SRM IST, Ramapuram, Chennai – 600 089

Program: B. Tech. (CSE, IT, CSE all specialization)

21PYB103J-Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods-Laboratory

1. Determination of Hall coefficient of Semiconductor material

2. Determination of Band Gap of semiconductor-Post Office Box method

3. To study V-I characteristics of a light dependent resistor (LDR)

4. Determination of Band Gap of semiconductor-Four probe method

5. Study of V-I and V-R characteristics of a solar cell and Determination of efficiency of solar

cell

6. Characteristic of pn junction diode under forward bias and reverse bias

7. To verify Inverse square law of light using a photo cell.

8. Study of attenuation and propagation characteristic of optical fiber cable using laser source

9. Determination of lattice parameters using powder XRD

10. Determination of Fermi function for different temperature using GNU Octave

11. Study of attenuation and propagation characteristic of optical fiber cable using laser source

12. Plotting and interpretation of I-V characteristics of Diode GNU Octave.

13. Mini project – concept based demonstration

 1.Determination of Hall Coefficient and carrier type for a Semi-conducting
Material
Aim
To determine the hall coefficient of the given n type or p-type semiconductor
Apparatus Required
Hall probe (n type or p type), Hall effect setup, Electromagnet, constant current power supply, gauss
meter etc.,
Formulae

VH . t
i) Hall coefficient (RH) = × 10 8 cm3 C – 1
IH
where VH = Hall voltage (volt)
t = Thickness of the sample (cm)
I = Current (ampere)
H = Magnetic filed (Gauss)
1
ii) Carrier density ( n ) = cm – 3
RH q

where RH = Hall coefficient (cm3 C – 1 )

q = Charge of the electron or hole (C)
iii) Carrier mobility ( ) = RH cm2V – 1 s – 1
where RH = Hall coefficient (cm3C – 1 )
 = Conductivity (C V – 1 s – 1 cm – 1 )
Principle
Hall effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, a potential
difference is developed across the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the
magnetic field.
 Measurement of Hall coefficient
Current in the Hall effect setup = ----------mA

Current in the Hall coefficient

Magnetic field (H) Hall Voltage (VH)
constant current (RH)
(Gauss) (volts)
power supply (A) cm3 C – 1

Observations and Calculations

(1) Thickness of the sample =t = cm

(2) Resistivity of the sample = = V C – 1 s cm

(3) Conductivity of the sample =  = CV – 1 s – 1 cm – 1

VH . t
(4) The hall coefficient of the sample = RH = × 10 8
IH
= -------------

1
(5) The carrier density of the sample = n=
RH q

= -------------

(6) The carrier mobility of the sample = RH

= ---------------
 Y

B
G I
D

O
C X
F E w
t VH

A B

Ba A Rh

Fig. 1.1. Hall Effect Setup

Procedure
1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the hall probe to the terminals marked as ‘voltage’ (i.e.
potential difference should be measured along the width) and lengthwise contacts to the
terminals marked (i.e. current should be measured along the length) as shown in fig.
2. Switch on the Hall Effect setup and adjust the current say 0.2 mA.
3. Switch over the display in the Hall Effect setup to the voltage side.
4. Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in fig and switch on the electromagnetic
power supply and adjust the current to any desired value. Rotate the Hall probe until it become
perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage will be maximum in this adjustment.
5. Measure the hall voltage and tabulate the readings.
6. Measure the Hall voltage for different magnetic fields and tabulate the readings.
7. Measure the magnetic field using Gauss meter
8. From the data, calculate the Hall coefficient, carrier mobility and current density.
Result

1. The Hall coefficient of the given semi conducting material =

2. The carrier density =
3. The carrier mobility =
 2. Band Gap Determination using Post Office Box

Aim
To find the band gap of the material of the given thermistor using post office box.
Apparatus Required
Thermistor, thermometer, post office box, power supply, galvanometer, insulating coil and glass
beakers.
Principle and formulae
P R
(1) Wheatstone’s Principle for balancing a network 
Q S

