 19 percentage points, to 45 percent.

American Psychological Association’s 2009 Stress in America Survey polled a nationally representative
sample of over 1,200 children ages 8-17. As can be seen in Table 1, school-related pressures were the
primary sources of stress for the majority of younger and older children (Munsey, 2010).

Table 1. Sources of Stress Reported by Children in 2009 Stress in America Survey

Source of Stress Ages 8-12 Ages 13-17

Managing school pressure/responsibilities/homework/doing 44% 43%
well in school
Getting into a good college/deciding what to do after high school 5% 29%

Pressure managing extracurricular commitments 7% 12%

Source: Munsey, 2010.

Conner, Pope, and Galloway (2009) surveyed over 3,500 students attending seven high-performing
high schools in the California Bay Area. More than 70 percent of the respondents reported that they
“often” or “always” felt stressed by their schoolwork, and 56 percent reported “often” or “always” worrying
about grades, tests, and college acceptance. In all seven schools, students reported that academic-
related factors caused the most stress in their lives, as opposed to other life events, such as family or
social issues. Responses such as “family pressure,” “divorce,” and “parent/sibling illness” did not fall into
the top 10 most frequent causes of stress at any school.

KidsHealth (2005) surveyed 875 students ages 9-13 while they were visiting health education centers
and museums in six cities. The top reasons students said they worried were grades, school, and homework
(36 percent); family (32 percent); friends, peers, gossip, and teasing (21 percent); brothers and sisters
(20 percent); and mean or annoying people (20 percent).

The vast majority of studies have found that girls report higher levels of academic stress than boys
(Bhansali & Trivedi, 2008; Byrne et al., 2007; Margot, 2007; Dorland, 2005; de Anda, 1997). Contrary to
most findings, however, Shih and colleagues’ (2006) study of 816 fifteen-year-old children in Australia
concluded that boys experienced significantly higher levels of chronic academic stress than girls. Girls,
on the other hand, reported significantly more episodic stress than boys (discrete life events with a
discernable beginning and end, as opposed to ongoing stressors).

Consequences of Chronic Stress

A certain amount of stress is good and has been found to foster motivation and healthy competition in the
classroom, on tests, and in extracurricular activities. But chronic stress, as a result of the feeling that one
cannot possibly meet all of the demands placed upon him, has been consistently associated with negative
outcomes. Continued exposure to school-related stressors often leads to physical, emotional, and
behavioral symptoms, such as fatigue, irritability, depression, and decreases in academic performance
(Sedere, 2010; Conner et al., 2009; Copeland, 2008; Wilde, 2008; Muir, 2006). The most frequent
consequences of intense or ongoing stress include:

• Physical illness. When students experience high levels of stress, they often complain of frequent
headaches or stomach aches and tiredness or lethargy (University of Wisconsin, 2010; Jackson,
2009; Copeland, 2008; Hofferth et al., 2008; Reece, 2008; Lucile Packard Foundation for Children’s
Health, 2005; Pomfret, 2004; Round Rock Independent School District, n.d.). Conner and colleagues’

2
 (2009) study of 3,645 students attending seven high-performing high schools in the California Bay
Area found that 44 percent of students reported experiencing three or more physical symptoms,
including headaches and stomach problems, in the last month because of academic stress. A study
conducted in the highly competitive Chinese educational system found that primary school children
identified as highly stressed were four times more likely to have psychosomatic symptoms (Hesketh
et al., 2010).

• Insufficient sleep. As schedules get busier, students of all ages are finding themselves habitually
sleep-deprived (Pope, 2010; University of Wisconsin, 2010; Copeland, 2008; Hofferth et al., 2008;
Scott, 2008; Clemmitt, 2007; Lucile Packard Foundation for Children’s Health, 2005; Pomfret, 2004;
de Anda, 1997; Round Rock Independent School District, n.d.). Conner and colleagues (2009) found
that the majority of students reported sleeping fewer hours per night than the eight or nine hours
experts recommend for optimal functioning. On average, students reported getting 6.8 hours of
sleep each night. Over half of the respondents reported difficulty sleeping (54 percent) and exhaustion
(56 percent) due to academic stress.

• Anxiety and depression. Students in high-stress environments often demonstrate increased levels
of anxiety and new or recurring fears, such as fear of the dark, fear of being alone, or fear of
strangers (University of Wisconsin, 2010; Copeland, 2008; de Anda, 1997). Students often regress
to behaviors or habits that are typical of an earlier developmental stage, including hair twirling, thumb
sucking, or bed wetting (University of Wisconsin, 2010; Jackson, 2009; Copeland, 2008; Hofferth et
al., 2008; Pomfret, 2004).

Studies have also found that students who feel pressured to succeed are more likely to experience
depression (University of Wisconsin, 2010; Lucile Packard Foundation for Children’s Health, 2005).
In Conner and colleagues’ (2009) study of students attending high-performing high schools, 24
percent of students reported that they frequently felt depressed in the last month. A KidsHealth Poll
asked 875 children ages 9-13 how they handled stress. When asked: “Have you ever hurt yourself
on purpose when you were stressed or upset?” 25 percent of the respondents said “yes.” Children
reported banging their head or body on an object, cutting or stabbing themselves, and hitting, biting
or burning themselves (KidsHealth, 2005).

• Irritability or unusual emotionality or volatility. Students experiencing high levels of school-

related stress often exhibit mood swings or the inability to control their emotions (University of Wisconsin,
2010; Jackson, 2009; Copeland, 2008; Pomfret, 2004; Round Rock Independent School District,
n.d.). Research indicates that when exposed to chronic or intense academic stress, girls tend to
become quieter and introspective, while boys tend to become more aggressive. Older children may
begin to lie, bully, or defy authority (Pomfret, 2004).

• Decrease in academic performance. Studies indicate that high-stress school environments lead
to decreases in students’ academic performance (Sedere, 2010; Peterson et al., 2009; Suldo et al.,
2009; Copeland, 2008; Reece, 2008; Malik & Balda, 2006; Dorland, 2005; Kaplan et al., 2005; Lucile
Packard Foundation for Children’s Health, 2005; de Anda, 1997; Whitman et al., 1985).

• Social withdrawal. Students exposed to high levels of stress often withdraw from family and friends.
They spend more time alone than usual, choosing not to participate in social activities with family
members or peers (University of Wisconsin, 2010; Jackson, 2009; Copeland, 2008; Pomfret, 2004;
Round Rock Independent School District, n.d.).

