Defends a stand on an issue by presenting

reasonable arguments supported by

properly cited factual evidences
Learners are expected to:

1.determine different kinds of logical fallacies

2.identify factors on authenticity and validity of
evidences/information
3.present reasonable arguments and factual
evidences to defend a stand
viewpoint
DANTS
STAND
These are statements that support
the author’s stand; ARGUMENT

AILMSC
CLAIMS
these are proofs or evidences to
strengthen the author’s claim

NCESVIED
EVIDENCES
an error in reasoning which
weakens an argument

CYLAFAL
FALLACY
arguments opposing a stand

AIMSERCLNOUCT

COUNTERCLAIMS
“Which would you follow, the decision that your mind
is saying or the choice that your heart is dictating?”
Instructions: Read the statement carefully. If it is true, draw
. If it is false, draw . .

1. Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that

invalidates an argument.

2. Opinions are better than facts in supporting

an argument.
3. Statistics can be used as evidence to support an
argument.

4. Evidence from expert interviews can strengthen

your stand.

5. Bandwagon occurs when someone tries to refute

an argument by attacking the character of a person
instead of attacking the ideas of the argument.
LOGICAL FALLACIES

-are ERRORS IN REASONING that

INVALIDATE AN ARGUMENT.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FALLACIES
1.False Dilemma - Occurs when an arguer
presents his/her argument as one of only two
options despite the presence of multiple
possibilities

E.g. Either you fully devote yourself to

company or you quit.
2. Appeal to Ignorance- Occurs when something is
instantly concluded to be true just because it is not
proven to be false, and vice versa.

E.g. The writer does not talk about

the connection between the
victim’s killer and his sister, so
there must be none
E.g. I have never been offended on
the basis of my bleach skin, so
there is no such thing as racism
3. Slippery Slope- Occurs when a series of
increasingly superficial and unacceptable
consequences is drawn.

E.g. If we ban computer shops, then students

will not be able to do research. And if they do
not have tools for research, these students
will fail their subjects.
4. Complex Question- Occurs when two or more
points are rolled into one and the reader is expected to
accept or reject both at the same time, when one point
may be satisfactory while the other is not.
5. Appeal to Force- Occurs when a
threat, instead of reasoning is used
to argue

E.g. If you do not admit that

evolution is not real, we will
isolate you from the group
6. Appeal to Pity- Occurs when the element of pity
is used instead of logical reasoning

E.g. Please do not fire me for being absent all

month; I have a sick mother and a special child to
support.
7. Appeal to Consequences- Occurs when
unpleasant consequences of believing something
are pointed out to show that the belief is false

E.g. You can’t believe that colonialism is bad,

because if it were, then we would not be civilized
8. Bandwagon - Occurs when an argument is
considered to be valid because it is what the majority
thinks

E.g. Most Filipinas want to have fair skin because they

think they look beautiful. Therefore, having fair skin
must be the real standard of beauty
9. Attacking the Person- Occurs when someone tries
to refute an argument by attacking the character of a
person instead of attacking the ideas of the argument

E.g. I cannot accept your argument because, unlike

me, you were not educated at Harvard University.
10. Appeal to Authority- Occurs when the
argument quotes an expert who’s not qualified in
the particular subject matter

E.g. Bill Gates, the co-founder of Microsoft,

recommends the effective fabric softening
properties of Downy fabric softener.
11. Anonymous Authority - The authority in
question is not mentioned or named

E.g. Experts claim that eating peanuts causes

pimples.
12. Hasty Generalization - Occurs when a sample is
not significant enough to support a generalization
about a population

E.g. Martha, the foreigner from France is very

impolite. French people are mean and rude.
13. False Analogy - Occurs when a writer assumes
that two concepts that are similar in some ways are
also similar in other ways

E.g. Drugs are like massages: they make you

feel good.
14. Accident - Occurs when a general rule is applied
to a situation, even when it should be an exception

E.g. Jaywalking is not allowed, so you should not

have done that even when you were being chased
by terrorists.
15. Post Hoc It is an informal fallacy that states:
“Since event A followed event B, event A must
have been caused by event B.”

E.g. Dina saw cat when they went home. Along

the way, they crashed into a tree. The black cat
must be the reason why they met an accident.
16. Wrong Direction - Occurs when the direction
between cause and effect is reversed

E.g. Liver damage leads to alcoholism.

17. Complex Cause - Occurs when the explanation
for an event is reduced to one thing when there are
other factors which also contributed to the event.