Of the four resistances, if three resistances are known and one is unknown, the unknown resistance
can be calculated.
(2) The band gap for semiconductors is given by,
 2.303loge RT 
Eg = 2k  
 1
T 
where k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38  10 – 23 J /K
RT = Resistance at T K
Procedure
1. The connections are given as in the Fig. 6.1(a).1. Ten ohm resistances are taken in P and Q.
2. Then the resistance in R is adjusted by pressing the tap key, until the deflection in the
galvanometer crosses zero reading of the galvanometer, say from left to right.
3. After finding an approximate resistance for this, two resistances in R, which differ by 1 ohm,
are to be found out such that the deflections in the galvanometer for these resistances will be
on either side of zero reading of galvanometer.
Q 10
4. We know RT =  R  R1 or ( R1  1 ) .This means that the resistance of the thermistor
P 10
lies between R1 and (R1+1). Then keeping the resistance in Q the same, the resistance in P is
changed to 100 ohm.
5. Again two resistances, which differ by one ohm are found out such that the deflections in the
galvanometer are on the either side of zero. Therefore the actual resistance of thermistor will
R R 1
be between 2 and 2 .
10 10
 To find the resistance of the thermistor at different temperatures

Resistance of
Temp. of the thermistor
1 Resistance Resistance Resistance
thermistor P 2.303 log10 RT
T in P in Q in R RT = R
T = t+273
Q
K K-1 ohm ohm Ohm ohm ohm

Thermistor

P Q dy
2V

2.303 log RT
G
dx

R R

R R
K K 1/T (K )-1

Fig. 2.1. Post Office Box - Circuit diagram Fig. 2.2. Model Graph

Observation
From graph, slope = (dy / dx) = ……

Calculation
Band gap, Eg = 2k(dy / dx) =…..

6. Then the resistance in P is made 1000 ohms keeping same 10 ohms in Q. Again, two
resistances R and (R+1) are found out such that the deflection in galvanometer changes its
direction. Then the correct resistance.
 10
= RT  ( R ) (or)
1000

= R+1 = 0.01R (or) 0.01(R+1)

7. Thus, the resistance of the thermistor is found out accurately to two decimals, at room
temperature. The lower value may be assumed to be RT (0.01R).

8. Then the thermistor is heated, by keeping it immersed in insulating oil. For every 10 K rise
in temperature, the resistance of the thermistor is found out, (i.e) RT’s are found out. The reading is
entered in the tabular column.

Graph

1
A graph is drawn between in X axis and 2.303 log RT in Y axis where T is the temperature in K
T
and RT is the resistance of the thermistor at TK. The graph will be as shown in the Fig.6.1(a).2.

dy
Band gap (Eg)=2k  slope of the graph = 2k  ( )
dx

where K = Boltzman’s constant.

Result

The band gap of the material of the thermistor = ………eV.

 3.To study V-I Characteristics of a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Aim
To measure the photoconductive nature and the dark resistance of the given light dependent resistor
(LDR) and to plot the characteristics of the LDR.

Apparatus Required
LDR, Resistor (1 k), ammeter (0 – 10 mA), voltmeter (0 – 10 V), light source, regulated power
supply.

Formula
V
By ohm’s law, V  IR (or) R  ohm
I
where R is the resistance of the LDR (i.e) the resistance when the LDR is closed. V and I represents
the corresponding voltage and current respectively.

Principle
The photoconductive device is based on the decrease in the resistance of certain semiconductor
materials when they are exposed to both infrared and visible radiation.
The photoconductivity is the result of carrier excitation due to light absorption and the figure of
merit depends on the light absorption efficiency. The increase in conductivity is due to an increase in the
number of mobile charge carriers in the material.
Procedure
1. The connections are given in as shown in Fig. 6.3.1.
2. The light source is switched on and made to fall on the LDR.
3. The corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted.
4. The procedure is repeated by keeping the light source at different distances from the LDR.
5. A graph is plotted between resistance and distance of LDR from the light source.
6. The LDR is closed and the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted. The value
of the dark resistance can be calculated by Ohm’s law.