• Drug or alcohol experimentation. When students experience high levels of stress, they are more
likely to use drugs or alcohol (Copeland, 2008; Reece, 2008). Conner and colleagues’ (2009) study
of students attending seven high-performing high schools in the California Bay Area found that 24

3
 percent of respondents reported using over-the-counter or legal stimulants, such as caffeine or
NoDoze, to help them stay awake to study in the last month. An additional eight percent of students
reported using illegal stimulants or prescription drugs to stay awake to study. The Partnership for a
Drug-Free America’s (2008) nationwide survey of 6,511 students in grades 7-12 found that the top
reason respondents thought students used drugs was “to help with pressures and stress of school”
(73 percent). [Other top reasons included “to help them feel better about themselves” (65 percent)
and “to look cool” (65 percent).]

• Cheating. Cheating has become common in schools across the country (Garrett, 2009; Pytel, 2007;
Palmer, 2005). The most common forms of cheating are unpermitted collaboration (working on a
project, paper, or report together when specifically assigned to do individual work) and getting answers
or questions before a test (Margot, 2007). Conner and colleagues’ (2009) study of students attending
high-performing high schools in the California Bay Area found that 95 percent of eleventh and twelfth
grade students reported at least one instance of cheating, including copying homework or cheating
on tests and quizzes, because of the pressure to get high grades and test scores.

Honors and advanced placement students appear even more likely to cheat on a regular basis
(Garrett, 2009; Pope, cited in McMahon, 2007). McMahon (2007) reported that nationally, 80 percent
of honors and advanced placement students admitted to cheating, compared to 75 percent of all
high school students. This number climbed to 90 percent when copying another student’s homework
was included in the definition of cheating. He concluded:

“It used to be that cheating was done by the few, and most often they were the weaker
students who couldn’t get good grades on their own. Now, it is accepted as a normal part
of school life, and is more likely to be done by the good students, who are fully capable of
getting high marks without cheating. It’s the kids who are under so much pressure to keep
their grades up and get into the best colleges.”

Causes of School-Related Stress

Different children respond to school-related pressures in different ways. The American Academy of
Pediatrics (2010) stated: “How a child perceives and responds to stress depends in part on development,
in part on experience, and in part on a child’s individual temperament.” In addition, certain situations are
more stressful at different ages. For example, changing teachers at mid-year may be a major stressor for
a first grade child, but only an annoyance for a sixth grader. Ramírez (2009) quoted a high school
principal who noted: “Not every kid is stressed out, and not every kid is stressed out by the same thing.”

Schools are not the only source of stress for children. Parents, other students, state and federal policies,
and the college admissions process all play a role in increasing students’ stress levels (Conner et al.,
2009). Following is a summary of the most common causes of school-related stress.

• Academic kindergartens. A few decades ago, kindergarten was a time for learning letters, numbers,
and playtime, but today these activities have been replaced with reading exercises, test preparation,
homework, and reduced recess periods. Some kindergartners are being pushed to learn content
that experts believe they aren’t ready to master, which can lead to early burnout (Jacobson, 2008;
Scott, 2008; Clemmitt, 2007; Curwood, 2007). Tyre (2006) noted that many parents mistakenly believe
that the earlier their children learn to read independently, write legibly, and do arithmetic, the more
success they will have throughout school. Researchers also point out that low-income students in
particular are more likely to feel pressured in kindergarten. In low-income schools, many kindergartners
start out with less than half of the skills and knowledge that school-ready children are expected to
have, so their classrooms have to cover much more material over the course of the school year
(Clemmitt, 2007).

4
• Developmentally inappropriate classrooms. Several studies have been conducted to determine
if young children in developmentally appropriate classrooms have lower stress levels than those in
settings where developmentally inappropriate practices are predominant. Developmentally appropriate
classrooms emphasize the whole child (physical, social, emotional, and cognitive), while taking into
account gender, culture, income level, and family factors in order to meet the individual child’s needs,
developmental level, and learning style. The curriculum integrates the content areas and provides
for active exploration and concrete, hands-on activities. In contrast, developmentally inappropriate
classrooms use lectures, drill-and-practice, and worksheet activities. There is little if any integration
between the content areas and students rarely engage in hands-on activities. Findings indicate that
preschool and kindergarten children in developmentally inappropriate classrooms exhibit more stress
than children in developmentally appropriate classrooms, regardless of gender, ethnicity, and income
level. Research has found that male, low income, and Black students are most adversely affected by
developmentally inappropriate programs (Jackson, 2009; Charlesworth, 1998; Burts et al., 1992). In
addition, studies suggest that unstructured classrooms with unclear or unreasonable expectations
can lead to increases in students’ stress at both the primary and secondary school levels (Killby,
2009; Copeland, 2008).

• High-stakes tests. Test anxiety has become more common as schools have placed increased
emphasis on the results of high-stakes tests. Schools, principals, teachers, and communities are
judged on their test scores and students’ results often drive decisions such as school funding, teacher
pay, student promotions to the next grade level, and awarding of diplomas (Chinappi, 2010; Ghezzi,
2010; Sedere, 2010; Killby, 2009; Ramírez, 2009; Suldo et al., 2009; Reece, 2008; Scott, 2008;
Wilde, 2008; Dorland, 2005; Murphy, 2005). Studies have found that between 55 and 61 percent of
students report being affected by test anxiety (Bradley et al., 2007; King, 2006). Furthermore, high
levels of text anxiety appear to hinder students’ test performance (Scott, 2008; King, 2006). Bradley
and colleagues (2007), for example, found that California high school students who reported high
levels of test anxiety scored, on average, 15 points lower in both English-Language Arts and
Mathematics on the California High School Exit Examination.

Some researchers, in contrast, argue there is no evidence that testing is creating anxious students
or lowering test performance (Clemmitt, 2007; Mulvenon et al., 2001). Mulvenon and associates’
(2001) study of fifth grade students from 10 elementary schools in Arkansas concluded that test
anxiety was not significantly related to students’ performance on the Stanford Achievement Test. The
authors noted that although studies have reported an association between low test scores and test
anxiety, they have failed to address whether the low scores are a reflection of students’ poor performance
or if they are purely attributable to test anxiety.

Regardless of the effect of anxiety on test scores, Chinappi (2010) recommended that students understand
it is “not the end of the world” if they don’t earn high scores. She noted: “These tests are not meant to
mark a child’s intellectual ability for the rest of his or her life and the children should know this.”

• Pressure from parents. Many experts maintain that parents’ unrealistically high expectations create
pressure and foster performance anxiety in their children (Sedere, 2010; McClure, 2009; Ramírez,
2009; Cech, 2008; Clemmitt, 2007; Pascucci, 2006; Pomfret, 2004; Johns Hopkins University Center
for Talented Youth, 2002). Interestingly, many parents seem unaware of the pressure they are putting
on their children. For example, the 2009 American Psychological Association’s Stress in America
Survey found that while 44 percent of children reported stress-related sleeping difficulties, only 13
percent of parents thought their children had trouble sleeping because of stress. Similarly, over one-
third of children reported experiencing stress-related headaches within the past month, but only 13
percent of parents believed their children had headaches caused by stress (Munsey, 2010). Scott
(2008) hypothesized that many parents are not knowledgeable about the issues their children face
because busy schedules leave less time available for parent-child discussions and recaps of the day.