E.g. We were not able to solve the problem

because of limited time, even if all the other groups
were able to do so
E.g. We lost the game because Alan missed the last
shot
18. Irrelevant Conclusion - Occurs when an
argument which is supposed to prove something
concludes something else instead

E.g. We must support the fight for gender

equality between men and women. Women
have suffered enough violence at home.
Violence against women must stop.
19. Straw Man - Occurs when the position of the
opposition is twisted so that it is easier to refute

E.g. Opponent: We should relax the law

governing the allowed smoking areas in the
city. Fallacy: We should not do so, because the
number of smokers might increase.
20. Affirming the Consequent -Any argument of
the form: If A is true then B is true; If B is true
therefore A is true

E.g. If you are drinking wine, you have a

problem. Therefore, if you have a problem, you
are drinking wine.
E.g. If the defendant is guilty, then they have a
motive
The defendant has motive.
Therefore, the defendant is guilty.
21. Denying the Antecedent - Any argument of
the form: If A is true then B is true; If A is not true
then B is not true

E.g. If you are drinking wine, you have a

problem. Therefore, if you are not drinking wine,
you do not have a problem
If it barks, it is a dog.
It doesn’t bark.
Therefore, it’s not a dog.
22. Inconsistency Occurs when arguments
contradict one another

E.g. Frank is older than Jake, Jake is older than

Noli and Noli is older than Frank.
"Nobody goes there anymore. It's too
crowded."
Defends a stand on an issue by presenting
reasonable arguments supported by
properly cited factual evidences
Learners are expected to:

1.identify factors on authenticity and validity of

evidences/information

2. present reasonable arguments and factual

evidences to defend a stand
ARRANGE THE JUMBLED
LETTERS
EWNS

NEWS
 OURNLAJ
TICELSAR

JOURNAL ARTICLES
PEDAIKIWI

WIKIPEDIA
LANPEROS
GLOB

PERSONAL BLOG
ARCHSERE

RESEARCH
VERNMENTOG
SITESBEW

GOVERNMENT
WEBSITES
 SITESBEW
of unknown origin

WEBSITES
of unknown origin
 ONALSPER
NIONSOP

PERSONAL OPINION
TAINTERNEMENT
CESSOUR

ENTERTAINMENT
RESOURCES
KOOBTXET

TEXTBOOK
 LESS CREDIBLE
Wikipedia
Personal blog

CREDIBLE Websites of
unknown origin
NEWS Journal articles
Personal
Research opinions
Government websites Entertainment
Textbook sources
FACTORS ON AUTHENTICITY
AND VALIDITY OF
EVIDENCES/INFORMATION
The following are some of the criteria assessing
whether the source is suitable to use for
academic purposes. The criteria include
relevance, authority, currency, contents and
location of sources:
1. Relevance of the Source

• How well does the source support your

stand?
• You can check the title, table of contents,
summary, introduction or headings of the
text to have a sense of its content.
2. Authority/Author’s Qualifications

• Is the author’s name identified?

• Is the author’s background, education or training
related to the topic?
• If the source does not have an author, think
twice before using it.
• Legitimate academic texts must include
citations. Citations demonstrate that the
writer has thoroughly researched the topic
and is not plagiarizing the material.
3. Currency/Date of Publication

• What is the date of the publication?

• In most fields, the data from the older

publications may no longer be valid. As much
as possible, the date of publication should be
at most five years earlier
4. Contents/Accuracy of Information

• Does the author have a lot of citations in his

or her text and/or bibliography or works cited
section?

• You do not want to use source that is

disputable, so make sure to verify your
findings with multiple sources
5. Location of Sources

• Where was the source published? Was it

published digitally or in print?

• Is it a book, an academic journal or a

reputable news source as www.nytimes.com
or www.economist.com?
• Does it provide complete publication
information such as author/s, editor/s, title,
date of publication and publisher?

• What is the URL of the website?

• Avoid using blogs or personal homepage and

wiki sites (Wikipedia, Wiktionary, Wikiquotes)
• If the URL includes the top-level domain .edu,
then that means that it has been published by
an academic institution such as university
• Common URLs include .gov (government),
.org (organizations), .com (commercial sites)
and .net (network infrastructures). In
academic writing, reputable sites are those
with .edu, .gov, .net and .org in URL.
PRESENTATION OF REASONABLE
ARGUMENTS AND FACTUAL
EVIDENCES TO DEFEND A STAND
Guidelines in presentation of reasonable
arguments and factual evidences to defend a
stand:

• C - ontains a clear proposition or statement

that must be defended

• A - ssesses conflicting opinions or opposing

views on the issue
• T - akes a firm stand on the issue

• L - ists arguments in an organized manner

to defend the stand

• C -onsider your audience/reader