1 k ( 0 - 10 mA) Y
+ _
A
RR
Light (k)
10 V + +
V LDR
_
_

X
Distance (cm)
Fig. 3.1. Circuit diagram Fig. 3.2. Model graph
Observation
Voltmeter reading when the LDR is closed = …… V
Ammeter reading when the LDR is closed = ……. A

V
Dark resistance = R  = ……. ohm
I
To determine the resistances of LDR at different distances
S.No Distance Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading RR
(cm) (V) volt (I) mA k

Result
1. The characteristics of LDR were studied and plotted.
2. The dark resistance of the given LDR = …….. ohm
 4.Resistivity Determination for a Semiconductor Wafer using Four Probe
Method
Aim
To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor (Germanium) using four probe method.
Apparatus Required
Probes arrangement (it should have four probes, coated with zinc at the tips). The probes should be
equally spaced and must be in good electrical contact with the sample), Sample (Germanium or silicon
crystal chip with non-conducting base), Oven (for the variation of temperature of the crystal from room
temperature to about 200°C), A constant current generator (open circuit voltage about 20V, current range 0
to 10mA), Milli-voltmeter (range from 100mV to 3V), Power supply for oven Thermometer.
Formula
The energy band gap, Eg., of semi-conductor is given by
2.3026 log10 
E g  2k B in eV
1
T
where kB is Boltzmann constant equal to 8.6 × 10 – 5 eV / kelvin , and  is the resistivity of the semi-
conductor crystal given by
0 V V
 where 0   2 s ;   ( 0.213)
f (W / S ) I I
Here, s is distance between probes and W is the thickness of semi-conducting crystal. V and I are the
voltage and current across and through the crystal chip.
Procedure
1. Connect one pair of probes to direct current source through milliammeter and other pair to
millivoltmeter.
2. Switch on the constant current source and adjust current I, to a described value, say 2 mA.
3. Connect the oven power supply and start heating.
4. Measure the inner probe voltage V, for various temperatures.
Graph
 103 
Plot a graph in   and log10 as shown in Fig.6.1(b).2. Find the slope of the curve

 T 
AB log10 
 . So the energy band gap of semiconductor (Germanium) is given by
BC 103
T
2.3026 log10 
E g  2k 
1T
AB AB AB
 2k  2.3026  1000  2  8.6  105  2.3026  1000eV  0.396  eV
CD CD CD
 To determine the resistivity of the semi-conductor for various temperatures:

Current (I) = …………mA

Temperature Voltage (V) Resistivity  10 – 3 / T

S.No. (ohm. cm) Log10
in°C in K (Volts) (K)

Observations:
Distance between probes(s) = ……………………..mm
Thickness of the crystal chip (W) = ……………………mm
current (I) = ………………..mA
 V

Direct Current A
Source

Probes

Oven Power
Supply

Sample
Ge Crystal
OVEN

Fig. 4.1. Four Probe Setup

log 10 

1
T

Fig. 4.2. Model Graph

Result
Energy band gap for semiconductor (Germanium) is Eg =….eV
Source of error and precautions
1. The resistivity of the material should be uniform in the area of measurement.
2. The surface on which the probes rest should be flat with no surface leakage.
3. The diameter of the contact between the metallic probes and the semiconductor crystal chip
should be small compared to the distance between the probes.
 5. Study of v-i and v-r characteristics of a solar cell

Aim
To study the V-I and V-R characteristics of a solar cell.
Apparatus Required
Solar cell, voltmeter,milliammeter, a dial type resistance box, Keys, illuminating lamps, connecting
wires etc.
Procedure
A solar cell (photovoltaic cell) essentially consists of a p-n junction diode, in which electrons and
holes are generated by the incident photons. When an external circuit is connected through the p-n junction
device, a current passes through the circuit. Therefore, the device generates power when the electromagnetic
radiation is incident on it.

The schematic representation of a solar cell and the circuit connections are as shown in Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 5.1. Schematic representation and circuit of Solar Cell

The voltmeter is connected in parallel with the given solar cell through a plug key. A milliammeter and a variable
resistor are connected in series to the solar cell through a key as shown in the Fig.6.21.

The solar cell can be irradiated by sun’s radiation. Instead, it can also be irradiated by a filament bulb ( 60 W or 100 W
).

The resistance value is adjusted by a ressitance box and the variation of V-I and V-R are plotted.