5
• Demanding academic content. Another source of school-related stress occurs when students are
placed in overly demanding classroom environments (Sedere, 2010; Ramírez, 2009; Suldo et al.,
2009; Reece, 2008; Scott, 2008; Wilde, 2008; Fallin et al., 2001). Wilde (2008) noted that there has
been enormous growth in the number of students taking advanced placement courses. In 2004, for
example, one-quarter of all high school graduates took at least one advanced placement course.
Several studies, summarized below, indicate that more advanced academic programs may be
associated with added stress.

• Suldo and colleagues’ (2009) study of Southeast U.S. high school students’ sources of stress
compared International Baccalaureate (IB) High School Diploma Program students and General
Education (GE) program students. They found that the primary source of stress experienced by
IB students was related to academic requirements, while their peers in GE programs reported
higher levels of stress associated with a variety of influences, such as family, peers, and life
events, in addition to moderate stress associated with academic requirements.

• Ollfors and Andersson (2007) reported that Swedish high school students in academic programs
reported more stress related to managing their academic workload and meeting high academic
standards than their peers in vocational programs. Vocational students reported more stress
related to other school issues (such as course schedule, teacher assignment, and school climate)
and family and peer relationship difficulties.

• Mates and Allison (1992) studied tenth grade Canadian students in three different academic
tracks. They found that the major sources of stress for students in the two most academically
oriented tracks (advanced and general) were associated with school and sports, while the major
sources of stress for students in the basic track were gangs and drugs.

• Peer relationships. Social relationships at school are a source of stress for many students. Stress
can come from competition among students, concerns about not having enough friends, or not being
in the same class as friends (Sedere, 2010; Ramírez, 2009; Reece, 2008; Scott, 2008; Mathews,
2006; Fallin et al., 2001). Some students experience the stress of victimization at school when they
are teased, intimidated, or bullied by other students (Killby, 2009; Scott, 2008; Large, 1999).

• Fear of failure. For some students, stress comes from the pressure they put on themselves to live
up to their own high expectations. They feel like failures when they don’t earn high grades, participate
in a multitude of extracurricular activities, and gain acceptance into top colleges or universities (Sedere,
2010; Killby, 2009; Ramírez, 2009; Copeland, 2008; Pascucci, 2006; Fallin et al., 2001).

• Lack of preparation. For younger children, not having the necessary supplies can be a very stressful
experience. For example, if a child doesn’t have an adequate lunch, didn’t bring his signed permission
slip, or doesn’t have a red shirt to wear on “Red Shirt Day,” he or she may experience high levels of
stress (Scott, 2008).

• Excessive homework. Homework is often a source of student stress (McClure, 2009; Suldo et al.,
2009; Scott, 2008; Round Rock Independent School District, n.d.). Conner, Pope, and Galloway
(2009) reported that 61 percent of students at seven high-achieving California Bay Area schools
agreed that their schoolwork or homework frequently kept them from other activities, such as spending
time with family and friends, and 60 percent said they had to drop an activity they enjoyed because
of schoolwork or homework. Wilde (2008) noted that while experts debate whether homework loads
are heavier now than in the past, many nevertheless agree that it is being assigned at an earlier age.
Homework demands place greater stress on low-income students, who often have more family
responsibilities and lack the basic supports for doing homework, such as a quiet place to study and
Internet access (Clemmitt, 2007).

6
• Overbooked schedules. A source of stress that has become more prevalent for school-age children
is the pressure related to the over-scheduling of extracurricular activities (Killby, 2009; McClure,
2009; Scott, 2008; Clemmitt, 2007; Pytel, 2007; Murphy, 2005; Fallin et al., 2001). Many students
simultaneously participate in sports teams, music ensembles, dance troupes, theatre groups, and
other clubs. High school students report that balancing leisure time with schoolwork is one of their
greatest stressors (Suldo et al., 2009). Pope (2010) found that many students say they spend between
four and six hours participating in extracurricular activities daily, in addition to seven classes and
several hours of homework each night. On average, students report participating in 2-3 hours of
extracurricular activities each weekday, not counting travel time to and from the activities (Pope,
2010; Conner et al., 2009).

Hofferth and colleagues (2008) reported that between 1981 and 1997, American children’s leisure
time changed in two major ways. First, their amount of free time declined about 7.5 hours per week
(from 56.5 hours to 49 hours). The authors pointed out that although 7.5 hours in a week may not
seem significant, it represents more than one entire school day. Second, children’s time became
more scheduled and organized, with structured activities like sports and dance lessons taking up an
increasing proportion of the after-school hours, compared to unstructured play time. For example,
from 1981 to 1997, participation in sports rose 35 percent and participation in the arts rose 145
percent for children between the ages of 9 and 12.

Contrary to the picture painted by many researchers of overbooked and highly stressed youth,
Hofferth and colleagues (2008) surveyed a nationally representative sample of children and their
families and found that only 26 percent of children met the criteria of “hurried” (three or more activities
or more than four hours devoted to activities within a two-day period). The remainder of children
pursued only one or two activities, or no activities at all. Hofferth and colleagues also reported that
“hurried” children were not more likely to exhibit higher levels of stress or lower levels of self-esteem.
Instead, children with no activities were found to be the most withdrawn, socially immature, and have
the lowest-self-esteem. Children with one or two activities totaling less than four hours over two days
had the lowest levels of stress and highest levels of self-esteem.

• Pressure to maintain high grades. Many students are under tremendous pressure from parents,
peers, and school staff to get good grades. Low or failing grades can become a source of chronic
and intense school-related stress (McClure, 2009; Suldo et al., 2009; Reece, 2008; Pytel, 2007;
Pascucci, 2006; Fallin et al., 2001). Kohn (1999) stated: “Too many students have been led to
believe that getting A’s is the point of going to school” and Hu (2008) noted that it is not uncommon
for students to track their grade point averages to multiple decimal places.

• Pressure to gain acceptance to prestigious colleges. Many students overload their schedules
with advanced placement classes and extracurricular activities, compete for top grades, and sit for multiple
SAT and ACT testing sessions in order to get accepted into the best colleges and universities (Alberts,
2010; Bowie, 2009; Ramírez, 2009; Clemmitt, 2007; Pytel, 2007; Delisio, 2006; Mathews, 2006; Pascucci,
2006). Researchers report that children as young as seven years old are already worrying about earning
the high grades they will need to get into college (McCloud, 2007; Murphy, 2005).

According to the Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics, the number of
high school graduates increased 24 percent from 1991 and 2004, and the number is expected to
grow another 5 percent before 2017. This translates into an additional 700,000 high school graduates
seeking college admission, while the actual number of colleges has remained the same (Wilde,
2008). As a result, colleges have become more selective and the college admissions process has
become more demanding. The less competitive colleges accept approximately 50 to 70 percent of
their applicants; however, the more selective colleges accept a third or less of their applicants and Ivy
League schools accept fewer than 15 percent (Bowie, 2009; Newsweek, 2008; Wilde, 2008).

7
• Conflicts with teachers. Negative interactions with teachers can increase students’ stress levels.
Sources of teacher-related stress include a mismatch between student and teaching style; lack of
respect from teachers; disagreements between students and teachers; and insufficient feedback on
schoolwork from teachers (Suldo et al., 2009; Reece, 2008; Scott, 2008; Byrne et al., 2007; Fallin et
al., 2001). de Anda’s (1997) survey of Los Angeles area middle school students found that 59 percent
of students viewed their teachers as a source of stress. Pope’s (2010) study of 5,000 students in 13
high-achieving middle and senior high schools found that students who believed their teachers cared
about them, valued and listened to their ideas, and got to know them personally showed fewer signs
of stress and physical health problems.

• Transitioning to secondary school. The transition from elementary to secondary school represents
a period of stress and uncertainty in students’ lives. Stress can be caused by the move to a larger
school building, interactions with a new and larger peer group, more rigorous academic standards,
and the change from a protective, familiar environment to an often impersonal and intimidating
atmosphere (Killby, 2009; Suldo et al., 2009; Ebata, 1996; Berliner, 1993).

• Poor diet and lack of sleep. A poor diet, containing more sugar and less nutritious content than is
recommended, can lead to mood swings, lack of energy, and other negative effects that impact
stress levels. Students who do not get a sufficient amount of sleep are also more likely to have higher
stress levels (Scott, 2008).

How to Alleviate School-Related Stress

The following sections of this report summarize strategies that can be used by schools, parents, and
students to alleviate school-related stress.

School Strategies

Researchers have suggested that schools are the ideal place in which to conduct stress-related intervention
and prevention programs because so many stressors are directly related to the school environment and
these stressors affect students’ performance in school (Fallin et al., 2001; de Anda, 1997).

In 2004, in response to high levels of adolescent anxiety disorders, depression, substance abuse, and
disengagement, educators and health specialists created a research-based intervention at the Stanford
University School of Education. The initiative, Challenge Success, works with schools to design and
implement site-based policies and practices that reduce student stress and promote greater student
engagement, academic integrity, and physical and mental health. Schools send multi-stakeholder teams
of principals, counselors, teachers, students, and parents to conferences and the teams work with Stanford
coaches throughout the year to plan and implement school reform efforts (Challenge Success, 2010;
Pope, 2010).

While the stress reduction process varies based on each school’s unique circumstances, some strategies
that have been used successfully at Challenge Success schools and at schools across the U.S. include:

• Reduce the preoccupation with “grades for the sake of grades” and shift the focus to
learning and understanding. Many schools have stopped publishing the honor roll in local
newspapers and eliminated class rankings, awards for perfect grade point averages, and valedictorian
status (Pope, 2010; Ramírez, 2009; Wilde, 2008; Aratani, 2007; Delisio, 2006). At some middle schools,
guidance counselors have been asked not to talk to students about the need to prepare for college
(Delisio, 2006).

8
• Identify students demonstrating high levels of stress. Teachers should identify children who
frequently visit the school nurse, are habitually absent due to illness, or regularly appear tired or
malnourished. It is sometimes necessary for teachers to educate parents about their children’s physical
needs (such as adequate sleep and proper nutrition) and provide them with referrals to outside
agencies (Fallin et al., 2001). Many schools require teachers to attend professional development
sessions so they are aware of the stressors that commonly affect children and learn to recognize
signs of stress, such as regressive behaviors, withdrawal, irritability, inability to concentrate, and
difficulty getting along with peers (Conner et al., 2009; Wilde, 2008). Teachers can sometimes act to
reduce the severity of stressors. For example, they can separate children who persistently tease or
annoy each other or they can provide more difficult assignments to students who complain of being
bored (Fallin et al., 2001).

• Incorporate stress education into the curriculum. Teachers can conduct classroom discussions
about stress and academic pressure, providing an opportunity for students to express themselves
and understand that their peers also find certain events to be stressful. Lessons about stress and
coping can also be incorporated into various subject areas. Examples include painting or drawing to
express emotions in art class; journaling about emotions or writing a story in language arts class;
learning about biological responses to stress in science class; and learning about the importance of
exercise, proper hygiene, and a well-balanced diet in health class. In addition, teenagers should be
educated on the dangers of using cigarettes, alcohol, and drugs to cope with stress. School
psychologists can assist in the selection of effective curricular materials (Medical News Today, 2009;
Reece, 2008; Fallin et al., 2001; Large, 1999).

• Change the school’s daily schedule. No one type of schedule works best for all schools, but
many schools have revised their schedules to allow for fewer transitions, more free periods, more
tutorials, and late starts to minimize students’ stress. Some schools have limited the number of advanced
placement courses each student can take. Others have moved from the traditional seven or eight
period day to a rotating block or modified block schedule that offers fewer courses each day for
longer periods of time (Pope, 2010; Conner et al., 2009; Hu, 2008; Delisio, 2006). Some schools
have even made lunch breaks mandatory to force over-scheduled students to slow down during the
school day (Hu, 2008; Hausman, 2005). Conner and colleagues (2009) found that over 80 percent of
the tenth and eleventh grade students they surveyed reported that adding free periods to the schedule,
increasing the duration of classes, and reducing the number of classes each day had eased their
workload.

• Revise homework policies. Some schools have imposed limits on how much homework teachers
can assign and many have also eliminated summer assignments in order to provide students with
real time off from school. Others have developed project calendars so students don’t have too many
projects due at once (Wilde, 2008; Aratani, 2007; Delisio, 2006). A few Challenge Success high
schools have experimented with course scheduling guides. The guides list every course offered at a
school and provide an approximation of how much homework is to be expected each night in each
class. When students enroll in courses, they add up the total hours of nightly homework, the number
of hours they will spend on extracurricular activities, and nine hours for sleep. Parents and counselors
must then approve each schedule (Pope, 2010).

• Revise testing policies. Some schools have developed testing calendars so students aren’t required
to take several tests and quizzes on the same day. Others have reduced the importance of exams,
moved exams to before the winter break, increased the time between scheduled exams, and replaced
exams with projects (Pope, 2010; Conner et al., 2009; Wilde, 2008). Delisio (2006) reported on one
school that dropped midterms because they were scheduled at the same time as the state’s high-
stakes tests. Conner and colleagues (2009) found that more than three-quarters of the tenth and
eleventh grade students they surveyed agreed that moving exams from after the winter break to

9
 before the break reduced their stress levels. Pope (2010) urged schools to use alternative assessments
for learning. She noted: “In the real world it is extremely rare to have one’s performance evaluated
via tests and quizzes.”