Readings are tabulated as follows:

 (i) V-I and V-R characteristics

Voltmeter Ammeter
Intensity Resistance
Reading Reading

Maximum

V-I and V-R characteristics

Voltmeter Ammeter
Intensity Resistance
Reading Reading

Minimum

Fig. 5.2. Model Graph for V-I Characteristic Fig. 5.3. Model Graph for V-R Characteristic

Result:
The V-I and V-R Characteristics of the solar cell is studied.
Determination of efficiency of solar cell
Aim: To explore solar cells as renewable energy sources and test their efficiency in converting solar
radiation to electrical power.
Apparatus:
Solar cell, Variable Resistor, Digital Multimeter (DMM), Electric motor, Desk lamp, Protractor
Vernier Caliper.
Formula:

P-Input power, E-applied input voltage, A-Area of the solar cell

Procedure:
Trial Voltage (V) Current (A) Power

Result:
Efficiency of solar cell is calculated.
 6. Characteristic of PN junction diode under forward bias

Aim: To plot the characteristics curve of PN junction diode in Forward bias

Apparatus: A diode, DC voltage supplier, Bread board, 100Ω resistor, 2 multimeter for measuring
current and voltage and connecting wires

Fig. 6.1. PN Junction Forward Bias Fig. 6.2. I-V Characteristics

Procedure:
For the forward bias of a P-N junction, P-type is connected to the positive terminal
while the N-type is connected to the negative terminal of a battery. The potential at P-N
junction can be varied with the help of potential divider. At some forward voltage (0.3 V for
Ge and 0.7V for Si) the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current starts flowing.
This voltage is known as threshold voltage (Vth) or cut in voltage or knee voltage .It is
practically same as barrier voltage VB. For V<Vth, the current is negligible. As the forward
applied voltage increase beyond threshold voltage, the forward current rises exponentially.
Observation:

S. No Forward Voltage (V) Forward Current (µA)

Result: PN junction characteristic is studied and curve is drawn.

Characteristic of PN junction diode under reverse bias

Aim: To plot the characteristics curve of PN junction diode in reverse bias

Apparatus: A diode, DC voltage supplier, Bread board, 100Ω resistor, 2 multimeter for measuring
current and voltage and connecting wires.

Fig. 10.1. PN Junction Reverse Bias Fig. 10.2. I-V Characteristics

Procedure:
For the reverse bias of p-n junction, P-type is connected to the negative terminal
while N-type is connected to the positive terminal of a battery. Under normal reverse
voltage, a very little reverse current flows through a P-N junction. But when the reverse
voltage is increased, a point is reached when the junction break down with sudden rise in
reverse current. The critical value of the voltage is known as break down (VBR). The break
down voltage is defined as the reverse voltage at which P-N junction breakdown with
sudden rise in reverse current.
Observation:

S. No Reverse Voltage (V) Reverse Current (mA)

Result: PN junction characteristic is studied and curve is drawn.

 7. To verify Inverse square law of light using a photo cell
Aim: To verify inverse square law of radiations using a Photo-electric cell.
Apparatus: Photo cell (Selenium) mounted in the metal box with connections brought out at
terminals, Lamp holder with 60W bulb, Two moving coil analog meters (1000µA & 500mV)
mounted on the front panel and connections brought out at terminals, Two single point and two
multi points patch cords.

Fig. 7.1. Photo cell

Procedure:
1. The experiment can be performed in the laboratory but it is always good to perform it in a dark
room where stray light falling on the photocell can be avoided. In the dark room mount the various
parts of the apparatus on the wooden plank provided with a ½ meter scale. Make the other
connections as shown in the Fig.
2. Switch on the lamp and adjust it at a suitable distance from the photocell so that the micro
ammeter and mill-voltmeter indicate a reasonable deflection.
3. Change the distance of lamp from the voltaic cell and take a series of observations for the
corresponding values of distance (d) and deflection (θ).
Observations:

Result: Inverse square law is verified.