• Reduce test anxiety. As the pressure to succeed on high-stakes tests has increased, schools have
begun to take test anxiety more seriously. Some schools use techniques designed to help students
relax and focus before exams in order to enhance their cognitive abilities and recollection of facts.
Programs utilize a variety of techniques such as deep breathing, movements designed to improve
blood flow to the brain, and emotion refocusing (Bradley et al., 2007; King, 2006).

• Ensure that students receive adequate support. Teachers should assess students’ levels of
social support, understanding that those who lack adequate support from family members and peers
need greater support from adults at school. Teachers can promote positive interactions among
students by providing opportunities for children to socialize at school and promoting teamwork within
the classroom setting (Fallin et al., 2001).

Margot (2007) reported that positive teacher support is directly linked to less student academic
stress. She therefore advocated that schools ensure that every student has a significant connection
with a caring adult. One way to ensure that students receive support from at least one teacher is to
schedule advisory periods multiple times per week. During advisory periods, teachers and students
discuss personal issues, work on organizational and study skills, and participate in small group activities
that promote social and emotional skills. Advisors are often assigned groups of students that stay
with them for several years (Pope, 2010).

• Communicate with all stakeholders about the causes and consequences of school-related
stress. Districts and schools should raise awareness among students, staff, parents, and the
community about the damaging effects of high-pressure schools (Delisio, 2006). Wilde (2008)
suggested that schools develop a Web site with a list of resources about stress and publish articles
about stress in the student newspaper.

• Promote healthy behaviors. A study conducted by researchers at the University at Buffalo (2010)
concluded that walking to school reduces stress reactivity in children during the school day, curbing
increases in heart rate and blood pressure that could lead to cardiovascular disease later in life. The
authors concluded that, because of the protective cardiovascular effect of exercise, educators should
provide ample opportunities for physical activity throughout the day. Jacobson (2008) reported that
40 percent of elementary schools offer less than 20 minutes of recess in a six-hour school day.
Dorland (2005) urged schools to provide all students with healthy meals and snacks.

• Help students develop effective coping strategies. Students need certain competencies to
deal with stressful situations. Teaching positive coping strategies should be a team effort involving
teachers, counselors, and administrators (Conner et al., 2009; Large, 1999). Some schools conduct
stress management workshops to equip students with problem-solving, anger management, and
conflict resolution skills, and to help them develop the ability to manage their emotions (Wilde, 2008;
Large, 1999; de Anda, 1997). Others teach children and teenagers relaxation techniques such as
deep breathing, yoga, meditation, and positive imagery (Ramírez, 2009; Aratani, 2007; Delisio, 2006;
Fallin et al., 2001).

Parent Strategies

Parents should pay attention when their child complains of stress, anxiety, depression, or hopelessness.
Different children show stress in different ways, so it isn’t always easy to recognize when a child is
affected. There are many children who don’t or can’t verbalize their stress. In these cases, parents

10
should be on the lookout for other signs and symptoms, such as frequent physical ailments, a drop in
academic performance, or unusual irritability (Conner et al., 2009; Wilde, 2008; Pomfret, 2004). Following
are strategies parents can use to help their children manage school-related stress.

• Emphasize learning over grades. Some parents increase the pressure on their children by talking
frequently about tests and grades and sending the message that they measure their children’s worth
in terms of these outcomes. Children should be praised for other accomplishments so they understand
that pursuits such as the arts, sports, and relationships are important too. Parents should also
communicate that their children don’t have to be at the top of every class and that doing their best is
enough. Children should not be punished for poor academic performance and rewarded for academic
success. Instead, the concept of effort should be emphasized by recognizing hard work (Ghezzi,
2010; Garrett, 2009; McCloud, 2007).

Similarly, children should understand that there are different ways to succeed in life (Ghezzi, 2010;
Wilde, 2008; Pomfret, 2004). Ghezzi (2010) noted: “It’s tempting to focus on doctors, lawyers, scientists,
and other fields associated with prestige and big salaries. Make sure your kids know there are other
satisfying career options, and that the most important thing is that they are happy in their career
choice.”

• Encourage healthy habits. Parents need to encourage their children to eat healthy meals, exercise
regularly, and get a good night’s sleep (Ghezzi, 2010; University of Wisconsin, 2010; Copeland,
2008; Wilde, 2008; McCloud, 2007; Pomfret, 2004). The National Sleep Foundation recommends 9-
11 hours of sleep for children 5-12 years old and 8.5-9.5 hours of sleep for adolescents (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2010).

• Set a good example. Children, especially at young ages, tend to emulate their parents’ behaviors.
Parents should find time to relax each day and encourage children to follow their example. In addition,
parents should model good emotional responses to stress (Garrett, 2009; Copeland, 2008; McCloud,
2007; Ebata, 1996).

• Increase family time. Experts recommend that families spend time together each day, especially at
meal time. Parents should share in some of the activities their children enjoy (University of Wisconsin,
2010; Wilde, 2008; McCloud, 2007).

• Talk to children. One of the most important things parents can do is talk to their children about
school-related stress. Parents should encourage their children to tell them if they feel overwhelmed
and build a relationship so their children feel comfortable asking for help when they are struggling
(University of Wisconsin, 2010; Garrett, 2009; Copeland, 2008; Wilde, 2008; McCloud, 2007; Ebata,
1996). Ebata (1996) urged parents to listen to their children. He noted that adolescents may not want
advice; they may just want to be understood. Furthermore, he encouraged parents not to treat
problems as trivial. Minimizing a problem sends the message that the parent doesn’t understand or is
unwilling to listen.

• Provide structure, stability, and predictability. Whenever possible, parents should maintain the
same rules and routines for their children. Children have been found to exhibit lower levels of stress
when they are provided with safe, secure, familiar, consistent, and dependable home environments
(University of Wisconsin, 2010; Pomfret, 2004; Ebata, 1996).

• Limit extracurricular activities. Extracurricular activities should be scheduled in moderation. Not

every minute of every day needs to be planned. Parents and children should choose activities with
the child’s age, temperament, interests, and abilities in mind (Copeland, 2008; KidsHealth, 2008;
Wilde, 2008; McCloud, 2007; Murphy, 2005).

11
• Monitor television viewing. Parents should monitor their children’s television viewing habits, paying
attention to programs that might increase their stress levels. Especially at younger ages, certain
television programs, including news broadcasts, can generate fears and anxiety. The use of computer
games, movies, and the Internet should also be supervised (University of Wisconsin, 2010; Copeland,
2008; Wilde, 2008).