 8. Study of attenuation and propagation characteristics of optical fiber cable
I . ATTENUATION IN FIBERS
Aim
(i) To determine the attenuation for the given optical fiber.
(ii) To measure the numerical aperture and hence the acceptance angle of the given
fiber cables.
Apparatus Required
Fiber optic light source, optic power meter and fiber cables (1m and 5m), Numerical aperture
measurement JIG, optical fiber cable with source, screen.
Principle
The propagation of light down dielectric waveguides bears some similarity to the propagation of
microwaves down metal waveguides. If a beam of power Pi is launched into one end of an optical fiber and if
Pf is the power remaining after a length L km has been traversed , then the attenuation is given by,

P 
10 log i 
Attenuation =
 Pf  dB / km
L

Formula

P 
10 log i 
Attenuation (dB / km) =
 Pf 
L
Procedure
1. One end of the one metre fiber cable is connected to source and other end to the optical power
metre.
2. Digital power meter is set to 200mV range ( - 200 dB) and the power meter is switched on
3. The ac main of the optic source is switched on and the fiber patch cord knob in the source is set
at one level (A).
4. The digital power meter reading is noted (Pi)
5. The procedure is repeated for 5m cable (Pf).
6. The experiment is repeated for different source levels.

Fiber Optic
AC
Light Source
Fiber
Cable

DMM
Power Meter
(200 mV)

Fig. 9.1. Setup for loss measurement

Determination of Attenuation for optical fiber cables

L = 4 m = 4 × 10 – 3 km

P 
Source Power output for 1m Power output for 5m 10 log i 
Level cable (Pi) cable (Pf) Attenuation =
 Pf  dB / km
L

Acceptance Cone

Fig. 9.2. Numerical Aperture

Measurement of Numerical Aperture

Distance between W
Diameter of the NA =
Circle source and screen (L) θ
(mm)
spot W (mm) 4 L2  W 2

Result
1. Attenuation at source level A = ----------- (dB/km)
2. Attenuation at source level B = ----------- (dB/km)
3. Attenuation at source level C = ----------- (dB/km)
II. Numerical Aperture
Principle
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident on the fiber end is
totally internally reflected and transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone formed by the rotation of this
angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of the fiber.
Formula

W
Numerical aperture (NA)=  sin  max
4L  W 2
2

Acceptance angle = 2 θmax (deg)

where L = distance of the screen from the fiber end in metre

W =diameter of the spot in metre.

Procedure
1. One end of the 1 metre fiber cable is connected to the source and the other end to the NA jig.
2. The AC mains are plugged. Light must appear at the end of the fiber on the NA jig. The set knob in
source is turned clockwise to set to a maximum output.
3. The white screen with the four concentric circles (10, 15, 20 and 25mm diameters) is held vertically
at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the emitting fiber coincide with the 10mm circle.
4. The distance of the screen from the fiber end L is recorded and the diameter of the spot W is noted.
The diameter of the circle can be accurately measured with the scale. The procedure is repeated for
15mm, 20mm and 25mm diameter circles.
5. The readings are tabulated and the mean numerical aperture and acceptance angle are determined.
Result
i) The numerical aperture of fiber is measured as........................
ii) The acceptance angle is calculated as................... (deg).
 9.Calculation of Lattice Cell Parameters – X-ray Diffraction
Aim
The calculate the lattice cell parameters from the powder X-ray diffraction data.
Apparatus required
Powder X-ray diffraction diagram
Formula
For a cubic crystal
1 (h 2  k 2  l 2 )

d2 a2
For a tetragonal crystal
1   (h 2  k 2 ) l  

   2
d 2

 a 2
c  

For a orthorhombic crystal

1  h 2   k 2   l 2 
  
d 2  a 2   b 2   c 2 

The lattice parameter and interplanar distance are given for a cubic crystal as,


a  h2  k 2  l 2 Å
2 sin 
a
d Å
h2  k 2  l 2

Where, a = Lattice parameter

d = Interplanner distance
λ = Wavelength of the CuKα radiation (1.5405)
h, k, l = Miller integers

Principle
Braggs law is the theoretical basis for X-ray diffraction.

(sin 2  ) hkl  (2 / 4a 2 ) (h 2  k 2  l 2 )

Each of the Miller indices can take values 0, 1, 2, 3, …. Thus, the factor (h2 + k2 + l2)
takes the values given in Table 6.7.1.
 Value of h2 + k 2 + l2 for different planes

h, k, l h2 + k2 + l2 h, k, l h2 + k2 + l2
100 1 300 9
110 2 310 10
111 3 311 11
200 4 322 12
210 5 320 13
211 6 321 14
220 8 400 16
221 9 410 17
Intensity

2

Fig. 12.1. XRD pattern

The problem of indexing lies in fixing the correct value of a by inspection of the sin2 values.
Procedure:

From the 2 values on a powder photograph, the  values are obtained. The sin2 values are tabulated.
From that the values of 1  sin  , 2  sin  , 3  sin 
2 2 2
are determined and are tabulated. The values of
2
sin  min
2 2
sin  min sin  min
sin 2  are rounded to the nearest integer. This gives the value of h2+k2+l .From these the values of h,k,l
3
sin 2  min
are determined from the Table.6.7.1.

From the h,k,l values, the lattice parameters are calculated using the relation


a  h2  k 2  l 2 Å
2 sin 
a
d Å
h2  k 2  l 2
 Value of h2 + k 2 + l2 for different planes

sin 2  sin 2  sin 2  a d

S. No 2 sin2 1 2 3 h2+k2+l2 hkl
sin 2  min sin 2  min sin 2  min Å Å

Lattice determination

Lattice type Rule for reflection to be observed

Primitive P None
Body centered I hkl : h + k + l = 2 n
Face centered F hkl : h, k, l either all odd or all even

Depending on the nature of the h,k,l values the lattice type can be determined.

Result:
The lattice parameters are calculated theoretically from the powder x-ray diffraction pattern.
10. Experiment 1. Determination of electron and hole mobility versus doping
concentration using GNU Octave
Theory:
In a semiconductor material (intrinsic or extrinsic), the law of mass action states that,
pn =constant
p is the hole concentration
n is the electron concentration.
For intrinsic semiconductors,
p = n = ni
Hence, pn = ni2
(where, ni is the electron concentration in intrinsic semiconductor)
and ni is given by Equation
ni = AT3/2exp [−Eg /(kT)]
The law of mass action enables us to calculate the majority and minority carrier density
in an extrinsic semiconductor material.

The charge neutrality condition of a semiconductor implies that, p+ND = n+NA

Where, ND is the donor concentration, NA is the acceptor concentration p is the hole
concentration and n is the electron concentration.

In an n-type semiconductor, the donor concentration is greater than the intrinsic

electron concentration, i.e., ND is typically 1017 cm-3 and ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3 in Si at room
temperature.
Thus, the majority and minority concentrations
re given by, nn ≅ ND and p ≅ ni 2/ND

In a p-type semiconductor, the majority and minority concentrations are given

by, pp ≅ NA and n ≅ ni 2/NA
MATLAB Code: Experiment 1.1
% hole concentration in a n-type semiconductor nd = logspace(13,18);
n = nd;
ni = 1.52e10;
ni_sq = ni*ni; p = ni_sq./nd;
semilogx(nd,p,'b')
title('Hole concentration')
xlabel('Doping concentration, cm-3')
ylabel('Hole concentration, cm-3')

Output:
MATLAB Problem 1.2: For an n-type semiconductor at 300o K, if the doping
concentration is varied from 1013 to 1018 atoms/cm3, determine the minority
carriers in the doped semiconductors.
MATLAB Code: experiment 1.2

Output:
 11.Experiment 2 - Plotting and interpretation of I-V characteristics of Diode
GNU Octave
Theory:
A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts
current in one direction (so long as it is operated within a specified voltage level).
An ideal diode will have zero resistance in one direction, and infinite resistance in
the reverse direction.

Working Principle of Diode

• A diode’s working principle depends on the interaction of n-type and p-type
semiconductors. An n-type semiconductor has plenty of free electrons and a very
few numbers of holes.

• The free electrons diffusing into the p-type region from the n-type region would
recombine with holes available there and create uncovered negative ions in the p-
type region. In the same way, the holes diffusing into the n-type region from the p-
type region would recombine with free electrons available there and create
uncovered positive ions in the n-type region. Due to the lack of charge carriers, this
region is called the depletion region.
 • After the formation of the depletion region, there is no more diffusion of charge
carriers from one side to another in the diode. This is due to the electric field
appeared across the depletion region will prevent further migration of charge
carriers from one side to another.

• The diode equation is plotted on the interactive graph below. Change the saturation
current and watch the changing of IV curve.