• Build feelings of self-worth. Studies have found that children with higher levels of self-esteem
respond better to stressful events. Parents should involve children in situations where they can
succeed and use positive encouragement and reward instead of punishment. All children improve
their ability to handle stress when they have previously succeeded in overcoming challenges (American
Academy of Pediatrics, 2010; University of Wisconsin, 2010; Wilde, 2008; Fallin et al., 2001).

• Suggest ways of coping with difficult situations. Parents can teach children specific decision-
making skills and show them how to manage their emotions. Parents can also teach their children
study skills and test-taking strategies to minimize their academic-related anxiety (Ghezzi, 2010;
University of Wisconsin, 2010; Copeland, 2008; Ebata, 1996).

Student Strategies

Researchers have identified strategies that can help students deal with school-related stress.

• Eat well. It’s easy to eat on the run or eat junk food or fast food when stress levels are high. But the
body needs balanced nutrition and vitamins and minerals, especially under stressful conditions (Copeland,
2008; TeensHealth, 2007; Swiercinsky, 2001; Round Rock Independent School District, n.d.).

• Exercise. Researchers agree that physical activity reduces stress. Studies show that exercising 30
minutes a day can help alleviate stress and boost confidence (University of Wisconsin, 2010; Copeland,
2008; TeensHealth, 2007; Swiercinsky, 2001; Round Rock Independent School District, n.d.).

• Sleep at night, not in class. The National Sleep Foundation recommends 9-11 hours of sleep for
children 5-12 years old and 8.5-9.5 hours of sleep for adolescents (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2010). Experts suggest that realistically, children should try to get at least seven or eight
hours of sleep each night. Without sleep, it’s hard to concentrate or make good decisions. An all-
nighter may seem like a great way to catch up on studying, but students usually crash the following day.
Students should arrange their schedules so they get enough sleep at night or have time to take power
naps during the day (Scott, 2007; TeensHealth, 2007; Round Rock Independent School District, n.d.).

• Don’t use drugs, alcohol, or tobacco. Alcohol, drugs, and tobacco may seem like a good idea for
easing stress temporarily, but relying on them to cope with stress eventually creates more stress
(University of Wisconsin, 2010; TeensHealth, 2007; Swiercinsky, 2001; Round Rock Independent
School District, n.d.).

• Set realistic goals for yourself. When students expect themselves to be perfect and excel in all
areas, their stress levels actually increase (University of Wisconsin, 2010; TeensHealth, 2007).

• Learn stress management skills, such as relaxation techniques and problem solving.
Relaxation techniques, such as meditation or deep breathing, counteract the effects of stress because
they lower blood pressure and reduce muscle tension. Learning coping skills, such as how to calmly
look at a problem, figure out options, and take action toward a solution, also helps to reduce stress
(Copeland, 2008; Scott, 2007; TeensHealth, 2007; Swiercinsky, 2001). TeensHealth (2007) recommended
that adolescents practice resolving everyday problems in order to gain a sense of control over their
lives. The ability to solve small problems builds confidence to move on to bigger problems.

12
• Don’t over-schedule activities. Students must learn to say no to extra activities. If students start
to feel overwhelmed, they should consider cutting out one or two activities and choose only the ones
that are most important to them (TeensHealth, 2007; Round Rock Independent School District, n.d.).

• Find time to relax. Children and teens should regularly find time to enjoy a hobby or favorite activity
(University of Wisconsin, 2010; Copeland, 2008; TeensHealth, 2007).

• Keep a schedule. Keeping a schedule helps students tackle one hurdle at a time and, as a result,
feel more in control of their schedules and the academic and extracurricular demands placed upon
them. Students should take a few minutes each night to organize the next day. They may want to
make a weekly planning calendar that includes time for homework, extracurricular activities, exercise,
relaxation, and socialization with family and friends (Scott, 2007; Round Rock Independent School
District, n.d.).

• Get organized. Students feel less stressed when they are more organized. Experts suggest students
use a system for note-taking, filing, and keeping track of all projects and assignments (Scott, 2007).

• Be optimistic. Students’ outlook, attitudes, and thoughts influence the way they handle stressful
situations. Studies have found that optimists are more likely to successfully adapt to stressful
encounters (Scott, 2007; TeensHealth, 2007; Huan et al., 2006; Swiercinsky, 2001; Round Rock
Independent School District, n.d.).

• Build resiliency. Researchers have identified qualities that make some people naturally resilient
even when faced with high levels of stress. To build resilience, TeensHealth (2007) recommended
that adolescents work on developing the following attitudes and behaviors:

• think of change as a challenging and normal part of life;

• see setbacks and problems as temporary and solvable;
• believe that working toward goals will lead to success;
• take action to solve problems; and
• build strong relationships with family and friends and ask for help if needed.

• Talk to an adult about unmanageable stress. Social contacts and family relationships provide an
important form of support. If adolescents can’t communicate with their parents, they should talk to
someone else they can trust, such as a friend, counselor, or teacher. Adolescents should tell their
parents or another trusted adult if they are having problems managing stress or believe they are in
need of counseling (University of Wisconsin, 2010; Swiercinsky, 2001; Round Rock Independent
School District, n.d.).

Summary

Studies have recently called attention to high levels of student stress in our nation’s schools. Surveys
have found that most students identify academic pressure as the main reason for their stress. Consequently,
researchers have chronicled increases in cheating, sleepless nights, depression, drug use, and self-
mutilation. While it has long been assumed that struggling students are most prone to academic stress,
recent studies indicate that high achievers are especially vulnerable to school-related stress.

Chronic school-related stress often leads to physical, emotional, and behavioral symptoms, such as
frequent illnesses, depression, irritability, decreased academic performance, drug or alcohol
experimentation, and cheating. Causes of school-related stress include high-stakes tests, pressure from
parents, overly demanding academic content, overbooked schedules, pressure to gain admittance to
prestigious colleges and universities, and conflicts with teachers.

13
 Researchers have identified strategies schools, parents, and students can use to manage school-related
stress. School strategies include reducing the preoccupation with “grades for the sake of grades,”
incorporating stress education into the curriculum, and revising homework and testing policies. Parents
can use several strategies to help their children cope with school-related stress, such as emphasizing
learning over grades, talking openly with their children about the pressures at school, limiting extracurricular
activities, and building their children’s feelings of self-worth. Student strategies for reducing stress include
setting realistic goals, learning stress management skills, finding time to relax, and talking to a trusted
adult about their problems.

All reports distributed by Research Services can be accessed at http://drs.dadeschools.net.

References

Alberts, H.R. (2010). How To Get Into College. Forbes.com. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/2010/06/
30/college-application-tips-lifestyle-education-admissions.html.

Horatio Alger Association. (2008). The State of Our Nation’s Youth 2008-09. Retrieved from http://
www.horatioalger.com/pdfs/0708SONY.pdf.

American Academy of Pediatrics. (2010). How Can We Help Our Children Handle the Stresses of Everyday
Life? Retrieved from http://www.healthychildren.org/English/healthy-living/emotional-wellness/pages/
Helping-Children-Handle-Stress.aspx.

Aratani, L. (2007). Overachieving Students Hear a New Message: Lighten Up. The Washington Post, February
6, 2007.

Berliner, B.A. (1993). Adolescence, School, Transitions, and Prevention. Western Regional Center for Drug-
Free Schools and Communities, Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, Portland, OR.

Bhansali, R., & Trivedi, K. (2008). Is Academic Anxiety Gender Specific? A Comparative Study. Journal of
Social Sciences, 17(1), 1-3.

Bowie, L. (2009). Competition to Get Into Selective Colleges is a Complex, Multi-Year Process. Baltimore
Sun, April 12, 2009.

Boyce, D. (2003). Top Teen Issue: Homework, Pressure to Make Good Grades. The Almanac, Menlo Park,
CA, January 8, 2003. Retrieved from http://www.almanacnews.com/morgue/2003/2003_01_08.
mpteen.html.

Bradley, R.T., McCraty, R., Atkinson, M., Arguelles, L., Rees, R.A., & Tomasino, D. (2007). Reducing Test
Anxiety and Improving Test Performance in America’s Schools: Summary of Results from the TestEdge
National Demonstration Study. Institute of HeartMath, Boulder Creek, CA. Retrieved from http://
www.betaheartmath.org/templates/ihm/section_includes/education/pdf/Tends_Summary_Results.pdf.

Burts, D.C., Hart, C.H., Charlesworth, R., Fleege, P.O., Mosley, J., & Thomasson, R.H. (1992). Observed
Activities and Stress Behaviors of Children in Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Kindergarten
Classrooms. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7(2), 297-318.

14
Byrne, D.G., Davenport, S.C., & Mazanov, J. (2007). Profiles of Adolescent Stress: The Development of the
Adolescent Stress Questionnaire. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 393-416.

Cech, S.J. (2008). Academic Pressure on Rise for Teens, Poll Finds. Education Week, 27(45). Retrieved
from http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2008/08/05/45youth_web.h27.html?r=562482673.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). How Much Sleep Do I Need? Retrieved from http://www.
cdc.gov/sleep/how_much_sleep.htm.

Challenge Success. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.challengesuccess.org.

Charlesworth, R. (1998). Developmentally Appropriate Practice Is for Everyone. Childhood Education, 74(5),
274-282.

Chinappi, J. (2010). Standardized Testing: Friend or Foe? Retrieved from http://www.brighthub.com/education/

k-12/articles/8216.aspx.

Clemmitt, M. (2007). Students Under Stress. CQ (Congressional Quarterly) Researcher, 17(25), 577-600.

Conner, J., Pope, D., & Galloway, M. (2009). Success with Less Stress. Educational Leadership, 67(4), 54-58.

Copeland, E.P. (2008). Stress in Children and Adolescents: Tips for Parents. National Association of School
Psychologists Communiqué, 37(3). Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/families/stress.pdf.

Curwood, J.S. (2007). What Happened to Kindergarten? Instructor, August 2007. ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. EJ792945.

de Anda, D. (1997). A Study of Stress, Stressors, and Coping Strategies Among Middle School Adolescents.
Social Work in Education, 19(2), 87-98.

Delisio, E.R. (2006). Saving Kids from Stress. Education World. Retrieved from http://www. educationworld.com/
a_admin/admin/admin460.shtml.

Dinesh, S., & Kumari, S. (2010). Childhood Stress. Retrieved from http://howtostudyhard.info/childhood-
stress.

Dorland, J. (2005). Stress and the Adolescent Learner: How to Increase Adolescent Achievement in Secondary
Education Institutions. Retrieved from http://www.inonepeace.com/papers/StressAdLearner.pdf.

Ebata, A.T. (1996). Helping Young Adolescents Cope With Stress. National Network for Child Care’s Connections
Newsletter. Retrieved from http://www.nncc.org/SACC/sac42_adolesc.stress.html.

Fallin, K., Wallinga, C., & Coleman, M. (2001). Helping Children Cope with Stress in the Classroom Setting.
Childhood Education, 78(1), 17-24.

Garrett, R. (2009). Why Kids Cheat and How to Stop It. Education.com. Retrieved from http://www.
education.com/magazine/article/kids-cheat.

Ghezzi, P. (2010). Help Your Child Reduce Test Stress. Retrieved from http://www.schoolfamily.com/school-
family-articles/article/10697-help-your-child-reduce-test-stress.

Hausman, S. (2005). Forcing Stressed-Out Students to Break for Lunch. National Public Radio, May 9, 2005.

15
Hesketh, T., Zhen, Y., Lu, L., Dong, Z.X., Jun, Y.X., & Xing, Z.W. (2010). Stress and Psychosomatic Symptoms in
Chinese School Children: Cross-Sectional Survey. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 95(2), 136-140.

Hofferth, S.L., Kinney, D.A., & Dunn, J.S. (2008). The “Hurried” Child: Myth vs. Reality. Retrieved from http:/
/www.popcenter.umd.edu/research/working-papers/sandra-hofferth/Lifebalancech.pdf/view.

Hu, W. (2008). Busy Students Get a New Required Course: Lunch. The New York Times, May 24, 2008.

Huan, V.S., Yeo, L.S., Ang, R.P., & Chong, W.H. (2006). The Influence of Dispositional Optimism and Gender
on Adolescents’ Perception of Academic Stress. Adolescence, 41(163), 533-546.

Jackson, L.A. (2009). Observing Children’s Stress Behaviors in a Kindergarten Classroom. Early Childhood
Research & Practice,11(1). Retrieved from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v11n1/jackson.html.

Jacobson, L. (2008). Children’s Lack of Playtime Seen as Troubling Health, School Issue. Education Week,
28(14), 1, 14-15.

Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth. (2002). Parents’ Values and Children’s Perceived Pressure:
Topical Research Series #4. Retrieved from http://cty.jhu.edu/research/topical4.html.

Kaplan, D., Liu, R., & Kaplan, H. (2005). School Related Stress in Early Adolescence and Academic
Performance Three Years Later: The Conditional Influence of Self Expectations. Social Psychology of
Education, 8(1), 3-17.

KidsHealth. (2005). Kids & Stress- How Do They Handle It? Retrieved from http://kidshealth.org.

Kidshealth. (2008). Is Your Child Too Busy? Retrieved from http://kidshealth.org.

Killby, K. (2009). Coping With Stress. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/kkillby/coping-with-stress-

1932711.

King, L. (2006). Schools Reduce Test Stress Through Relaxation Techniques. USA Today, March 7, 2006.