MATLAB Code:
clear all
n = 1.65; %Ideality factor
Is = 220*10^-12; % diode reverse saturated current
q = 1.602*10^-19; % electron charge
K = 1.38*10^-23; %Boltzmann constant
T = 300; % Absolute temperature
fs=1000;
dv=1/fs;
v0=-0.3 ; % change as you want
vend=1.1 ; % change as you want
Vd=v0:dv:vend;
Id = Is*(exp((q*Vd)./(1.65*K*T))-1);
plot(1000*Vd,Id) ; grid ; xlabel(' Diode Voltage in mV ' ) ; ylabel(' Diode Current in
Amp. ‘)
Output
 12.Experiment 3: Determination of Fermi function for different
temperatures using MATLAB
Theory:
The conduction band in a piece of semiconductor consists of many available, allowed,
empty energy levels. When calculating how many electrons will fill these levels
contributing to conductivity, we consider two factors:

• How many energy levels are there within a given range of energy, in our case the
conduction band, and

• How likely is it that each level will be populated by an electron.

The likelihood in the second item is given by a probability function called the Fermi-
Dirac distribution function. f(E) is the probability that a level with energy E will be
filled by an electron, and the expression
is:
Problem 13(a)
Plot Fermi-Dirac Distribution function using the following equation and given
parameters

kB = 8.617e-5; % in eV/K
EF = 0.56; % Fermi level in eV
E = -0.2 eV to 1.4eV; % Energy range

Fermi-Dirac distribution function MATLAB Code:

1. Evaluation of the expression

% Fermi distribution function calculation kB = 8.617e-5; % in eV/K

Ef = 0.56; % Fermi level in eV
E = -0.2:0.0005:1.4; % Energy levels
% "Calculate" f(E) at T=0 K as fTo
fTo = zeros(size(E)); for k=1:length(E)
if E(k)<Ef fTo(k)=1;
elseif E(k)==Ef fTo(k)=0.5; end
end
% Calculate f(E) at three different temperatures T1 = 100; % in K
T2 = 200;
T3 = 300;
fT1 = 1 ./ (1 + exp( (E-Ef*ones(size(E)))/(kB*T1) ));
fT2 = 1 ./ (1 + exp( (E-Ef*ones(size(E)))/(kB*T2) ));
fT3 = 1 ./ (1 + exp( (E-Ef*ones(size(E)))/(kB*T3) ));

2. Plotting the Graph

figure(1); clf plot(E,fTo,'k','LineWidth',3); grid on; hold on

plot(E,fT1,'b--','LineWidth',2)
plot(E,fT2,'r-.','LineWidth',2)
plot(E,fT3,'m:','LineWidth',2)
axis([-0.2 1.3 -0.1 1.1])
set(1,'Position',[34 88 634 538]); xlabel('E (eV)'); ylabel('f(E)');
title('Fermi-Dirac distribution functions at different temperatures')
 legend('T=0 K','T=100 K','T=200 K','T=300 K','Location','SouthWest')
plot(Ef,0.5,'k.','MarkerSize',36)
Output

You can download GNU octave in this link

https://octave.org/download
13.Mini project – concept based demonstration

Aim:
To construct the working model based on principles of physics, the opportunity to develop a
range of skills and knowledge already learnt to an unseen problem.

Objectives:
On successful completion of the mini project, the student will have developed skills
in the following areas:
1. Design of experiments.
2. Experimental or computational techniques.
3. Searching the physical and related literature.
4. Communication of results in an oral presentation and in a report.
5. Working as part of a team.
6. Assessment of team members.
Assessment and Evaluation:
1. Each Class should have at least eight groups. Each group should have a minimum of 5
members or above and Maximum of 9 members.

2. Mini Project should be a working model. One page write-up about the project should be
submitted as per the template provided by the class subject teacher.

3. Department of Physics & Nanotechnology will be organizing an event TechKnow -15 to

showcase these Mini Projects. All groups should present the working model along with the poster at
the TechKnow-15.
4. Expert Committee will evaluate and select the best project from each class.

5. Certificates will be awarded for the best project during the event TechKnow - 15.

6. Marks for the project will be awarded under the following criteria.

S. No Criteria Marks
1. Working model / Design 5
2. Idea/ Concept / Novelty 5
3. Presentation / Viva 5
4. Usefulness / Application 5
Total 20