Kohn, A. (1999). The Costs of Overemphasizing Achievement. School Administrator, November 1999. Retrieved
from http://www.alfiekohn.org/teaching/tcooa.htm.

Large, R. (1999). Easing the Strain of Students’ Stress. NEA Today, 18(1), 39.

McCloud, L.M. (2007). Why Our Children Are Becoming Stressed Out Kids. Retrieved from http://
www.associatedcontent.com/article/167650/why_our_children_are_becoming_stressed.html?cat=25.

McClure, R. (2009). Are Today’s Kids Too Stressed Out? Retrieved from http://childcare.about.com/od/
behaviorsanddiscipline/f/stress.htm.

McMahon, R. (2007). Everybody Does It. San Francisco Gate, September 9, 2007.

Malik, P.R., & Balda, S. (2006). High IQ Adolescents Under Stress: Do They Perform Poor in Academics.
Anthropologist, 8(2), 61-62.

Margot, C. (2007). Results of Stress-Out Students Survey. Retrieved from http://www.mabearspta.org/pdf/

SOS Survey of 9-07 Report.pdf.

16
Mates, D., & Allison, K.R. (1992). Sources of Stress and Coping Responses of High School Students.
Adolescence, 27(106), 461-474.

Mathews, J. (2006). Overachieving Students Under Pressure. The Washington Post, August 16, 2006.

Medical News Today. (2009). Teens Should Be Taught How to Handle School Stress. Retrieved from http://
www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/134959.php.

Muir, M. (2006). Stress. The Principals’ Partnership. Retrieved from http://www.principalspartnership.com/

stress806.pdf.

Mulvenon, S.W., Connors, J.V., & Lenares, D. (2001). Impact of Accountability and School Resting on Students:
Is There Evidence of Anxiety? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational
Research Association, Little Rock, AR, November 2001. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 460155.

Munsey, C. (2010). The Kids Aren’t All Right. American Psychological Association Monitor, 41(1). Retrieved
from http://www.apa.org/monitor/2010/01/stress-kids.aspx.

Murphy, D. (2005). Stressed Out: Experts Recommend Moderation for Students Who Face Intense Parental
Pressure to Excel. San Francisco Chronicle, May 8, 2005.

Newsweek. (2008). Getting In Gets Harder. Retrieved from http://www.newsweek.com/2008/01/02/getting-in-

gets-harder.html.

Ollfors, M., & Andersson, S.I. (2007). Ability of Stress, Sense of Control, and Self-Theories to Predict Swedish
High School Students’ Final Grades. Educational Research and Evaluation, 13(2), 143-169.

Lucile Packard Foundation for Children’s Health. (2005). Stress Levels High for Bay Area Kids, Parents Say.
Retrieved from http://www.lpfch.org/newsroom/releases/parentpoll10_27_05.html.

Palmer, B. (2005). Pressure for Good Grades Often Leads to High Stress, Cheating, Professors Say. Stanford
Report, February 23, 2005. Retrieved from http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/february23/cheat-
022305.html?view=print.

Parent Institute. (2010). Getting Good Grades, Getting Into College Top Teen Worries. Retrieved from http:/
/www.schoolfamily.com/school-family-articles/article/8276-getting-good-grades-getting-into-college-top-
teen-worries.

Partnership for a Drug-Free America. (2008). The Partnership Attitude Tracking Study (PATS): Teens 2007
Report. Retrieved from http://www.drugfree.org/Files/2007_Teen_Survey.

Pascucci, M. (2006). Pope Challenges Students’ Definition of Success. Stanford University School of Education,
Stanford, CA.

Peterson, J., Duncan, N., & Canady, K. (2009). A Longitudinal Study of Negative Life Events, Stress, and
School Experiences of Gifted Youth. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53(1), 34-49.

Pomfret, E. (2004). Keep Your Children Free of Stress. The Journal, August 31, 2004, pg. 16.

Pope, D. (2010). Beyond “Doing School:” From “Stressed-Out” To “Engaged In Learning.” Canadian Education
Association, 50(1), 5-8.

17
Pytel, B. (2007). Cheating Is On The Rise. Retrieved from http://classroom-issues.suite101.com/article.cfm/
cheating_is_on_the_rise.

Ramírez, E. (2009). Schools Battle Student Stress with Creative Strategies. U.S. News & World Report,
March 20, 2009.

Reece, J. (2008). Stress in the Classroom. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/guest42dfc15/stress-

and-the-classroom-presentation.

Round Rock Independent School District. (n.d.). Dealing With Stress. Round Rock, TX. Retrieved from http:/
/www.roundrockisd.org/docs/student-stress_management_article.pdf.

Scott, E. (2007). Reduce Student Stress and Excel in School. Retrieved from http://stress.about.com/od/
studentstress/ht/schoolstress.htm.

Scott, E. (2008). Social Causes of School Anxiety. Retrieved from http://stress.about.com/od/studentstress/

a/school_anxiety.htm.

Sedere, U.M. (2010). Towards A Stress Free Education: International Perspective. Paper presented at the
Annual Academic Sessions of the Open University of Sri Lanka, February 2010. ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED508198.

Shih, J.H., Eberhart, N.K., Hammen, C.L., & Brennan, P.A. (2006). Differential Exposure and Reactivity to
Interpersonal Stress Predict Sex Differences in Adolescent Depression. Journal of Clinical Child and
Adolescent Psychology, 35(1), 103-115.

Suldo, S.M., Shaunessy, E., Thalji, A., Michalowski, J., & Shaffer, E. (2009). Sources of Stress for Students in
High School College Preparatory and General Education Programs: Group Differences and Associations
with Adjustment. Adolescence, 32(6). Retrieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/
Sources+of+stress+for+students+in+high+school+college+preparatory+and...-a0217847456.

Swiercinsky, D.P. (2001). Stressed Brain. Retrieved from http://www.brainsource.com/stress_&_health.htm.

TeensHealth. (2007). Stress. Retrieved from http://kidshealth.org/teen/your_mind/emotions/stress.html.

Tyre, P. (2006). The New First Grade: Too Much Too Soon? Newsweek, September 11, 2006. Retrieved from
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14638573.

University at Buffalo. (2010). Walking to School Could Reduce Stress Reactivity in Children and May Curb
Risk of Heart Disease, Study Shows. Retrieved from http://www.buffalo.edu/news/11622.

University of Wisconsin. (2010). Stress in Childhood. Retrieved from http://apps.uwhealth.org/health/hie/1/

002059.htm.

Whitman, N.A., Spendlove, D.C., & Clark, C.H. (1985). Student Stress: Effects and Solutions. ERIC Digest
85-1. Retrieved from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-926/stress.htm.

Wilde, M. (2008). Are We Stressing Out Our Kids? Retrieved from http://www.greatschools.org/parenting/
teaching-values/stressed-out-kids.gs?content=645.

18